Part 21

e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13, 2-9, 5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.

Game No. 3.--"Dundee" Opening.

12-16 11-15 c 8-12 4-8 9-14 1-26 24-20 20-11 17-13 18-15 26-22 31-22 8-12 7-16 5-9 2-7 14-17 19-23 28-24 24-20 22-18 30-26 21-14 13-9 9-14 b 16-19 15-22 10-14 18-23 12-19 22-17 23-16 25-18 29-25 27-18 9-6 3-8 12-19 14-23 14-18 6-10 7-11 a 26-22 20-16 27-18 32-27 15-6 Drawn. R. Jordan.

a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its "trappiness," but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19, 24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white can with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18.

b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8, 27-23, 8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31, 22-17. White wins. C. F. Barker.

c 8-11 27-18 15-18 14-10 24-27 7-10 16-7 15-22 14-10 19-24 31-24 27-31 2-11 25-18 6-15 10-7 16-20 10-26 22-18 10-15 17-14 18-23 3-7 31-22 14-23 18-14 11-16 7-3 20-27 30-25 Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.

Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players as the "First Position." It is of more frequent occurrence in actual play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of a class of draughts problems which may be described as analytical, in contradistinction to "strokes."

Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne. BLACK. +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | | B | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |WW | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | |WW | |BB | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | | | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ WHITE.

White to move and win.

Solution:--

27-32 18-15 15-11 11-15 28-32 19-24 28-24 2-28-24 12-16 19-24 27-31 White 23-18 32-28 28-32 32-28 15-19 wins. 3-a-24-28 1-24-20 16-19 24-27 31-26

a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.

Var. I.

24-27 18-15 19-16 28-32 8-12 15-11 15-18 b 16-20 18-23 8-12 23-18 White 12-16 15-18 16-11 32-27 12-8 wins. 28-32 24-19 23-19 12-8 18-15 27-24 32-28 11-8 27-23 8-12

b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.

Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16, 19-23, 16-19. White wins.

Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15. White wins.

c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th moves respectively. White wins.

Problem No. 2. BLACK. +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | B | | | | B | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | B | | | | B | | B | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | W | | B | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | B | | W | | | | B | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | B | | W | | | | B | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | W | | W | | | | W | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | W | | W | | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | W | | | | W | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ WHITE.

White to move and win.

Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems, namely, "strokes." It is formed from the "Paisley" opening, thus:--

11-16 22-17 11-16 26-19 9-13 15-10 24-19 9-13 25-21 4-8 25-22 a 2-7 8-11 17-14 6-9 29-25 7-11 28-24 10-17 23-18 13-17 19-15 16-20 21-14 16-23 31-26 12-16

a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as follows:--

27-23 7-14 18-9 14-23 26-3 20-27 9-6 5-14 21-7 27-31 14-9 1-10 23-18 3-10 3-7

White wins. Jacques and Campbell.

_Other Varieties._--The forms of draughts practised on the European continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly in respect of the power assigned to a man after "crowning." The game of _Polish Draughts_ is played in France, Holland, Belgium and Poland, where it has entirely superseded _Le Jeu de dames à la française_. It is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side. The men move and capture as in English draughts, except that in capturing they move either forward or backward. A crowned man becomes a queen, and can move any number of squares along the diagonal. In her capture she takes any unguarded man or queen in any diagonal she commands, leaping over the captured man or queen and remaining on any unoccupied square she chooses of the same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there is another unguarded man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which it can be taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are _en prise_, or that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece has been removed during the capture, e.g. white queen at square 7, black at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10, 22, 27 and 19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go to 15, take the man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence of the intricacy of some of these moves, it is customary to remove every captured piece as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning square when taking, and he can still continue to take, he must do so, and not stay on the crowning square as at draughts. Passing a crowning square in taking does not entitle him to be made a queen. In capturing, the player must choose the direction by which he can take the greatest number of men or queens, or he may be huffed. Numerical power is the criterion, e.g. three men must be taken in preference to two queens. If the numbers are equal and one force comprises more queens than the other, the player may take whichever lot he chooses. This form of draughts, played on a board of 144 squares with 30 men a side, is extensively practised by British soldiers in India.

The German _Damenspiel_ is Polish draughts played on a board of the same size and with the same number of men as in the English game. It is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised in Germany and Russia.

The _Italian game_ differs from the English in two important

## particulars--a man may not take a king, and when a player has the

option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board being at the player's right hand, but until a king is obtained the differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.

In _Spanish draughts_ the board is set as for the Italian game. The men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and 2 kings a side, instead of the regulation 12 men.

_Turkish draughts_ differs widely from all other modern varieties of the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are used in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on the two back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third back rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms of the game, but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally. The king has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of squares that the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal. Capturing is compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces must be taken, captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.

AUTHORITIES.--Falkener's _Games Ancient and Oriental_; Lees' _Guide to the Game of Draughts_; Drummond's _Scottish Draught Players_ (Kear's reprint); Gould's _Memorable Matches_ and _Book of Problems_, &c. The _Draughts World_ is the principal magazine devoted to the game. In Dunne's _Draught Players' Guide and Companion_ a section is devoted to the non-English varieties. (J. M. M. D.; R. J.)

DRAUPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, king of Panchala, and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is an important character in the _Mahabharata_.

DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. _Drau_, Hung. _Dráva_, Lat. _Dravus_), one of the principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing through Austria and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck, near the Toblacher Feld in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over 4000 ft., runs eastward, and forms the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total length of 450 m., while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is 150 m., and to its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great extent and easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal road through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns, the Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The Drave flows through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary near Friedau, where up to its confluence with the Danube, at Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms the boundary between that country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the Drave attains a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is navigable for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Bárcs, a distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are: on the left the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all, the Mur; and on the right the Gail and the Drann.

DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit _Dravida_), the name given to a collection of Indian peoples, and their family of languages[1] comprising all the principal forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory, which also includes the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the Western Ghats as far as Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, and farther eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces and Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in the Rajmahal hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various Dravidian languages, with the number of speakers returned at the census of 1901, are as follows:--

Tamil 17,494,901 Malay[=a]lam 6,022,131 Kanarese 10,368,515 Tulu 535,210 Kodagu 39,191 Toda 805 K[=o]ta 1,300 Kuru[chi] 609,721 Malto 60,777 G[=o]nd[=i] 1,125,479 Kui 494,099 Telugu 20,697,264 Br[=a]h[=u][=i] 48,589 ---------- Total 57,497,982

Of these Tamil and Malay[=a]lam can be considered as two dialects of one and the same language, which is, in its turn, closely related to Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and K[=o]ta can be described as lying between Tamil-Malay[=a]lam and Kanarese, though they are more nearly related to the latter than to the former. The same is the case with Kuru[chi] and Malto, while Kui and G[=o]nd[=i] gradually approach Telugu, which latter language seems to have branched off from the common stock at an early date. Finally, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i] dialect of Baluchistan has been so much influenced by other languages that it is no longer a pure Dravidian form of speech.

The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the territory they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are gradually losing ground in the north, where they meet with Aryan forms of speech. If we compare the caste tables and the language tables in the Indian census of 1901 we find that only 1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 G[=o]nds returned were stated to speak the Dravidian G[=o]nd[=i]. Similarly only 1505 out of 17,187 K[=o]l[=a]ms entered their language as K[=o]l[=a]m[=i]. Such tribes are gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an ever-increasing Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory, to the east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs is that Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan forms of speech prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus stands out as an isolated island in the sea of Aryan speech.

This process has been going on from time immemorial. The Dravidians were already settled in India when the Aryans arrived from the north-west. The fair Aryans were at once struck by their dark hue, and named them accordingly _krisna tvac_, the black skin. In the course of time, however, the two races began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a Dravidian element in the Aryan languages of North India.

The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most speakers of Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological type which is known as the Dravidian. "The Dravidian race," says Sir H. Risley, "the most primitive of the Indian types, occupies the oldest geological formation in India, the medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus, and undulating plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats, while farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and on the other to the Rajmahal hills."

This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong Dravidian element can, however, also be traced in the population of northern India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans had already settled in those prehistoric times when the Vedic hymns were composed, the prevailing type is the Aryan one. The same is the case in Rajputana. From the eastern frontier of the Punjab, on the other hand, and eastwards, a Dravidian element can be traced. This is the case in the valleys of the Ganges and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a later period. Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian element in the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.

It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been spoken in many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms of speech. The existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan seems to show that Dravidian settlers have once lived in those parts. The tribe in question, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s, are, however, now Eranians and not Dravidians by race, and it is not probable that there has ever been a numerous Dravidian population in Baluchistan. The Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s are most likely the descendants of settlers from the south.

There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India from outside or superseded an older population. For all practical purposes they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines of the Deccan, whence they appear to have spread over part of northern India. Their languages form an isolated group, and it has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other family of languages. Such attempts have been made with reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages, and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian continent. The arguments adduced have not, however, proved to be sufficient, and only the Australian hypothesis can still lay claim to some probability. Till it has been more closely tested we must therefore consider the Dravidian family as an isolated group of languages, with several characteristic features of its own.

The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness and hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for example, a distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant at the end of a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. Thus the pronoun of the third person singular, which is _avan_, "he," in Tamil, is pronounced _avanu_ in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word _v[=a]k_, "speech," is borrowed in the form _v[=a]ku_ in Tamil; the word _gurram_, "horse," is commonly pronounced _gurramu_ in Telugu, and so on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many cases where speakers of other languages do not experience any difficulty in pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated by the changes undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the Sanskrit word _br[=a]hmana_, "a Brahmin," becomes _bar[=a]mana_ in Kanarese and _pir[=a]mana_ in Tamil; the Sanskrit _Dramida_, "Dravidian," is borrowed by Tamil under the form _Tir[=a]mida_. _Dramida_, which also occurs as _Dravida_, is in its turn developed from an older _Damila_, which is identical with the word _Tamir_, Tamil.

The forms _pir[=a]mana_ and _Tir[=a]mida_ in Tamil illustrate another feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of them, and in Tamil and Malay[=a]lam it has become a law, against any word being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant (g, j, [d.], d, b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k, c, t, [t.], p, respectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound, on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the Sanskrit word _danta_, "tooth," has been borrowed by Tamil in the form _tandam_, and the Telugu _anna_, "elder brother," _tammulu_, "younger brother," become when compounded _annadammulu_, "elder and younger brothers."

There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though there is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied by a tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in consecutive syllables. This tendency, which has been called the "law of harmonic sequence," is most apparent in Telugu, where the short _u_ of certain suffixes is replaced by _i_ when the preceding syllable contains one of the vowels _i_ (short and long) and _ei_. Compare the dative suffix _ku_, _ki_, in _gurramu-ku_, "to a horse"; but _tammuni-ki_, "to a younger brother." This tendency does not, however, play a prominent rôle in the Dravidian languages.

Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed formative additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged throughout. Thus from the Tamil base _per_, "great," we can form adjectives such as _per-iya_ and _per-um_, "great"; verbs such as _per-u-gu_, "to become increased"; _per-u-kku_, "to cause to increase," and so on.

Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as verbs. Thus the Tamil _kadu_ can mean "sharpness," "sharp," and "to be sharp." Other bases are of course more restricted in their respective spheres.

The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, i.e. various additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would call cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been separate words. Most of them are, however, now only used as suffixes. Thus from the Tamil base _k[=o]n_, "king," we can form an accusative _k[=o]n-ei_, a verb _k[=o]n-en_, "I am king," and so on.

Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former includes those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, the latter all others. Gender is only distinguished in the former class, while all casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals (which are irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using different words for the male and the female, or else by adding words meaning male, female, respectively, to the name of the animal--processes which do not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of grammar.

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter is formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked in the case of casteless nouns.

Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually to a modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique base. Thus we have the Tamil _maram_, "tree"; _maratt-[=a]l_, "from a tree"; _maratt-u-kku_, "to a tree"; _v[=i]du_, "a house"; _v[=i]t[t.]-[=a]l_, "from a house." The case terminations are the same in the singular and in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, is often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding suffixes.

The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens; thus Tamil _pattu_, "ten"; _iru-badu_, "two tens," "twenty."

The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person addressed. Thus, Tamil _n[=a]m_, "we," i.e. I and you; _n[=a]ngal_, "we," i.e. I and they.

There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence "the book which you gave to me" must be translated _m[=i]ru n[=a]ku iccina pus-takamu_, i.e. "you me-to given book." There are several such participles in use. Thus from the Telugu verb _kot[t.]a_, "to strike," are formed _kot[t.]-ut-unna_, "that strikes," _kot[t.]-i-na_, "that struck," _kot[t.][=e]_, "that would strike," "that usually strikes." By adding pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from Telugu _kot[t.][=e]_ and _v[=a]du_, "he," is formed _kot[t.][=e]-v[=a]du_, "one who usually strikes." Such forms are used as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu, _kot[t.]in[=a]du_, "he struck," can be translated literally "a striker in the past."

Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject by adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in Kanarese we have _m[=a]did-enu_, "I did"; _m[=a]did-i_, "thou didst"; _m[=a]did-evu_, "we did"; _m[=a]did-aru_, "they did."

One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative base. Thus, Kanarese _m[=a]d-enu_, "I did not"; _m[=a]d-evu_, "we did not"; _m[=a]d-aru_, "they did not."

The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior Aryan civilization.

The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay[=a]lam, Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language of literature in all of them differs considerably from the colloquial. The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language occurs in a Greek play which is preserved in a papyrus of the 2nd century A.D. The exact period to which the indigenous literature can be traced back, on the other hand, has not been fixed with certainty.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Bishop R. Caldwell, _A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages_ (London, 1856; 2nd edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Müller, _Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer Theil._ (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Müller, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and ff.; G. A. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv. "Munda and Dravidian Languages" (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by Sten Konow. (S. K.)

FOOTNOTE: