Part 46

The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating the rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin. Vitruvius directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees should be cut to the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their sap, which by dying in the wood would injure its quality; also that felling should take place only from early autumn until the end of winter. The supposed superior quality of wood cut in winter, and the early practice in England of felling oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a statute of James I., which enacted "that no person or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled, any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s. a cart-load (timber for the needful building and reparation of houses, ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April and last day of June, not even for the king's use, out of barking time, except for building or repairing his Majesty's houses or ships." In giving testimony before a committee of the House of Commons in March 1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed it as his opinion that to secure durable timber for shipbuilding, trees should be barked in spring and not felled till the succeeding winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a royal decree limited the felling of timber from the 1st of October to the 15th of April; and, in an order issued to the commissioners of forests, Napoleon I. directed that the felling of naval timber should take place only from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of the moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying of wood in water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible constituents, has long been practised as a means of seasoning. The old "Resistance" frigate, which went down in Malta harbour, remained under water for some months, and on being raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry rot fungus that had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship "Eden," the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months' submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a year at home in excellent condition she was sent out to the East Indies. It was an ancient practice in England to place timber for thrashing-floors and oak planks for wainscotting in running water to season them. Whale and other oils have been recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a Mr Emerson.

For the modern processes of preserving timber see TIMBER.

DUALISM (from rare Lat. _dualis_, containing two, from _duo_), a philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to explain facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The term plays an important part in metaphysical, ethical and theological speculation.

_In Metaphysics._--Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism both idealistic and materialistic. Two forms of this dualism are held. On the one hand it is said that mind and matter are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal relation between them is _ex hypothesi_ impossible. On the other hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to _know_ matter _in itself_, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and effect to postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause, of its sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter is a necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism, inasmuch as it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter save as an intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, in other words, must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot know it _in itself_. From this question there emerges a second and more difficult problem. Consciousness, it is held, is of two main kinds, sensation and reason. Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual phenomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism). How then are we to account for memory and the principles of necessity, similarity, universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and group the presentations of sense. This faculty is _a priori_, transcendental, and entirely separate from all the data of experience and sense-perception. Here then we have a dualism within experience. The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitized film which automatically records the impressions of the senses. It contains within itself this modifying critical faculty which reacts upon and arranges the sense-given presentations.

_In Ethics and Theology._--In the domain of morals, dualism postulates the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles of existence. In theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic and has not the fundamental, determining importance which it has in metaphysics. It is a result rather than a starting-point. The old Zoroastrianism, and those Christian sects (e.g. Manichaeism) which were influenced by it, postulate two contending deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), which war against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking this dualism is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will triumph over Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana, i.e. limitless time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The postulate of an Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times acutely felt by a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and infinite power. John Stuart Mill (_Essay on Religion_) preferred to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no absolute control.

_In Theology._--Dualism is also used in a special theological sense to describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According to this doctrine the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, the union of the two natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the indwelling Holy Spirit.

_History of the Doctrine._--The earliest European thinkers (see IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY) endeavoured to reduce all the facts of the universe to a single material origin, such as Fire, Water, Air. It is only gradually that there appears any recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or causal influence over inert matter. Anaxagoras was the first to postulate the existence of Reason ([Greek: nous]) as the source of change and progress. Yet even he did not conceive this Reason as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most highly rarefied form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified metaphysics and ethics, combining the good with the truly existent and evil with the non-existent. Aristotle rebels against this conception and substitutes the idea of [Greek: prôtê hylê] and development. Nevertheless he does not escape from the dualism of Form and Matter, [Greek: nous] and [Greek: hylê]. The scholastic philosophers naturally held dualistic views resulting from their extreme devotion to formalism. This blind dualism found its natural consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance thinkers, Bruno and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and matter in all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors. The birth of modern physical science on the other hand in the investigations of Bacon and Descartes obscured the metaphysical issue by the predominance of the mechanical principles of natural philosophy. They attempted to explain the fundamental problems of existence by the unaided evidence of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained the absolute dualism of the _res cogitans_ and the _res extensa_. Spinoza realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate behind mind and matter a single substance (_unica substantia_) while Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual or semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the problem. He never really establishes a relation between pure reason and things-in-themselves (_Dinge an sich_), but rather seeks refuge in a dualism within consciousness, the transcendental and the empirical. Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams of dualism, dealing, one with the radical problem of the relation between mind and matter, the other with the relation between the pure rational and the empirical elements within consciousness. To the first problem there is one obvious and conclusive answer, namely that matter in itself is inherently unthinkable and comes within the vision of the mind only as an intellectual presentation. It follows that philosophy is in a sense both dualist and monist; it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the possible existence of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the possibility of any true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the only possible knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive dualism, a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental problem. To the second problem there are two main answers, that of Associationism which denies to the mind any _a priori_ existence and asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge, and that which admits the existence of both transcendental and empirical knowledge.

DUALLA, one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon estuary, West Africa. When the Germans established themselves in that region, the Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose domains were usually restricted to one village. Over these were two greater chiefs, Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the principal families of the tribe. The Dualla are physically a fine race. They are proud of their racial purity, and it was formerly usual for all half-caste children to be strangled at birth. The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole body, the men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is more developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples of Cameroon. The kings, many of whom have grown rich through trade, retain part of their former power, subject to the German government. The Dualla, who are laborious, industrious and capable of great physical endurance, are great traders and are proportionately prosperous. The average price for a wife among the Dualla is from £90 to £120; but sometimes a great deal more is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced if sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the seducer; if he cannot pay he becomes the husband's slave. Cannibalism as a religious rite was formerly common among the Dualla. All accessions to power were preceded by a sacrifice, a king having no authority till his hands were stained with blood. The religion is fetish blended with ancestor-worship, and certain secret societies exist among them which seem to have a religious connexion. The dead are buried within the hut, which is abandoned shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many converts, and some churches have been built. Many of the natives can read. The Dualla are in possession of an interesting code, in accordance with which messages can be sent and even conversations maintained by means of drums, or rather gongs, giving two notes. (See CAMEROON.)

DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU, Comtesse (1746-1793), French adventuress, mistress of Louis XV., was the natural daughter of a poor woman of Vaucouleurs, and was born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a convent in Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education, learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age of sixteen entered a milliner's shop in the rue St Honoré. Subsequently she lived as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange. Her great personal charms led the adventurer Jean, comte du Barry, to take her into his house in order to make it more attractive to the dupes whose money he won by gambling. Her success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a higher flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and the duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress of the king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to find a title for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married himself his brother Guillaume offered himself as nominal husband. The comtesse du Barry was presented at court on the 22nd of April 1769, and became official mistress of the king. Her influence over the monarch was absolute until his death, and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with him in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the duc d'Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover, took his place, and in concert with her governed the monarch. Louis XV. built for her the magnificent mansion of Luciennes. At his death in 1774 an order of his successor banished her to the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, but, the queen interceding for her, the king in the following year gave her permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led a retired life with the comte de Cossé-Brissac, and was visited there by Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among many other distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792 to endeavour to raise money on her jewels, she was on her return accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated the treasures of the state, conspired against the republic, and worn, in London, "mourning for the tyrant." She was condemned to death on the 7th of December 1793, and beheaded the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political rôle of which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice to her quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive beauty. The volume of _Lettres et Anecdotes_ (1779) which bears her name was not written by her.

See E. and J. de Goncourt, _La du Barry_ (Paris, 1880); C. Vatel, _Histoire de Madame du Barry_ (1882-1883), based on sources; R. Douglas, _The Life and Times of Madame du Barry_ (London, 1896).

DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE, SEIGNEUR (1544-1590), French poet, was born near Auch in 1544. He was employed by Henry IV. of France in England, Denmark and Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in Gascony, under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot, and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant the pagan _mise en scène_ then in fashion. His first epic, _Judith_, appeared in a volume entitled _La Muse chrétienne_ (Bordeaux, 1573). This was followed five years later by his principal work, _La Sepmaine_, a poem on the creation of the world. This work was held by admirers of du Bartas to put him on a level with Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed within six years after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful style made it a great favourite in England, where the author was called the "divine" du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto. Spenser, Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of what seems to us a most uninteresting poem. King James VI. of Scotland tried his "prentice hand" at the translation of du Bartas's poem _L'Uranie_, and the compliment was returned by the French writer, who translated, as _La Lepanthe_, James's poem on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the publication of the _Seconde Semaine_ in 1584. He aimed at a great epic which should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of the Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part, marked by a certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in acclimatizing the religious epic in France. The work is spoiled by a constant tendency to moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate information that passed under the name of science in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more than any other writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius of the French language, and in his borrowings from old French, from provincial dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the sure instinct and prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was also guilty of reduplicating the first syllables of words, producing such expressions as _pépétiller_, _sousouflantes_. Du Bartas died in July 1590 in Paris from wounds received at the battle of Ivry.

Joshua Sylvester translated the _Sepmaine_ in 1598; other English translations from du Bartas are _The Historie of Judith ..._ (1584), by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the "Weeks" (1625) by William Lisle (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; _Urania_ (1589), by Robert Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio's dedication of the second book of his translation of Montaigne to Lady Rich) wrote a translation of the first "Week," which is lost. The _OEuvres complètes_ of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579), Paris and Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier, _La Vie et les oeuvres de du Bartas_ (1883).

DUBAWNT, or DOOBAUNT (Indian _Toobaung_, i.e. turbid), a river of Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in Wholdaia (or Daly) Lake, in 104° 20' W. and 60° 15' N., and flows northward to its confluence with the Thelon river, and thence eastward to Chesterfield Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lake-expansions, including Dubawnt Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of 500 ft. above the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft. From the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is 750 m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The river is shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of boulders; grassy slopes, however, occur at intervals along its banks, especially on the shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the feeding grounds of large bands of cariboo. Discovered in 1770 by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored by J. B. Tyrrell in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.

See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896 (printed 1898).

DUBBO, a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South Wales, Australia, on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409. It is a flourishing manufacturing town in a pastoral district, in part also cultivated. Coal and copper are found in the neighbourhood.

DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME, SIEUR DE LANGEY (1491-1543), French soldier and diplomat, was born at the château of Glatigny, near Montmirail, in 1491. His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey was a younger son of the Angevin family of du Bellay, which from the 14th century was distinguished in the service of the dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France; and Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I. Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of the time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was above all the most able diplomat at the command of Francis I., prodigiously active, and excelling in secret negotiations. He entered the military service at an early age, was taken prisoner at Pavia (1525) and shared the captivity of Francis I. His skill and devotion attached him to the king. His missions to Spain, Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent three times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of Henry VIII.'s divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean, then bishop of Paris, he obtained a decision favourable to Henry VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2, 1530). From 1532 to 1536, though he went three times to England, he was principally employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.; in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes of Bavaria, the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony, and in January 1534 the treaty of Augsburg. During the war of 1537 Francis I. sent him on missions to Piedmont; he was governor of Turin from December 1537 till the end of 1539, and subsequently replacing Marshal d'Annebaut as governor of the whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in organization. But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was compelled to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January 1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his death (_Pantagruel_, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried in the cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected to his memory, with the inscription, "Ci gît Langey, dont la plume et l'épée Ont surmonté Cicéron et Pompée"; Charles V. is said to have remarked that Langey, by his own unaided efforts, did more mischief and thwarted more schemes than all the French together.

Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom of thought; without actually joining the reformers, he defended the innovators against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535 he even tried, unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting between Francis I. and Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened in favour of the Vaudois. Rabelais was the most famous of his clients, and followed him to Piedmont from 1540 to 1542. Guillaume was himself a valuable historian, and a clear and precise writer. He imitated Livy in his _Ogdoades_, a history of the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments remain, inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in his _Mémoires_ (1569). The celebrated _Instructions_, reprinted as _Traité de la discipline militaire_ in 1554 and 1592, was formerly attributed to him, but it has been proved that he could not have written it (see Bayle, _Dict. Hist._ i. 502, and Jähns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_, i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the highest value for the study of the military art of the 16th century; in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619 German translations were published.

See also the edition of Martin du Bellay's _Mémoires_ by Michaud and Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly's _Fragments de la première Ogdoade_ (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume du Bellay by V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905). (J. I.)