Part 28

The Society for Psychical Research has investigated hundreds of cases of the alleged haunting of houses, and the reports are in the archives of the society. But, as the mere rumour of a haunt greatly lowers the value of a house, it is seldom possible to publish the names of the witnesses, and hardly ever permitted to publish the name of the house. From the point of view of science this is unfortunate (see _Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. viii. pp. 311-332 and _Proceedings_ of 1882-1883, 1883-1884). As far as inquiry had any results, they were to the following effect. The spectres were of the most shy and fugitive kind, seen now by one person, now by another, crossing a room, walking along a corridor, and entering chambers in which, on inspection, they were not found. There was almost never any story to account for the appearances, as in magazine ghost-stories, and, if story there were, it lacked evidence. Recognitions of known dead persons were infrequent; occasionally there was recognition of a portrait in the house. The apparitions spoke in only one or two recorded cases, and, as a rule, seemed to have no motive for appearing. The "ghost" resembles nothing so much as a somnambulist, or the dream-walk of one living person made visible, telepathically, to another living person. Almost the only sign of consciousness given by the appearances is their shyness; on being spoken to or approached they generally vanish. Not infrequently they are taken, at first sight, for living human beings. In darkness they are often luminous, otherwise they would be invisible! Unexplained noises often, but not always, occur in houses where these phenomena are perceived. Evidence is only good, approximately, when a series of persons, in the same house, behold the same appearance, without being aware that it has previously been seen by others. Naturally it is almost impossible to prove this ignorance.

When inquirers believe that the appearances are due to the agency of spirits of the dead, they usually suppose the method to be a telepathic impact on the mind of the living by some "mere automatic projection from a consciousness which has its centre elsewhere" (Myers, _Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. xv. p. 64). Myers, in _Human Personality_, fell back on "palaeolithic psychology," and a theory of a phantasmogenetic agency producing a phantasm which had some actual relation to space. But space forbids us to give examples of modern experiences in haunted houses, endured by persons sane, healthy and well educated. The cases, abundantly offered in _Proceedings S.P.R._, suggest that certain localities, more than others, are "centres of permanent possibilities of being hallucinated in a manner more or less uniform." The causes of this fact (if causes there be, beyond a casual hallucination or illusion of A, which, when reported, begets by suggestion, or, when not reported, by telepathy, hallucinations in B, C, D and E), remain unknown (_Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. viii. p. 133 et seq.). Mr Podmore proposed this hypothesis of causation, which was not accepted by Myers; he thought that the theory laid too heavy a burden on telepathy and suggestion. Neither cause, nor any other cause of similar results, ever affects members of the S.P.R. who may be sent to dwell in haunted houses. They have no weird experiences, except when they are visionaries who see phantoms wherever they go. (A. L.)

HAUPT, MORITZ (1808-1874), German philologist, was born at Zittau, in Lusatia, on the 27th of July 1808. His early education was mainly conducted by his father, Ernst Friedrich Haupt, burgomaster of Zittau, a man of good scholarly attainment, who used to take pleasure in turning German hymns or Goethe's poems into Latin, and whose memoranda were employed by G. Freytag in the 4th volume of his _Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit_. From the Zittau gymnasium, where he spent the five years 1821-1826, Haupt removed to the university of Leipzig with the intention of studying theology; but the natural bent of his mind and the influence of Professor G. Hermann soon turned all his energies in the direction of philosophy. On the close of his university course (1830) he returned to his father's house, and the next seven years were devoted to quiet work, not only at Greek, Latin and German, but at Old French, Provencal and Bohemian. He formed with Lachmann at Berlin a friendship which had great effect on his intellectual development. In September 1837 he "habilitated" at Leipzig as _Privatdozent_, and his first lectures, dealing with such diverse subjects as Catullus and the _Nibelungenlied_, indicated the twofold direction of his labours. A new chair of German language and literature being founded for his benefit, he became professor extraordinarius (1841) and then professor ordinarius (1843); and in 1842 he married Louise Hermann, the daughter of his master and colleague. But the peaceful and prosperous course opening out before him at the university of Leipzig was brought to a sudden close. Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor Mommsen in a political agitation for the maintenance of the imperial constitution, Haupt was deprived of his professorship by a decree of the 22nd of April 1851. Two years later, however, he was called to succeed Lachmann at the university of Berlin; and at the same time the Berlin academy, which had made him a corresponding member in 1841, elected him an ordinary member. For twenty-one years he continued to hold a prominent place among the scholars of the Prussian capital, making his presence felt, not only by the prestige of his erudition and the clearness of his intellect, but by the tirelessness of his energy and the ardent fearlessness of his temperament. He died, of heart disease, on the 5th of February 1874.

Haupt's critical work is distinguished by a happy union of the most painstaking investigation with intrepidity of conjecture, and while in his lectures and addresses he was frequently carried away by the excitement of the moment, and made sharp and questionable attacks on his opponents, in his writings he exhibits great self-control. The results of many of his researches are altogether lost, because he could not be prevailed upon to publish what fell much short of his own high ideal of excellence. To the progress of classical scholarship he contributed by _Quaestiones Catullianae_ (1837), _Observationes criticae_ (1841), and editions of Ovid's _Halieutica_ and the _Cynegetica_ of Gratius and Nemesianus (1838), of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius (3rd ed., 1868), of Horace (3rd ed., 1871) and of Virgil (2nd ed., 1873). As early as 1836, with Hoffmann von Fallersleben, he started the _Altdeutsche Blatter_, which in 1841 gave place to the _Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum_, of which he continued editor till his death. Hartmann von Aue's _Erec_ (1839) and his _Lieder_, _Buchlein_ and _Der arme Heinrich_ (1842), Rudolf von Ems's _Guter Gerhard_ (1840) and Conrad von Wurzburg's _Engelhard_ (1844) are the principal German works which he edited. To form a collection of the French songs of the 16th century was one of his favourite schemes, but a little volume published after his death, _Franzosische Volkslieder_ (1877), is the only monument of his labours in that direction. Three volumes of his _Opuscula_ were published at Leipzig (1875-1877).

See Kirchhoff, "Gedachtnisrede," in _Abhandl. der Konigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_ (1875); Otto Belger, _Moritz Haupt als Lehrer_ (1879); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. (1908).

HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862- ), German dramatist, was born on the 15th of November 1862 at Obersalzbrunn in Silesia, the son of an hotel-keeper. From the village school of his native place he passed to the Realschule in Breslau, and was then sent to learn agriculture on his uncle's farm at Jauer. Having, however, no taste for country life, he soon returned to Breslau and entered the art school, intending to become a sculptor. He then studied at Jena, and spent the greater part of the years 1883 and 1884 in Italy. In May 1885 Hauptmann married and settled in Berlin, and, devoting himself henceforth entirely to literary work, soon attained a great reputation as one of the chief representatives of the modern drama. In 1891 he retired to Schreiberhau in Silesia. Hauptmann's first drama, _Vor Sonnenaufgang_ (1889) inaugurated the realistic movement in modern German literature; it was followed by _Das Friedensfest_ (1890), _Einsame Menschen_ (1891) and _Die Weber_ (1892), a powerful drama depicting the rising of the Silesian weavers in 1844. Of Hauptmann's subsequent work mention may be made of the comedies _Kollege Crampton_ (1892), Der Biberpelz (1893) and _Der rote Hahn_ (1901), a "dream poem," _Hannele_ (1893), and an historical drama _Florian Geyer_ (1895). He also wrote two tragedies of Silesian peasant life, _Fuhrmann Henschel_ (1898) and _Rose Berndt_ (1903), and the "dramatic fairy-tales" _Die versunkene Glocke_ (1897) and _Und Pippa tanzt_ (1905). Several of his works have been translated into English.

Biographies of Hauptmann and critical studies of his dramas have been published by A. Bartels (1897); P. Schlenther (1898); and U. C. Woerner (2nd ed., 1900). See also L. Benoist-Hanappier, _Le Drame naturaliste en Allemagne_ (1905).

HAUPTMANN, MORITZ (1792-1868), German musical composer and writer, was born at Dresden, on the 13th of October 1792, and studied music under Scholz, Lanska, Grosse and Morlacchi, the rival of Weber. Afterwards he completed his education as a violinist and composer under Spohr, and till 1820 held various appointments in private families, varying his musical occupations with mathematical and other studies bearing chiefly on acoustics and kindred subjects. For a time also Hauptmann was employed as an architect, but all other pursuits gave place to music, and a grand tragic opera, _Mathilde_, belongs to the period just referred to. In 1822 he entered the orchestra of Cassel, again under Spohr's direction, and it was then that he first taught composition and musical theory to such men as Ferdinand David, Burgmuller, Kiel and others. His compositions at this time chiefly consisted of motets, masses, cantatas and songs. His opera _Mathilde_ was performed at Cassel with great success. In 1842 Hauptmann obtained the position of cantor at the Thomas-school of Leipzig (long previously occupied by the great Johann Sebastian Bach) together with that of professor at the conservatoire, and it was in this capacity that his unique gift as a teacher developed itself and was acknowledged by a crowd of enthusiastic and more or less distinguished pupils. He died on the 3rd of January 1868, and the universal regret felt at his death at Leipzig is said to have been all but equal to that caused by the loss of his friend Medelssohn many years before. Hauptmann's compositions are marked by symmetry and perfection of workmanship rather than by spontaneous invention.

Amongst his vocal compositions--by far the most important portion of his work--may be mentioned two masses, choral songs for mixed voices (_Op._ 32, 47), and numerous part songs. The results of his scientific research were embodied in his book _Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik_ (1853), a standard work of its kind, in which a philosophic explanation of the forms of music is attempted.

HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHELEMY (1812-1896), French historian and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris. At the age of twenty he published a series of apologetic studies on the _Montagnards_. In later years he regretted the youthful enthusiasm of these papers, and endeavoured to destroy the copies. He joined the staff of the _National_, and was praised by Theophile Gautier as the "tribune" of romanticism. At that time he seemed to be destined to a political career, and, indeed, after the revolution of the 24th of February 1848 was elected member of the National Assembly; but close contact with revolutionary men and ideas gradually cooled his old ardour. Throughout his life he was an enemy to innovators, not only in politics and religion, but also in literature. This attitude sometimes led him to form unjust estimates, but only on very rare occasions, for his character was as just as his erudition was scrupulous. After the _coup d'etat_ he resigned his position as director of the MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale, to which he had been appointed in 1848, and he refused to accept any administrative post until after the fall of the empire. After having acted as director of the national printing press from 1870 to 1881, he retired, but in 1893 accepted the post of director of the Fondation Thiers. He was also a member of the council of improvement of the Ecole des Chartes. He died on the 29th of April 1896. For over half a century he was engaged in writing on the religious, philosophical, and more particularly the literary history of the middle ages. Appointed librarian of the town of Le Mans in 1838, he was first attracted by the history of Maine, and in 1843 published the first volume of his _Histoire litteraire du Maine_ (4 vols., 1843-1852), which he subsequently recast on a new plan (10 vols., 1870-1877). In 1845 he brought out an edition of vol. ii. of G. Menage's _Histoire de Sable_. He then undertook the continuation of the _Gallia Christiana_, and produced vol. xiv. (1856) for the province of Tours, vol. xv. (1862) for the province of Besancon, and vol. xvi. (1865-1870) for the province of Vienne. This important work gained him admission to the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1862). In the _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_ he inserted several papers which were afterwards published separately, with additions and corrections, under the title _Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale_ (6 vols., 1890-1893). To the _Histoire litteraire de la France_ he contributed a number of studies, among which must be mentioned that relating to the sermon-writers (vol. xxvi., 1873), whose works, being often anonymous, raise many problems of attribution, and, though deficient in originality of thought and style, reflect the very spirit of the middle ages. Among his other works mention must be made of his remarkable _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_ (1872-1880), extending from the time of Charlemagne to the 13th century, which was expanded from a paper crowned by the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1850; _Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin_ (1882); an edition of the _Works_ of Hugh of St Victor (1886); a critical study of the Latin poems attributed to St Bernard (1890); and _Bernard Delicieux et l'inquisition albigeoise_ (1877). To these must be added his contributions to the _Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_, Didot's _Biographie generale_, the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, and the _Journal des savants_. From the time of his appointment to the Bibliotheque Nationale up to the last days of his life he was engaged in making abstracts of all the medieval Latin writings (many anonymous or of doubtful attribution) relating to philosophy, theology, grammar, canon law, and poetry, carefully noting on cards the first words of each passage. After his death this index of _incipits_, arranged alphabetically, was presented to the Academie des Inscriptions, and a copy was placed in the MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale.

See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the Academie des Inscriptions on the 12th of November 1897; and the notice by Paul Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of the _Histoire litteraire de la France_.

HAUSA, sometimes incorrectly written HAUSSA, HOUSSA or HAOUSSA, a people inhabiting about half a million square miles in the western and central Sudan from the river Niger in the west to Bornu in the east. Heinrich Barth identifies them with the Atarantians of Herodotus. According to their own traditions the earliest home of the race was the divide between the Sokoto and Chad basins, and more particularly the eastern watershed, whence they spread gradually westward. In the middle ages, to which period the first authentic records refer, the Hausa, though never a conquering race, attained great political power. They were then divided into seven states known as "Hausa bokoy" ("the seven Hausa") and named Biram, Daura, Gober, Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, after the sons of their legendary ancestor. This confederation extended its authority over many of the neighbouring countries, and remained paramount till the Fula under Sheikh Dan Fodio in 1810 conquered the Hausa states and founded the Fula empire of Sokoto (see FULA).

The Hausa, who number upwards of 5,000,000, form the most important nation of the central Sudan. They are undoubtedly nigritic, though in places with a strong crossing of Fula and Arab blood. Morally and intellectually they are, however, far superior to the typical Negro. They are a powerful, heavily built race, with skin as black as most Negroes, but with lips not so thick nor hair so woolly. They excel in physical strength. The average Hausa will carry on his head a load of ninety or a hundred pounds without showing the slightest signs of fatigue during a long day's march. When carrying their own goods it is by no means uncommon for them to take double this weight. They are a peaceful and industrious people, living partly in farmsteads amid their crops, partly in large trading centres such as Kano, Katsena and Yakoba (Bauchi). They are extremely intelligent and even cultured, and have exercised a civilizing effect upon their Fula conquerors to whose oppressive rule they submitted. They are excellent agriculturists, and, almost unaided by foreign influence, they have developed a variety of industries, such as the making of cloth, mats, leather and glass. In Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast territory they form the backbone of the military police, and under English leadership have again and again shown themselves to be admirable fighters and capable of a high degree of discipline and good conduct. Their food consists chiefly of guinea corn (_sorghum vulgare_), which is ground up and eaten as a sort of porridge mixed with large quantities of red pepper. The Hausa attribute their superiority in strength to the fact that they live on guinea corn instead of yams and bananas, which form the staple food of the tribes on the river Niger. The Hausa carried on agriculture chiefly by slave labour; they are themselves born traders, and as such are to be met with in almost every part of Africa north of the equator. Small colonies of them are to be found in towns as far distant from one another as Lagos, Tunis, Tripoli, Alexandria and Suakin.

_Language._--The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa north of the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the Nile, than any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a vocabulary containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of the richness of the vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there are eight names for different parts of the day from cockcrow till after sunset. About a third of the words are connected with Arabic roots, nor are these such as the Hausa could well have borrowed in anything like recent times from the Arabs. Many words representing ideas or things with which the Hausa must have been familiar from the very earliest time are obviously connected with Arabic or Semitic roots. There is a certain amount of resemblance between the Hausa language and that spoken by the Berbers to the south of Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again, has several striking points of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems likely, the connexion between these three languages should be demonstrated, such connexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa tradition that their ancestors came from the very far east away beyond Mecca. The Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a century, possibly very much longer. It is the only language in tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves, unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor in the interior of Liberia in the first half of the 19th century be excepted; the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some fragments of literature exist, consisting of political and religious poems, together with a limited amount of native history. A volume, consisting of history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with translations, has been published by the Cambridge University Press.

_Religion._--About one-third of the people are professed Mahommedans, one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently no definite form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the 14th century, but became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan Fodio initiated the religious war which ended in the founding of the Fula empire. Ever since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknowledged as the religious head of the whole country, and tribute has been paid to him as such. The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism are extremely ignorant of their own faith, and what little religious fanaticism exists is chiefly confined to the Fula. Large numbers of the Hausa start every year on the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling sometimes across the Sahara desert and by way of Tripoli and Alexandria, sometimes by way of Wadai, Darfur, Khartum and Suakin. The journey often occupies five or six years, and is undertaken quite as much from trading as from religious motives. Mahommedanism is making very slow, if any, progress amongst the Hausa. The greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the institution of the Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of Hausaland, the obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise to sunset during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until the last decade of the 19th century no important attempt had been made to introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of reading, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country, should greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny, _Account of Timbuctoo and Haussa Territories_ (1820); Norris, _Dialogues and part of the New Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu Languages_ (1853); Koelle, _Polyglotta Africana_ (1854); Schon, _Grammar of the Hausa Language_ (London, 1862), _Hausa Reading Book_ (1877), and also _A Dictionary of the Hausa Language_ (1877). Schon has also produced Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt. (1857) and Luke (1858). Heinrich Barth, _Travels in North and Central Africa_ (2 vols., London, 1857); _Central-afrikanische Vokabularien_ (Gotha, 1867); C. H. Robinson, _Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central Soudan_ (1896); _Specimens of Hausa Literature_ (1896); _Hausa Grammar_ (1897); _Hausa Dictionary_ (1899); P. L. Monteil, _De St-Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad_ (Paris, 1895); Lt. Seymour Vandeleur, _Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger_ (1898).