Part 40

DRUM (early forms _drome_ or _dromme_, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. _tromme_, Ger. _Trommel_: the word is ultimately the same as "trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century), the name given to the well-known musical instrument (see below) and also to many objects resembling it in shape. Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar shape, as a "drum" of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder, round which belting is passed; of the _tympanum_ or cylindrically shaped middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the external auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure of a dome when raised to some height above the pendentives. The architectural drum had a twofold object; first, to give greater elevation to the dome externally so that it should rise well above the surrounding building, and secondly, to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical windows cut in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome itself, as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions were built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of these great circular blocks are found on the road between the quarries and the temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter, being about 6 ft. high. The term _frusta_ is sometimes applied to them.

In music the drum (Fr. _tambour_; Ger. _Trommel_; Ital. _tamburo_) is an instrument of percussion common in some form to all nations and ages. It consists of a frame or vessel forming a resonant cavity, over one or both ends of which is stretched a skin or vellum set in vibration by direct percussion of hand or stick. Drums fall into two divisions according to the nature of their sonority:--(1) instruments producing sounds of definite musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in the harmony of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2) instruments of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side or snare drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for marking the rhythm and adding tone colour.

Drums are further divided into three classes according to special features of construction:--(1) instruments having a skin stretched over one end of the resonant cavity, the other being open, such as the tambourine (q.v.) and the _darabukkeh_ or Egyptian drum, shaped like a mushroom; (2) instruments consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of metal, wood or earthenware entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched across the opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape of a cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side drum, &c.

Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to produce vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment are taken up by the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus reinforces the sound produced by the parchment. The _tone_ of the instrument whether definite or indefinite depends upon the dimensions of the vellum, the shape of the resonant receptacle, and the method of percussion. The _intensity_ of the sound depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the diameter of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the resonant receptacle; the material of which the latter consists has little or no influence on the tone of the instrument. The _pitch_ of the sound is determined by the dimensions of the vellum taken in conjunction with the degree of tension, the pitch varying in acuteness directly with the degree of tension and inversely with the size of the vellum.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Military Bass Drum (Besson & Co.)]

The _bass drum_ or Turkish drum (Fr. _grosse caisse_; Ger. _Grosse Trommel_; Ital. _gran cassa_ or _tamburo grande_) consists of a short cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by vellum stretched over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place by larger hoops fitting tightly over them. At regular intervals in the two large hoops are bored holes through which passes an endless cord stretched in zig-zag round the cylinder and connecting the two hoops. The tension of the vellum is controlled by means of leather braces which are made to slide up and down the zig-zag of cord, slackening or tightening the large hoops, and with them the vellum, at the will of the performer. Systems of rods and screws are also used for the purpose. The bass drum is mounted on a stand when used in the orchestra. The sound is produced by striking the centre of the vellum on the one end of the drum with a stick having a large soft round knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or felt. The bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note, but the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a mere dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the braces; the instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering it with a piece of cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally written on a stave with a bass clef, [Illustration: notes], the C being merely used to show the rhythm and accents. Sometimes the stave is dispensed with, a single note on a single line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the rhythm. It is possible to make gradations in _forte_ and _piano_ on the bass drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in moderate _tempo_. A roll is sometimes played by holding a short stick, furnished with a knob at each end, in the middle and striking in quick succession with each knob alternately; two kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It is understood that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum unless the composer has written _senza piatti_ over the part. Wagner did not once score for the bass drum after he composed _Rienzi_, but Verdi, Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively. The bass drum was formerly known as the _long drum_, the cylinder being long in proportion to the diameter.

The _side_ or _snare drum_ (Fr. _tambour militaire_; Ger. _Militärtrommel_; Ital. _tamburo militare_) is an instrument consisting of a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end. The parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly down by larger hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the vellums are tightened or slackened by means of cords and leather braces, or by a system of rods and screws. Across the lower head are stretched two or more catgut strings called snares, which produce a rattling sound at each stroke on the upper head, owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head which jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations in the air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these vibrations are communicated to the lower head. The presence of the snares across the diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon which gives the side drum its peculiar timbre, changing the nature of the vibrations, now no longer free: the snares form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double the number of vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover, the vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter is compelled to vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.[1]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Guards pattern Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Regulation Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]

The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is struck in the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated heads or knobs of hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound when the drum is played singly and in close proximity to the hearer; when, however, several drums are played simultaneously or with other instruments the effect is brilliant and exhilarating. The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately with each hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a rattling tremolo. This roll ("daddy-mammy") is very difficult to acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be muffled by loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk or cloth between the snares and the parchment. An impressive effect is produced by a continued roll on muffled drums in funeral marches. The notation for the side drum is similar to that in use for the bass drum; the value of the note is alone of importance; the place of the note on the staff is immaterial and purely a matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single line is often used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the same staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the side drum, such as

[Illustration: notes]

The _tenor drum_ (Fr. _caisse roulante_; Ger. _Roll-_ or _Rührtrommel_; Ital. _tamburo rulante_) is similar to the side drum but has a larger cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks the brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for the roll in military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the stage.

The _tambourin de Provence_ is a small drum with a long cylinder of narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small pipe (_galoubet_) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one stick only, the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers the pipe. The tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of the pipe and tabor (q.v.).

The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient civilizations is established beyond a doubt by the numerous representations of the instrument in a variety of shapes and sizes on the monuments and paintings of Egypt, Assyria, India and Persia. The _tympanon_, under which name seem to have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as well as the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it was introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization into western Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced by the crusaders, but it was certainly known in England long before the crusades, for Bede (_Musica practica_) mentions it in his list of instruments, and Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes it. The side drum was, until the reign of Elizabeth, of a much larger size than now and was held horizontally and beaten on one head only. It is not known at what date snares were added; Praetorius (_Syntagma musicum_, 1618) and Mersenne (_L'Harmonie universelle_, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of a side drum showing a snare appears in a book[2] from the printing press of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords and braces. Another woodcut of the same century is given as frontispiece to an edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.[3] An actual side drum with two curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient Egyptians was found during the excavations conducted at Thebes in 1823.[4] It measured 1½ ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter; the tension of the heads was regulated by cords braced by means of catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and wound separately round each cord so that these could be tightened or slackened at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient Egyptian straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums were used at the battle of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad celebrating Edward III.'s victory on this occasion appears in a chronicle of the 14th century, preserved in the British Museum (Harl. MS. 4690),

"This was do with merry sowne. With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto. And loud clariones they blew also."

A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the "Englische mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their trompes and pipers pipenede loude and made a great schowte upon the Skottes."

Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken by the Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.[5] Having mentioned their great horns, he adds, "ils font si grand' noise avec grands tambours qu'ils ont aussi." The same chronicler, describing the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347), gives the following list of instruments used: "trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, muses."[6]

Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to give signals in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and dragoons, and kettledrums by the cavalry.[7] In the reign of Henry VIII. two drummers were allowed to every company of 100 men. The chief drum beats used by the infantry in the 17th century[8] were _call_, _troop_, _preparative_, _march_, _battaile_ and _retreat_; these were later[9] changed to _general_, _réveillé_, _assembly_ or _troop_, _tattoo_, _chamade_, &c. The side drum was admitted into the orchestra in the 17th century, when Marais (1636-1728) scored for it in his opera _Alcione_. (K. S.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), vol. i. pp. 19 and 20.

[2] Joannes Mauburnius, _Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et sacrarum meditationum_ (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.

[3] _Vier Bücher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerüsten_, &c.; (Augsburg, 1534).

[4] Carl Engel, _The Music of the Most Ancient Nations_ (London, 1864), p. 219.

[5] _Chron._ ii. p. 737, see also Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii. 41.

[6] See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, _Panthéon litt._ (Paris, 1837), vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273.

[7] Sir John Smythe, _A Brief Discourse_ (London, 1594), pp. 158-159.

[8] Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, _Militarie Discipline, or the Young Artilleryman_ (London, 1643).

[9] Sir James Turner, _Pallas armata_ (1685), xxi. 302.

DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860), English banker, politician and writer, best known as one of the founders of the Catholic Apostolic or "Irvingite" Church, was born at the Grange, near Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of December 1786. He was the eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent London banker, by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His name is permanently connected with the university through the chair of political economy which he founded in 1825. He entered parliament in early life, and took an active interest from the first in nearly all departments of politics. Thoroughly independent and often eccentric in his views, he yet acted generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on occasion caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in 1860 he represented West Surrey in parliament. Drummond took a deep interest in religious subjects, and published numerous books and pamphlets on such questions as the interpretation of prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the principles of Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention. In 1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his movement against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in that city. In later years he was intimately associated with the origin and spread of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings of those who sympathized with the views of Edward Irving were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond's seat, Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the funds of the new church; and he became one of its leading office-bearers, visiting Scotland as an "apostle" and being ordained as an "angel" for that kingdom. The numerous works he wrote in defence of its distinctive doctrines and practice were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom convincing. He died on the 20th of February 1860.

DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897), Scottish evangelical writer and lecturer, was born in Stirling on the 17th of August 1851. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he displayed a strong inclination for physical and mathematical science. The religious element was an even more powerful factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free Church of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for a time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody and Sankey, in which he actively co-operated for two years. In 1877 he became lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College, which enabled him to combine all the pursuits for which he felt a vocation. His studies resulted in his writing _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_, the argument of which was that the scientific principle of continuity extended from the physical world to the spiritual. Before the book issued from the press (1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes Company drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in the following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of serious readers, alike among the religious and the scientific classes, discovered in _Natural Law_ the common standing-ground which they needed; and the universality of the demand proved, if nothing more, the seasonableness of its publication. Drummond continued to be actively interested in missionary and other movements among the Free Church students. In 1888 he published _Tropical Africa_, a valuable digest of information. In 1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the Lowell Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve them for mature revision, but an attempted piracy compelled him to hasten their publication, and they appeared in 1894 under the title of _The Ascent of Man_. Their object was to vindicate for altruism, or the disinterested care and compassion of animals for each other, an important part in effecting "the survival of the fittest," a thesis previously maintained by Professor John Fiske. Drummond's health failed shortly afterwards, and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character was full of charm. His writings were too nicely adapted to the needs of his own day to justify the expectation that they would long survive it, but few men exercised more religious influence in their own generation, especially on young men.

DRUMMOND, THOMAS (1797-1840), British inventor and administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October 1797, and was educated at the high school there. He was appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers. In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service for the bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby (1784-1852), from whom in the following year he received an appointment on the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. During his winters in London he attended the chemical lectures of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the Royal Institution, and the mention at one of these of the brilliant luminosity of lime when incandescent suggested to him the employment of the lime light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825, when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light apparatus ("Drummond light") was put to a practical test, and enabled observations to be completed between Divis mountain, near Belfast, and Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m. About the same time he also devised an improved heliostat, and in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light for lighthouse purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was appointed superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later he was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he proved himself a most successful administrator, and did much to promote law and order. It was he who in 1838 told the Irish landlords that "property has its duties as well as its rights." In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a commission on railways in Ireland, and took a large share in its work, which resulted in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that the state should construct a system of lines throughout the island. Drummond's health was undermined by overwork, and he died at Dublin on the 15th of April 1840.

See _Life_ by J. F. M'Lennan (1867); _Life and Letters_ by R. Barry O'Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom in _Papers on the Duties of the Royal Engineers_, vol. iv. (1840).

DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649), called "of Hawthornden," Scottish poet, was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, on the 13th of December 1585. His father, John Drummond, was the first laird of Hawthornden; and his mother was Susannah Fowler, sister of William Fowler (q.v.), poet and courtier. Drummond received his early education at the high school of Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently founded university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman usher at the English court (as he had been at the Scottish court from 1590) and William, in a visit to London in 1606, describes the festivities in connexion with the visit of the king of Denmark. Drummond spent two years at Bourges and Paris in the study of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland, where, by the death of his father in the following year, he became laird of Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books he read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting. It indicates a strong preference for imaginative literature, and shows that he was keenly interested in contemporary verse. His collection (now in the library of the university of Edinburgh) contains many first editions of the most famous productions of the age. On finding himself his own master, Drummond naturally abandoned law for the muses; "for," says his biographer in 1711, "the delicacy of his wit always run on the pleasantness and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of poetry." In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William Alexander of Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (q.v.), which ripened into a life-long friendship after Drummond's visit to Menstrie in 1614.