Part 16

HARTMANN VON AUE (c. 1170-c. 1210), one of the chief Middle High German poets. He belonged to the lower nobility of Swabia, where he was born about 1170. After receiving a monastic education, he became retainer (_dienstman_) of a nobleman whose domain, Aue, has been identified with Obernau on the Neckar. He also took part in the Crusade of 1196-97. The date of his death is as uncertain as that of his birth; he is mentioned by Gottfried von Strassburg (_c._ 1210) as still alive, and in the _Krone_ of Heinrich von dem Turlin, written about 1220, he is mourned for as dead. Hartmann was the author of four narrative poems which are of importance for the evolution of the Middle High German court epic. The oldest of these, _Erec_, which may have been written as early as 1191 or 1192, and the latest and ripest, _Iwein_, belong to the Arthurian cycle and are based on epics by Chretien de Troyes (q.v.); between them lie the romance, _Gregorius_, also an adaptation of a French epic, and _Der arme Heinrich_, one of the most charming specimens of medieval German poetry. The theme of the latter--the cure of the leper, Heinrich, by a young girl who is willing to sacrifice her life for him--Hartmann had evidently found in the annals of the family in whose service he stood. Hartmann's most conspicuous merit as a poet lies in his style; his language is carefully chosen, his narrative lucid, flowing and characterized by a sense of balance and proportion which is rarely to be found in German medieval poetry. _Gregorius, Der arme Heinrich_ and his lyrics, which are all fervidly religious in tone, imply a tendency towards asceticism, but, on the whole, Hartmann's striving seems rather to have been to reconcile the extremes of life; to establish a middle way of human conduct between the worldly pursuits of knighthood and the ascetic ideals of medieval religion.

_Erec_ has been edited by M. Haupt (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871); _Gregorius_, by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1900); _Der arme Heinrich_, by W. Wackernagel and W. Toischer (Basel, 1885) and by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1893); by J. G. Robertson (London, 1895), with English notes; _Iwein_, by G. F. Benecke and K. Lachmann (4th ed., Berlin, 1877) and E. Henrici (Halle, 1891-1893). A convenient edition of all Hartmann's poems by F. Bech, 3 vols. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891-1893, vol. 3 in 4th ed., 1902).

The literature on Hartmann is extensive. See especially L. Schmid, _Des Minnesingers Hartmann von Aue Stand, Heimat und Geschlecht_ (Tubingen, 1874); H. Rotteken, _Die epische Kunst Heinrichs von Veldeke und Hartmanns von Aue_ (Halle, 1887); F. Saran, _Hartmann von Aue als Lyriker_ (Halle, 1889); A. E. Schonbach, _Uber Hartmann von Aue_ (Graz, 1894); F. Piquet, _Etude sur Hartmann d'Aue_ (Paris, 1898). Translations have been made into modern German of all Hartmann's poems, while _Der arme Heinrich_ has repeatedly attracted the attention of modern poets, both English (Longfellow, Rossetti) and German (notably, Gerhart Hauptmann). See H. Tardel, _Der arme Heinrich in der neueren Dichtung_ (Berlin, 1905).

HARTSHORN, SPIRITS OF, a name signifying originally the ammoniacal liquor obtained by the distillation of horn shavings, afterwards applied to the partially purified similar products of the action of heat on nitrogenous animal matter generally, and now popularly used to designate the aqueous solution of ammonia (q.v.).

HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO (1806-1880), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 6th of September 1806. The son of a German carpenter, he was educated for the priesthood, but he had no religious vocation and, on leaving school, followed his father's trade till 1830, when he learned shorthand and joined the staff of the _Gaceta_. His earliest dramatic essays were translations from Moliere, Voltaire and the elder Dumas; he next recast old Spanish plays, and in 1837 produced his first original play, _Los Amantes de Teruel_, the subject of which had been used by Rey de Artieda, Tirso de Molina and Perez de Montalban. _Los Amantes de Teruel_ at once made the author's reputation, which was scarcely maintained by _Dona Mencia_ (1839) and _Alfonso el Casto_ (1841); it was not till 1845 that he approached his former success with _La Jura en Santa Gadea_. Hartzenbusch was chief of the National Library from 1862 to 1875, and was an indefatigable--though not very judicious--editor of many national classics. Inferior in inspiration to other contemporary Spanish dramatists, Hartzenbusch excels his rivals in versatility and in conscientious workmanship.

HARUN AL-RASHID (763 or 766-809), i.e. "Harun the Orthodox," the fifth of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, and the second son of the third caliph Mahdi. His full name was Harun ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn 'Abdallah ibn 'Abbas. He was born at Rai (Rhagae) on the 20th of March A.D. 763, according to some accounts, and according to others on the 15th of February A.D. 766. Harun al-Rashid was twenty-two years old when he ascended the throne. His father Mahdi just before his death conceived the idea of superseding his elder son Musa (afterwards known as Hadi, the fourth caliph) by Harun. But on Mahdi's death Harun gave way to his brother. For the campaigns in which he took part prior to his accession see CALIPHATE, section C, _The Abbasids_, SS 3 and 4.

Rashid owed his succession to the throne to the prudence and sagacity of Yahya b. Khalid the Barmecide, his secretary, whom on his accession he appointed his lieutenant and grand vizier (see BARMECIDES). Under his guidance the empire flourished on the whole, in spite of several revolts in the provinces by members of the old Alid family. Successful wars were waged with the rulers of Byzantium and the Khazars. In 803, however, Harun became suspicious of the Barmecides, whom with only a single exception he caused to be executed. Henceforward the chief power was exercised by Fadl b. Rabi', who had been chamberlain not only under Harun himself but under his predecessors, Mansur, Madhi and Hadi. In the later years of Harun's reign troubles arose in the eastern parts of the empire. These troubles assumed proportions so serious that Harun himself decided to go to Khorasan. He died, however, at Tus in March 809.

The reign of Harun (see CALIPHATE, section C, S 5) was one of the most brilliant in the annals of the caliphate, in spite of losses in north-west Africa and Transoxiana. His fame spread to the West, and Charlemagne and he exchanged gifts and compliments as masters respectively of the West and the East. No caliph ever gathered round him so great a number of learned men, poets, jurists, grammarians, cadis and scribes, to say nothing of the wits and musicians who enjoyed his patronage. Harun himself was a scholar and poet, and was well versed in history, tradition and poetry. He possessed taste and discernment, and his dignified demeanour is extolled by the historians. In religion he was extremely strict; he prostrated himself a hundred times daily, and nine or ten times made the pilgrimage to Mecca. At the same time he cannot be regarded as a great administrator. He seems to have left everything to his viziers Yahya and Fadl, to the former of whom especially was due the prosperous condition of the empire. Harun is best known to Western readers as the hero of many of the stories in the _Arabian Nights_; and in Arabic literature he is the central figure of numberless anecdotes and humorous stories. Of his incognito walks through Bagdad, however, the authentic histories say nothing. His Arabic biographers are unanimous in describing him as noble and generous, but there is little doubt that he was in fact a man of little force of character, suspicious, untrustworthy and on occasions cruel.

See the Arabic histories of Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun. Among modern works see Sir W. Muir, _The Caliphate_ (London, 1891); R. D. Osborn, _Islam under the Khalifs of Bagdad_ (London, 1878); Gustav Weil, _Geschichte der Chalifen_ (Mannheim and Stuttgart, 1846-1862); G. le Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ (Oxford, 1900); A. Muller, _Der Islam_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1885); E. H. Palmer, _The Caliph Haroun Alraschid_ (London, 1880); J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_ (London, 1898), vol. vi. pp. 34 foll.

HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (perhaps "entrail observers," cf. Skt. hira, Gr. [Greek: chorde]), a class of soothsayers in Rome. Their art (_disciplina_) consisted especially in deducing the will of the gods from the appearance presented by the entrails of the slain victim. They also interpreted all portents or unusual phenomena of nature, especially thunder and lightning, and prescribed the expiatory ceremonies after such events. To please the god, the victim must be without spot or blemish, and the practice of observing whether the entrails presented any abnormal appearance, and thence deducing the will of heaven, was also very important in Greek religion. This art, however, appears not to have been, as some other modes of ascertaining the will of the gods undoubtedly were, of genuine Aryan growth. It is foreign to the Homeric poems, and must have been introduced into Greece after their composition. In like manner, as the Romans themselves believed, the art was not indigenous in Rome, but derived from Etruria.[1] The Etruscans were said to have learned it from a being named Tages, grandson of Jupiter, who had suddenly sprung from the ground near Tarquinii. Instructions were contained in certain books called _libri haruspicini_, _fulgurales_, _rituales_. The art was practised in Rome chiefly by Etruscans, occasionally by native-born Romans who had studied in the priestly schools of Etruria. From the regal period to the end of the republic, haruspices were summoned from Etruria to deal with prodigies not mentioned in the pontifical and Sibylline books, and the Roman priests carried out their instructions as to the offering necessary to appease the anger of the deity concerned. Though the art was of great importance under the early republic, it never became a part of the state religion. In this respect the haruspices ranked lower than the augurs, as is shown by the fact that they received a salary; the augurs were a more ancient and purely Roman institution, and were a most important element in the political organization of the city. In later times the art fell into disrepute, and the saying of Cato the Censor is well known, that he wondered how one haruspex could look another in the face without laughing (Cic. _De div._ ii. 24). Under the empire, however, we hear of a regular collegium of sixty haruspices; and Claudius is said to have tried to restore the art and put it under the control of the pontifices. This collegium continued to exist till the time of Alaric.

See A. Bouche-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquite_ (1879-1881); Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885), pp. 410-415; G. Schmeisser, _Die etruskische Disciplin vom Bundesgenossenkriege bis zum Untergang des Heidentums_ (1881), and _Quaestionum de Etrusca disciplina particula_ (1872); P. Clairin, _De haruspicibus apud Romanos_ (1880). Also OMEN.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The statement of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ii. 22) that the haruspices were instituted by Romulus is due to his confusing them with the augurs.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest of American educational institutions, established at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1636 the General Court of the colony voted L400 towards "a schoale or colledge," which in the next year was ordered to be at "New Towne." In memory of the English university where many (probably some seventy) of the leading men of the colony had been educated, the township was named Cambridge in 1638. In the same year John Harvard (1607-1638), a Puritan minister lately come to America, a bachelor and master of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, dying in Charlestown (Mass.), bequeathed to the wilderness seminary half his estate (L780) and some three hundred books; and the college, until then unorganized, was named Harvard College (1639) in his honour. Its history is unbroken from 1640, and its first commencement was held in 1642. The spirit of the founders is beautifully expressed in the words of a contemporary letter which are carved on the college gates: "After God had carried us safe to New-England, and wee had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our liveli-hood, rear'd convenient places for Gods worship, and setled the Civill Government; One of the next things we longed for, and looked after was to advance _Learning_, and perpetuate it to Posterity; dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust." The college charter of 1650 dedicated it to "the advancement of all good literature, arts, and sciences," and "the education of the English and Indian youth ... in knowledge and godlynes." The second building (1654) on the college grounds was called "the Indian College." In it was set up the College press, which since 1638 had been in the president's house, and here, it is believed, was printed the translation of the Bible (1661-1663) by John Eliot into the language of the natives, with primer, catechisms, grammars, tracts, &c. A fair number of Indians were students, but only one, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck, took a bachelor's degree (1665). By generous aid received from abroad for this special object, the college was greatly helped in its infancy.

The charter of 1650 has been in the main, and uninterruptedly since 1707, the fundamental source of authority in the administration of the university. It created a co-optating corporation consisting of the president, treasurer and five fellows, who formally initiate administrative measures, control the college funds, and appoint officers of instruction and government; subject, however, to confirmation by the Board of Overseers (established in 1642), which has a revisory power over all acts of the corporation. Circumstances gradually necessitated ordinary government by the resident teachers; and to-day the various faculties, elaborately organized, exercise immediate government and discipline over all the students, and individually or in the general university council consider questions of policy. The Board of Overseers was at first jointly representative of state and church. The former, as founder and patron, long regarded Harvard as a state institution, controlling or aiding it through the legislature and the overseers; but the controversies and embarrassments incident to legislative action proved prejudicial to the best interests of the college, and its organic connexion with the state was wholly severed in 1866. Financial aid and practical dependence had ceased some time earlier; indeed, from the very beginning, and with steadily increasing preponderance, Harvard has been sustained and fostered by private munificence rather than by public money. The last direct subsidy from the state determined in 1824, although state aid was afterwards given to the Agassiz museum, later united with the university. The church was naturally sponsor for the early college. The changing composition of its Board of Overseers marked its liberation first from clerical and later from political control; since 1865 the board has been chosen by the alumni (non-residents of Massachusetts being eligible since 1880), who therefore really control the university. When the state ceased to repress effectually the rife speculation characteristic of the first half of the seventeenth century, in religion as in politics, and in America as in England, the unity of Puritanism gave way to a variety of intense sectarianisms, and this, as also the incoming of Anglican churchmen, made the old faith of the college insecure. President Henry Dunster (c. 1612-1659), the first president, was censured by the magistrates and removed from office for questioning infant baptism. The conservatives, who clung to pristine and undiluted Calvinism, sought to intrench themselves in Harvard, especially in the Board of Overseers. The history of the college from about 1673 to 1725 was exceedingly troubled. Increase and Cotton Mather, forceful but bigoted, were the bulwarks of reaction and fomenters of discord. One episode in the struggle was the foundation and encouragement of Yale College by the reactionaries of New England as a truer "school of the prophets" (Cotton Mather being particularly zealous in its interests), after they had failed to secure control of the government of Harvard. It represented conservative secession. In 1792 the first layman was chosen to the corporation; in 1805 a Unitarian became professor of theology; in 1843 the board of overseers was opened to clergymen of all denominations; in 1886 attendance on prayers by the students ceased to be compulsory. Thus Harvard, in response to changing ideas and conditions, grew away from the ideas of its founders.

Harvard, her alumni, and her faculty have been very closely connected with American letters, not only in the colonial period, when the Mathers, Samuel Sewall and Thomas Prince were important names, or in the revolutionary and early national epoch with the Adamses, Fisher Ames, Joseph Dennie and Robert Treat Paine, but especially in the second third of the 19th century, when the great New England movements of Unitarianism and Transcendentalism were led by Harvard graduates. In 1805 Henry Ware (1764-1845) was elected the first anti-Trinitarian to be Hollis professor of divinity, and this marked Harvard's close connexion with Unitarianism, in the later history of which Ware, his son Henry (1794-1843), and Andrews Norton (1786-1852), all Harvard alumni and professors, and Joseph Buckminster (1751-1812) and William Ellery Channing were leaders of the conservative Unitarians, and Joseph Stevens Buckminster (1784-1812), James Freeman Clarke, and Theodore Parker were liberal leaders. Of the "Transcendentalists," Emerson, Francis Henry Hedge (1805-1890), Clarke, Convers Francis (1795-1863), Parker, Thoreau and Christopher Pearse Cranch (1813-1892) were Harvard graduates. Longfellow's professorship at Harvard identified him with it rather than with Bowdoin; Oliver Wendell Holmes was professor of anatomy and physiology at Harvard in 1847-1882; and Lowell, a Harvard alumnus, was Longfellow's successor in 1855-1886 as Smith Professor of the French and Spanish languages and literatures. Ticknor and Charles Eliot Norton are other important names in American literary criticism. The historians Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Palfrey, Prescott, Motley and Parkman were graduates of Harvard, as were Edward Everett, Charles Sumner and Wendell Phillips.

In organization and scope of effort Harvard has grown, especially after 1869, under the direction of President Charles W. Eliot, to be in the highest sense a university; but the "college" proper, whose end is the liberal culture of undergraduates, continues to be in many ways the centre of university life, as it is the embodiment of university traditions. The medical school (in Boston) dates from 1782, the law school from 1817, the divinity school[1] (though instruction in theology was of course given from the foundation of the college) from 1819, and the dental school (in Boston) from 1867. The Bussey Institution at Jamaica Plain was established in 1871 as an undergraduate school of agriculture, and reorganized in 1908 for advanced instruction and research in subjects relating to agriculture and horticulture. The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences dates from 1872, the Graduate School of Applied Science (growing out of the Lawrence Scientific School) from 1906, and the Graduate School of Business Administration (which applies to commerce the professional methods used in post-graduate schools of medicine, law, &c.) from 1908. The Lawrence Scientific School, established in 1847, was practically abolished in 1907-1908, when its courses were divided between the College (which thereafter granted a degree of S.B.) and the Graduate School of Applied Science, which was established in 1906 and gives professional degrees in civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, mining, metallurgy, architecture, landscape architecture, forestry, applied physics, applied chemistry, applied zoology and applied geology. A school of veterinary medicine, established in 1882, was discontinued in 1901. The university institutions comprise the botanic garden (1807) and the (Asa) Gray herbarium (1864); the Arnold arboretum (1872), at Jamaica Plain, for the study of arboriculture, forestry and dendrology; the university museum of natural history, founded in 1859 by Louis Agassiz as a museum of comparative zoology, enormously developed by his son, Alexander Agassiz, and transferred to the university in 1876, though under an independent faculty; the Peabody museum of American archaeology and ethnology, founded in 1866 by George Peabody; the William Hayes Fogg art museum (1895); the Semitic museum (1889); the Germanic Museum (1902), containing rich gifts from Kaiser Wilhelm II., the Swiss government, and individuals and societies of Germanic lands; the social museum (1906); and the astronomical observatory (1843; location 42 deg. 22' 48" N. lat., 71 deg. 8' W. long.), which since 1891 has maintained a station near Arequipa, Peru. A permanent summer engineering camp is maintained at Squam Lake, New Hampshire. In Petersham, Massachusetts, is the Harvard Forest, about 2000 acres of hilly wooded country with a stand in 1908 of 10,000,000 ft. B.M. of merchantable timber (mostly white pine); this forest was given to the university in 1907, and is an important part of the equipment of the division of forestry. The university library is the largest college library in the country, and from its slow and competent selection is of exceptional value. In 1908 it numbered, including the various special libraries, 803,800 bound volumes, about 496,600 pamphlets, and 27,450 maps. Some of its collections are of great value from associations or special richness, such as Thomas Carlyle's collection on Cromwell and Frederick the Great; the collection on folk-lore and medieval romances, supposed to be the largest in existence and including the material used by Bishop Percy in preparing his _Reliques_; and that on the Ottoman empire. The law library has been described by Professor A. V. Dicey of Oxford as "the most perfect collection of the legal records of the English people to be found in any part of the English-speaking world." There are department libraries at the Arnold arboretum, the Gray herbarium, the Bussey Institution, the astronomical observatory, the dental school, the medical school, the law school, the divinity school, the Peabody museum, and the museum of comparative zoology. In 1878 the library published the first of a valuable series of _Bibliographical Contributions_. Other publications of the university (apart from annual reports of various departments) are: the _Harvard Oriental Series_ (started 1891), _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_ (1890), _Harvard Theological Review_ (1907), the _Harvard Law Review_ (1889), _Harvard Historical Studies_ (1897), _Harvard Economic Studies_ (1906), _Harvard Psychological Studies_ (1903), the _Harvard Engineering Journal_ (1902), the _Bulletin_ (1874) of the Bussey Institution, the _Archaeological and Ethnological Papers_ (1888) of the Peabody museum, and the Bulletin (1863), _Contributions and Memoirs_ (1865) of the museum of comparative zoology. The students' publications include the _Crimson_ (1873), a daily newspaper; the _Advocate_ (1831), a literary bi-weekly; the _Lampoon_ (1876), a comic bi-weekly; and the _Harvard Monthly_ (1885), a literary monthly. The _Harvard Bulletin_, a weekly, and the _Harvard Graduates' Magazine_ (1892), a quarterly, are published chiefly for the alumni.