Part 49

FURSTENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the right bank of the Spree, and on the railway from Berlin to Frankfort-on-Oder, 28 m. E. of the former city. Pop. (1905) 20,498. Its beautiful cathedral church contains several old monuments. The industries are important, including, besides brewing and malting, manufactures of starch, vinegar, electric lamps and gas-fittings, stoves, &c., iron-founding and wool-weaving. Furstenwalde is one of the oldest towns of Brandenburg. From 1385 it was the seat of the bishop of Lebus, whose bishopric was incorporated with the electorate of Brunswick in 1595.

FURTH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Pegnitz with the Regnitz, 5 m. N.W. from Nuremberg by rail, at the junction of lines to Hof and Wurzburg. Pop. (1885) 35,455; (1905) 60,638. It is a modern town in appearance, with broad streets and palatial business houses. Of its four Evangelical churches, the old St Michaeliskirche is a handsome structure; but its chief edifices are the new town hall, with a tower 175 ft. high and the magnificent synagogue. The Jews have also a high school, which enjoys a great reputation. There are besides a classical, a wood-carving and an agricultural school and a library. Furth is the seat of several important industries; particularly, the production of chromolithographs and picture-books, the manufacture of mirrors and mirror-frames, bronze and gold-leaf wares, pencils, toys, haberdashery, optical instruments, silver work, turnery, chicory, machinery, fancy boxes and cases, and an extensive trade is carried on in these goods as also in hops, metals, wool, groceries and coal. A large annual fair is held at Michaelmas and lasts for eleven days. The earliest railway in Germany was that between Nuremberg and Furth (opened on the 7th of December 1835).

Furth was founded, according to tradition, by Charlemagne, who erected a chapel there. It was for a time a _Vogtei_ (advocateship) under the burgraves of Nuremberg, but about 1314 it was bequeathed to the see of Bamberg, and in 1806 it came into the possession of Bavaria. In 1632 Gustavus Adolphus besieged it in vain, and in 1634 it was pillaged and burnt by the Croats. It owes its rise to prosperity to the tolerance it meted out to the Jews, who found here an asylum from the oppression under which they suffered in Nuremberg.

See Fronmuller, _Chronik der Stadt Furth_ (1887).

FURTWANGLER, ADOLF (1853-1907), German archaeologist, was born at Freiburg im Breisgau, and was educated there, at Leipzig and at Munich, where he was a pupil of H. Brunn, whose comparative method in art-criticism he much developed. He took part in the excavations at Olympia in 1878, became an assistant in the Berlin Museum in 1880, and professor at Berlin (1884) and later at Munich. His latest excavation work was at Aegina. He was a prolific writer, with a prodigious knowledge and memory, and a most ingenious and confident critic; and his work not only dominated the field of archaeological criticism but also raised its standing both at home and abroad. Among his numerous publications the most important were a volume on the bronzes found at Olympia, vast works on ancient gems and Greek vases, and the invaluable _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_ (English translation by Eugenie Strong). He died at Athens on the 10th of October 1907.

FURZE, GORSE or WHIN; botanical name _Ulex_ (Ger. _Stechginster_, Fr. _ajonc_), a genus of thorny papilionaceous shrubs, of few species, confined to west and central Europe and north-west Africa. Common furze, _U. europaeus_, is found on heaths and commons in western Europe from Denmark to Italy and Greece, and in the Canaries and Azores, and is abundant in nearly all parts of the British Isles. It grows to a height of 2-6 ft.; it has hairy stems, and the smaller branches end each in a spine; the leaves, sometimes lanceolate on the lowermost branches, are mostly represented by spines from 2 to 6 lines long, and branching at their base; and the flowers, about three-quarters of an inch in length, have a shaggy, yellowish-olive calyx, with two small ovate bracts at its base, and appear in early spring and late autumn. They are yellow and sweet-scented and visited by bees. The pods are few-seeded; their crackling as they burst may often be heard in hot weather. This species comprises the varieties _vulgaris_, or _U. europaeus_ proper, which has spreading branches, and strong, many-ridged spines, and _strictus_ (Irish furze), with erect branches, and slender 4-edged spines. The other British species of furze is _U. nanus_, dwarf furze, a native of Belgium, Spain and the west of France; it is a procumbent plant, less hairy than _U. europaeus_, with smaller and more orange-coloured flowers, which spring from the primary spines, and have a nearly smooth calyx, with minute basal bracts. Furze, or gorse, is sometimes employed for fences.

Notwithstanding its formidable spines, the young shoots yield a palatable and nutritious winter forage for horses and cattle. To fit it for this purpose it must be chopped and bruised to destroy the spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive and laborious way by laying the gorse upon a block of wood and beating it with a mallet, flat at one end and armed with crossed knife-edges at the other, by the alternate use of which it is bruised and chopped. There are now a variety of machines by which this is done rapidly and efficiently, and which are in use where this kind of forage is used to any extent. The agricultural value of this plant has often been over-rated by theoretical writers. In the case of very poor, dry soils it does, however, yield much valuable food at a season when green forage is not otherwise to be had. It is on this account of importance to dairymen; and to them it has this further recommendation, that cows fed upon it give much rich milk, which is free from any unpleasant flavour. To turn it to good account, it must be sown in drills, kept clean by hoeing, and treated as a regular green crop. If sown in March, on land fitly prepared and afterwards duly cared for, it is ready for use in the autumn of the following year. A succession of cuttings of proper age is obtained for several years from the same field. It is cut by a short stout scythe, and must be brought from the field daily; for when put in a heap after being chopped and bruised it heats rapidly. It is given to horses and cows in combination with chopped hay or straw. An acre will produce about 2000 faggots of green two-year-old gorse, weighing 20 lb. each.

This plant is invaluable in mountain sheep-walks. The rounded form of the furze bushes that are met with in such situations shows how diligently the annual growth, as far as it is accessible, is nibbled by the sheep. The food and shelter afforded to them in snowstorms by clusters of such bushes is of such importance that the wonder is our sheep farmers do not bestow more pains to have it in adequate quantity. Young plants of whin are so kept down by the sheep that they can seldom attain to a profitable size unless protected by a fence for a few years. In various parts of England it is cut for fuel. The ashes contain a large proportion of alkali, and are a good manure, especially for peaty land.

FUSARO, LAGO, a lake of Campania, Italy, 1/2 m. W. of Baia, and 1 m. S. of the acropolis of Cumae. It is the ancient _Acherusia palus_, separated from the sea on the W. by a line of sandhills. It may have been the harbour of Cumae in early antiquity. In the 1st century A.D. an artificial outlet was dug for it at its S. end, with a tunnel, lined with _opus reticulatum_ and brick, under the hill of Torregaveta. This hill is covered with the remains of a large villa, which is almost certainly that of Servilius Vatia, described by Seneca (_Epist._ 55). There are remains of other villas on the shores of the lake. Oyster cultivation is carried on there.

See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), 188. (T. As.)

FUSELI, HENRY (1741-1825), English painter and writer on art, of German-Swiss family, was born at Zurich in Switzerland on the 7th of February 1741; he himself asserted in 1745, but this appears to have been a mere whim. He was the second child in a family of eighteen. His father was John Caspar Fussli, of some note as a painter of portraits and landscapes, and author of Lives of the _Helvetic Painters_. This parent destined his son for the church, and with this view sent him to the Caroline college of his native town, where he received an excellent classical education. One of his schoolmates there was Lavater, with whom he formed an intimate friendship.

After taking orders in 1761 Fuseli was obliged to leave his country for a while in consequence of having aided Lavater to expose an unjust magistrate, whose family was still powerful enough to make its vengeance felt. He first travelled through Germany, and then, in 1765, visited England, where he supported himself for some time by miscellaneous writing: there was a sort of project of promoting through his means a regular literary communication between England and Germany. He became in course of time acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he showed his drawings. By Sir Joshua's advice he then devoted himself wholly to art. In 1770 he made an art-pilgrimage to Italy, where he remained till 1778, changing his name from Fussli to Fuseli, as more Italian-sounding. Early in 1779 he returned to England, taking Zurich on his way. He found a commission awaiting him from Alderman Boydell, who was then organizing his celebrated Shakespeare gallery. Fuseli painted a number of pieces for this patron, and about this time published an English edition of Lavater's work on physiognomy. He likewise gave Cowper some valuable assistance in preparing the translation of Homer. In 1788 Fuseli married Miss Sophia Rawlins (who it appears was originally one of his models, and who proved an affectionate wife), and he soon after became an associate of the Royal Academy. Two years later he was promoted to the grade of Academician. In 1799 he exhibited a series of paintings from subjects furnished by the works of Milton, with a view to forming a Milton gallery corresponding to Boydell's Shakespeare gallery. The number of the Milton paintings was forty-seven, many of them very large; they were executed at intervals within nine years. This exhibition, which closed in 1800, proved a failure as regards profit. In 1799 also he was appointed professor of painting to the Academy. Four years afterwards he was chosen keeper, and resigned his professorship; but he resumed it in 1810, and continued to hold both offices till his death. In 1805 he brought out an edition of Pilkington's _Lives of the Painters_, which, however, did not add much to his reputation. Canova, when on his visit to England, was much taken with Fuseli's works, and on returning to Rome in 1817 caused him to be elected a member of the first class in the Academy of St Luke. Fuseli, after a life of uninterrupted good health, died at Putney Hill on the 16th of April 1825, at the advanced age of eighty-four, and was buried in the crypt of St Paul's cathedral. He was comparatively rich at his death, though his professional gains had always appeared to be meagre.

As a painter, Fuseli had a daring invention, was original, fertile in resource, and ever aspiring after the highest forms of excellence. His mind was capable of grasping and realizing the loftiest conceptions, which, however, he often spoiled on the canvas by exaggerating the due proportions of the parts, and throwing his figures into attitudes of fantastic and over-strained contortion. He delighted to select from the region of the supernatural, and pitched everything upon an ideal scale, believing a certain amount of exaggeration necessary in the higher branches of historical painting. "Damn Nature! she always puts me out," was his characteristic exclamation. In this theory he was confirmed by the study of Michelangelo's works and the marble statues of the Monte Cavallo, which, when at Rome, he used often to contemplate in the evening, relieved against a murky sky or illuminated by lightning. But this idea was by him carried out to an excess, not only in the forms, but also in the attitudes of his figures; and the violent and intemperate action which he often displays destroys the grand effect which many of his pieces would otherwise produce. A striking illustration of this occurs in his famous picture of "Hamlet breaking from his Attendants to follow the Ghost": Hamlet, it has been said, looks as though he would burst his clothes with convulsive cramps in all his muscles. This intemperance is the grand defect of nearly all Fuseli's compositions. On the other hand, his paintings are never either languid or cold. His figures are full of life and earnestness, and seem to have an object in view which they follow with rigid intensity. Like Rubens he excelled in the art of setting his figures in motion. Though the lofty and terrible was his proper sphere, Fuseli had a fine perception of the ludicrous. The grotesque humour of his fairy scenes, especially those taken from _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, is in its way not less remarkable than the poetic power of his more ambitious works. As a colourist Fuseli has but small claims to distinction. He scorned to set a palette as most artists do; he merely dashed his tints recklessly over it. Not unfrequently he used his paints in the form of a dry powder, which he rubbed up with his pencil with oil, or turpentine, or gold size, regardless of the quantity, and depending for accident on the general effect. This recklessness may perhaps be explained by the fact that he did not paint in oil till he was twenty-five years of age. Despite these drawbacks he possessed the elements of a great painter.

Fuseli painted more than 200 pictures, but he exhibited only a minority of them. His earliest painting represented "Joseph interpreting the Dreams of the Baker and Butler"; the first to excite particular attention was the "Nightmare," exhibited in 1782. He produced only two portraits. His sketches or designs numbered about 800; they have admirable qualities of invention and design, and are frequently superior to his paintings.

His general powers of mind were large. He was a thorough master of French, Italian, English and German, and could write in all these tongues with equal facility and vigour, though he preferred German as the vehicle of his thoughts. His writings contain passages of the best art-criticism that English literature can show. The principal work is his series of _Lectures_ in the Royal Academy, twelve in number, commenced in 1801.

Many interesting anecdotes of Fuseli, and his relations to contemporary artists, are given in his _Life_ by John Knowles, who also edited his works in 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1831. (W. M. R.)

FUSEL OIL (from the Ger. _Fusel_, bad spirits), the name applied to the volatile oily liquids, of a nauseous fiery taste and smell, which are obtained in the rectification of spirituous liquors made by the fermentation of grain, potatoes, the marc of grapes, and other material, and which, as they are of higher boiling point than ethyl alcohol, occur in largest quantity in the last portions of the distillate. Besides ethyl or ordinary alcohol, and amyl alcohol, which are present in them all, there have been found in fusel oil several other bodies of the C_n H_(2n + 1).OH series, also certain ethers, and members of the C_n H_(2n + 1).CO2H series of fatty acids. Normal propyl alcohol is contained in the fusel oil of the marc brandy of the south of France, and isoprimary butyl alcohol in that of beet-root molasses. The chief constituent of the fusel oil procured in the manufacture of alcohol from potatoes and grain, usually known as fusel oil and potato-spirit, is isoprimary amyl alcohol, or isobutylcarbinol. Ordinary fusel oil yields also an isomeric amyl alcohol (active amyl alcohol) boiling at about 128 deg. Variable quantities of fusel oil, less or greater according to the stage of ripening, exist in commercial spirits (see SPIRITS).

Fusel oil and its chief constituent, amyl alcohol, are direct nerve poisons. In small doses it causes only thirst and headache, with furred tongue and some excitement. In large doses it is a convulsent poison. Impure beverages induce all the graver neurotic and visceral disorders in alcoholism; and, like fusel oil, furfurol and the essence of absinthe, are convulsent poisons. Pure ethyl alcohol intoxication, indeed, is rarely seen, being modified in the case of spirits by the higher alcohols contained in fusel oil. According to Rabuteau the toxic properties of the higher alcohols increase with their molecular weight and boiling point. Richet considers that the fusel oil contained in spirits constitutes the chief danger in the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The expert can immediately detect the peculiarly virulent characters of the mixed intoxication due to the consumption of spirits containing a large percentage of fusel oil.

FUSIBLE METAL, a term applied to certain alloys, generally composed of bismuth, lead and tin, which possess the property of melting at comparatively low temperatures. Newton's fusible metal (named after Sir Isaac Newton) contains 50 parts of bismuth, 31.25 of lead and 18.75 of tin; that of Jean Darcet (1725-1801), 50 parts of bismuth with 25 each of lead and tin; and that of Valentin Rose the elder, 50 of bismuth with 28.1 of lead and 24.1 of tin. These melt between 91 deg. and 95 deg. C. The addition of cadmium gives still greater fusibility; in Wood's metal, for instance, which is Darcet's metal with half the tin replaced by cadmium, the melting point is lowered to 66 deg.-71 deg. C.; while another described by Lipowitz and containing 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium, softens at about 55 deg. and is completely liquid a little above 60 deg. By the addition of mercury to Darcet's metal the melting point may be reduced so low as 45 deg. These fusible metals have the peculiarity of expanding as they cool; Rose's metal, for instance, remains pasty for a considerable range of temperature below its fusing point, contracts somewhat rapidly from 80 deg. to 55 deg., expands from 55 deg. to 35 deg., and contracts again from 35 deg. to 0 deg. For this reason they may be used for taking casts of anatomical specimens or making _cliches_ from wood-blocks, the expansion on cooling securing sharp impressions. By suitable modification in the proportions of the components, a series of alloys can be made which melt at various temperatures above the boiling point of water; for example, with 8 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead and 3 of tin the melting point is 123 deg., and with 8 of bismuth, 30 of lead and 24 of tin it is 172 deg. With tin and lead only in equal proportions it is 241 deg. Such alloys are used for making the fusible plugs inserted in the furnace-crowns of steam boilers, as a safeguard in the event of the water-level being allowed to fall too low. When this happens the plug being no longer covered with water is heated to such a temperature that it melts and allows the contents of the boiler to escape into the furnace. In automatic fire-sprinklers the orifices of the pipes are closed with fusible metal, which melts and liberates the water when, owing to an outbreak of fire in the room, the temperature rises above a predetermined limit.

FUSILIER, originally (in French about 1670, in English about 1680) the name of a soldier armed with a light flintlock musket called the fusil; now a regimental designation. Various forms of flintlock small arms had been used in warfare since the middle of the 16th century. At the time of the English civil war (1642-1652) the term "firelock" was usually employed to distinguish these weapons from the more common matchlock musket. The special value of the firelock in armies of the 17th century lay in the fact that the artillery of the time used open powder barrels for the service of the guns, making it unsafe to allow lighted matches in the muskets of the escort. Further, a military escort was required, not only for the protection, but also for the surveillance of the artillerymen of those days. Companies of "firelocks" were therefore organized for these duties, and out of these companies grew the "fusiliers" who were employed in the same way in the wars of Louis XIV. In the latter part of the Thirty Years' War (1643) fusiliers were simply mounted troops armed with the fusil, as carabiniers were with the carbine. But the escort companies of artillery came to be known by the name shortly afterwards, and the regiment of French Royal Fusiliers, organized in 1671 by Vauban, was considered the model for Europe. The general adoption of the flintlock musket and the suppression of the pike in the armies of Europe put an end to the original special duties of fusiliers, and they were subsequently employed to a large extent in light infantry work, perhaps on account of the greater individual aptitude for detached duties naturally shown by soldiers who had never been restricted to a fixed and unchangeable place in the line of battle. The senior fusilier regiment in the British service, the (7th) Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), was formed on the French model in 1685; the 5th foot (now Northumberland Fusiliers), senior to the 7th in the army, was not at that time a fusilier regiment. The distinctive head-dress of fusiliers in the British service is a fur cap, generally resembling, but smaller than and different in details from, that of the Foot Guards.

In Germany the name "fusilier" is borne by certain infantry regiments and by one battalion in each grenadier regiment.

FUSION, the term generally applied to the melting of a solid substance, or the change of state of aggregation from the solid to the liquid. The term "liquefaction" is frequently employed in the same sense, but is often restricted to the condensation of a gas or vapour. The converse process of freezing or solidification, the change from the liquid to the solid state, is subject to the same laws, and must be considered together with fusion. The solution of a solid in a foreign liquid, and the deposition or crystallization of a solid from a solution, are so closely related to the fusion of a pure substance, that it will also be necessary to consider some of the analogies which they present.