Part 39

+------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+ | | Number | Amount of air |Amount of air | | Mode of Respiration. | per | exchanged per |exchanged per | | | minute.| respiration. | minute. | +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+ | Natural respiration (supine) | 13 | 489 c.c. | 6.460 c.c. | | Natural " (prone) | 12.5 | 422 " | 5.240 " | | Prone (pressure), "Schäfer" | 13 | 520 " | 6.760 " | | Supine (pressure), "Howard" | 13.6 | 295 " | 4.020 " | | Rolling (with pressure), | | | | | "Marshall Hall" | 13 | 254 " | 3.300 " | | Rolling (without pressure), | | | | | "Marshall Hall" | 12 | 192 " | 2.300 " | | Traction (with pressure), | | | | | "Silvester" | 12.8 | 178 " | 2.280 " | +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+

These experiments all tend to show that by far the most efficient method of performing artificial respiration is that of intermittent pressure upon the lower ribs with the subject in the prone position or face downward. It is also the easiest to perform, requiring practically no exertion, as the weight of the operator's body produces the effect, and the swinging forwards and backwards of the body some thirteen times a minute, which alone is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the further great advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one person.

See Taylor, _Medical Jurisprudence_; "Description of a simple and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human subject, especially in cases of drowning," by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 87, _Medico-Chirurgical Society's Transactions_); "The relative efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in man," by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_); _A Method for the Treatment of the Apparently Drowned_, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); _Handbook of Instruction_, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908). (W. HY.)

_Penal Use of Drowning._--As a form of capital punishment, drowning was once common throughout Europe, but it is now only practised in Mahommedan countries and the Far East. Tacitus states that the ancient Germans hanged criminals of any rank, but those of the low classes were drowned beneath hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned convicts. The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The law of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife should be smothered in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment for women guilty of theft was drowning. So usual was the penalty in the middle ages that grants of life and death jurisdiction were worded to be "_cum fossa et furca_" (i.e. "with drowning-pit and gallows"). The owner of Baynard's Castle, London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, and his descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, the most valued of which was the right of drowning in the Thames traitors taken within their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment ordained by Richard Coeur de Lion for any soldier of his army who killed a fellow-crusader during the passage to the Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for women as being the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally a male criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to be drowned "by the queen's special grace." In 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 eleven gipsy women suffered there. By that date the penalty was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland till 1685 (the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria 1776, in Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution the penalty was revived in the terrible _Noyades_ carried out by the terrorist Jean Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.

DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German historian, was born on the 6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. His father, Johann Christoph Droysen, was an army chaplain, in which capacity he was present at the celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation, for his father was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French during the greater part of 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the foundation of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him, like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated at the gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; in 1829 he became a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), one of the oldest schools in Berlin; besides his work there he gave lectures at the university, from 1833 as _privat-dozent_, and from 1835 as professor, without a salary. During these years he was occupied with classical antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of Aristophanes, but the work by which he made himself known as a historian was his _Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1833, and other editions), a book which still remains probably the best work on the subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German historical thought, for it shows that idealization of power and success which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. It was followed by other volumes dealing with the successors of Alexander, published under the title of _Geschichte des Hellenismus_ (Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885; it has been translated into French, but not into English.

In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. He was at once attracted into the political movement for the defence of the rights of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the centre. Like his predecessor F. C. Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the estates of Schleswig-Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which the estates protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected a member of the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary to the committee for drawing up the constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, and was one of the first members to retire after the king of Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with Schleswig-Holstein, _Die Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und das Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1806_ (Hamburg, 1850). A translation was published in London in the same year under the title _The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein_. The work was one of great political importance, and had much to do with the formation of German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with Denmark.

After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he was appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin, where he remained till his death. In his later years he was almost entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 he brought out a life of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851-1852, and many later editions), one of the best biographies in the German language, and then began his great work on the _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven volumes were published, the last not till after his death. It forms a complete history of the growth of the Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work, shows a strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness that also gave him so much influence as a teacher.

Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th of June 1884. His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several well-known historical works, namely, _Gustav Adolf_ (Leipzig, 1869-1870); _Herzog Bernhard von Weimar_ (Leipzig, 1885); an admirable _Historischer Handatlas_ (Leipzig, 1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War. Another son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history and antiquities.

See M. Duncker, _Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf_ (Berlin, 1885); and Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1906). (J. W. HE.)

DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895), French man of letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris on the 9th of June 1832. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of 1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies of family life, published in the _Vie parisienne_ and issued in book form as _Monsieur, Madame et Bébé_ (1866), won for the author an immediate and great success. _Entre nous_ (1867) was built on a similar plan, and was followed by some psychological novels: _Le Cahier bleu de Mlle Cibot_ (1868); _Autour d'une source_ (1869); _Un Paquet de lettres_ (1870); _Babolein_ (1872); _Les Étangs_ (1875); _L'Enfant_ (1885). His _Tristesses et sourires_ (1884) is a delicate analysis of the niceties of family intercourse and its difficulties. Droz's first book was translated into English under the title of _Papa, Mamma and Baby_ (1887). _Un Été à la campagne_, a book which caused considerable scandal, was erroneously attributed to him. He died on the 22nd of October 1895.

DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), French writer on ethics and political science, was born on the 31st of October 1773 at Besançon, where his family had furnished men of considerable mark to the legal profession. His own legal studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived on the very day after the dethronement of the king, and was present during the massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined the volunteer _bataillon_ of the Doubs, and for the next three years served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on the score of ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post in the newly-founded _école centrale_ of Besançon; and in 1799 he made his first appearance as an author by an _Essai sur l'art oratoire_ (Paris, Fructidor, An VII.), in which he acknowledges his indebtedness more especially to Hugh Blair. Removing to Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the like-minded Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on this philosopher's advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he produced the romance of _Lina_, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized as a mingled echo of Florian and _Werther_. Like several other literary men of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue office known as the _Droits réunis_; but from 1814 he devoted himself exclusively to literature and became a contributor to various journals. Already favourably known by his _Essai sur l'art d'être heureux_ (Paris, 1806), his _Éloge de Montaigne_ (1812), and his _Essai sur le beau dans les arts_ (1815), he not only gained the Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work _De la philosophie morale ou des différents systèmes sur la science de la vie_, but also in 1824 obtained admission to the Académie Française. The main doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will never be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of their duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by _Application de la morale à la philosophie et à la politique_, and in 1829 by _Économie politique, ou principes de la science des richesses_, a methodical and clearly written treatise, which was edited by Michel Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest work was a _Histoire du règne de Louis XVI_ (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). As he advanced in life Droz became more and more decidedly religious, and the last work of his prolific pen was _Pensées du Christianisme_ (1842). Few have left so blameless a reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.

See Guizot, _Discours académiques_; Montalembert, "Discours de réception," in _Mémoires de l'Académie française_; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to the _Économie politique_.

DRUG, a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in 1906 out of portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. It has an area of 3807 sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 628,885, showing a heavy decrease in the preceding decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900. The district is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel in the centre and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling country. The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, is on the railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population of 4002. Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are carried on.

DRUG (from Fr. _drogue_, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span. and Ital. _droga_; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly be connected with Dutch _droog_, dry), any organic and inorganic substance used in the preparation of medicines, by itself or in combination with others, and either prepared by some method or used in a natural state (see PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular sense "drug" is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous substances, and hence "to drug" means to stupefy or poison. The word is also applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the value has greatly depreciated--a "drug in the market."

DRUIDISM, the name usually given to the religious system of the ancient inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The word Druid (Lat. _druida_) probably represents a Gaulish _druid-s_, Irish _drúi_, gen. sing. _drúad_. On the analogy of Irish _súi<su-vid-s_ the word has been analysed into _dru-vid-_, "very knowing, wise." The ancient Welsh form of the word does not exist. Welsh _derwydd_ and _dryw_ are probably to be regarded as of recent coinage, as also the Breton forms _drouiz_, _druz_. The important part played by the oak in the religious cults of other countries suggests a connexion with Greek [Greek: drus], oak, but this etymology is rather in disfavour at the present time.

We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most circumstantial account of the Druids to be met with in the classical writers. He tells us that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included among the Druids or the nobles. In other words, the Druids constituted the learned and the priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by Diodorus and Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards and soothsayers. Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive functions to the Druids than they actually possessed. The substance of Caesar's account is as follows. On those who refused to submit to their decisions they had the power of inflicting severe penalties, of which excommunication from society was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment of taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after by the youth of Gaul. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was protracted, extending sometimes over twenty years. All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes they had a written language in which they used the Greek characters. The president of the order, whose office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life, had supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural theology were their favourite studies.

Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every year a general assembly of the order was held within the territories of the Carnutes in Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to offer human sacrifices, usually criminals. Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus, an Aeduan, he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice acceptable to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves between two armies to bring about peace. They are said to have had a firm belief in the immortality of the soul and in metempsychosis, a fact which led several ancient writers to conclude that they had been influenced by the teaching of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras.

A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise druidical rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer deal with cases of murder. Under Tiberius the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the senate, but this had to be renewed by Claudius in A.D. 54. In Mela we find the Druids teaching in the depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their

## activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According

to this writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration. Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on that tree was thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially the mistletoe. When thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus, in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awe-struck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears; the Britons were put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the scene of many a sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.

After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are only referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance, apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of Druids.

When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should expect, no traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the conquest of Anglesea mentioned above, except in the story of Vortigern as recounted by Nennius. After being excommunicated by Germanus the British leader invites twelve Druids to assist him. These probably came from North Britain. In Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers. The functions of Caesar's Druids we here find distributed amongst Druids, bards and poets (_fili_), but even in very early times the poet has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally supplants him with the spread of Christianity. The following is the position of the Druid in the pagan literature. The most important documents are contained in MSS. of the 12th century, but the texts themselves go back in large measure to about A.D. 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do not appear to have formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been exempt from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected with Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of learning his art, though what this consisted in we are not told. The Druids are represented as being able to foretell the future and to perform magic. Before setting out on the great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught, goes to consult her Druid, and just before the famous heroine Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies what sort of a woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the magical skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. More remarkable still is the story of Etain. This lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem, high-king of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god Mider, who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his Druid Dal[=a]n, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description of the band of Cathbu's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the _Cattle-spoiling of Cualnge_ (Cooley): "The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland." We are further told that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are able to produce insanity.

In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries, though we find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters of Laegaire, the high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of St Patrick and St Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made an _airbe drúad_ (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word _drúi_ is always used to render the Latin _magus_, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his Druid.

See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906), and _Introduction à l'étude de la littérature celtique_ (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903). (E. C. Q.)

DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a friendly society founded, as an imitation of the ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They adopted Masonic rites and spread to America (1833) and Australia. Their lodges are called "Groves." In 1872 the Order was introduced into Germany. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)