Part 32

_Population and Health._--The population of Havana was reported as 51,307 in 1791; 96,304 in 1811; 94,023 in 1817; 184,508 in 1841. In 1899 the American census showed 235,981, of whom about 25% were foreign (20% Spanish); and the census of 1907 showed 297,159 (not including the attached country districts) and 302,526 (including these country districts), the last being for the "municipio" of Havana. The industrial population is very densely crowded. Owing to this, as well as to the entire lack of proper sanitary customs among the people, the horrible condition of sewerage and the prevalence of yellow fever (first brought to Havana, it is thought, in 1761, from Vera Cruz), the reputation of the city as regards health was long very bad. The practical extermination of yellow fever during the U.S. military occupation following 1899 was a remarkable achievement. In 1895-1899, owing to the war, there were few non-immune persons in the city, and there was no trouble with the fever, but from the autumn of 1899 a heavy immigration from Spain began, and a fever epidemic was raging in 1900. The American military authorities found that the most extraordinary measures for cleansing the city--involving repeated house-to-house inspection, enforced cleanliness, improved drainage and sewerage, the destruction of various public buildings, and thorough cleansing of the streets--although decidedly effective in reducing the general death-rate of the city (average, 1890-1899, 45.83; 1900, 24.40; 1901, 22.11; 1902, 20.63; general death-rate of U.S. soldiers in 1898, 67.94; in 1901-1902, 7.00), apparently did not affect yellow fever at all. In 1900-1901 Major Walter Reed (1851-1902), a surgeon in the United States army, proved by experiments on voluntary human subjects that the infection was spread by the _Stegomyia_ mosquito,[2] and the prevention of the disease was then undertaken by Major William C. Gorgas--all patients being screened and mosquitoes practically exterminated.[3] The number of subsequent deaths from yellow fever has depended solely on the degree to which the necessary precautionary measures were taken.

The entire administrative system of the island, when a Spanish colony, was centred at Havana. Under the republic this remains the capital and the residence of the president, the supreme court, Congress when in session and the chief administrative officers. None of the public services was good in the Spanish period, except the water-supply, which was excellent. The water is derived from the Vento springs, 9 m. from Havana, and is conducted through aqueducts constructed between 1859 and 1894 at a cost of some $5,000,000. About 40,000,000 gallons are supplied daily. The system is owned by the municipality. The older Fernando VII. aqueduct (1831-1835) is still usable in case of need; its supply was the Almendares river (until long after the construction of this, a still older aqueduct, opened at the end of the 16th century, was in use). The sewerage system and conditions of house sanitation were found extremely inadequate when the American army occupied the city in 1899. Several public buildings were so foul that they were demolished and burned. The improvement since the end of Spanish rule has been steady.

_History._--Havana, originally founded by Diego Velasquez in 1514 on an unhealthy site near the present Batabano (pop. in 1907, 15,435, including attached country districts), on the south coast, was soon removed to its present position, was granted an ayuntamiento (town council), and shortly came to be considered one of the most important places in the New World. Its commanding position gained it in 1634, by royal decree, the title of "Llave del Nuevo Mundo y Antemural de las Indias Occidentales" (Key of the New World and Bulwark of the West Indies), in reference to which it bears on its coat of arms a symbolic key and representations of the Morro, Punta and Fuerza. In the history of the place in the 16th century few things stand out except the investments by buccaneers: in 1537 it was sacked and burned, and in 1555 plundered by French buccaneers, and in 1586 it was threatened by Drake. In 1589 Philip II. of Spain ordered the erection of the Punta and the Morro. In the same year the residence of the governor of the island was moved from Santiago de Cuba to Havana. Philip II. granted Havana the title of "ciudad" in 1592. Sugar plantations in the environs appeared before the end of the 16th century. The population of the city, probably about 3000 at the beginning of the 17th century, was doubled in the years following 1655 by the coming of Spaniards from Jamaica. In the course of the 17th century the port became the great rendezvous for the royal merchant and treasure fleets that monopolized trade with America, and the commercial centre of the Spanish-American possessions. It was blockaded four times by the Dutch (who were continually molesting the treasure fleets) in the first half of the 17th century. In 1671 the city walls were begun; they were completed in 1702. The European wars of the 17th and 18th centuries were marked by various incidents in local history. After the end of the Spanish War of Succession (1713) came a period of comparative prosperity in slave-trading and general commerce. The creation in 1740 of a monopolistic trading-company was an event of importance in the history of the island. English squadrons threatened the city several times in the first half of the 18th century, but it was not until 1762 that an investment, made by Admiral Sir George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, was successful. The siege lasted from June to August and was attended by heavy loss to both besiegers and besieged. The British commanders wrung great sums from the church and the city as prize of war and price of good order. By the treaty of the 10th of February 1763, at the close of the Seven Years' War, Havana was restored to Spain in exchange for the Floridas. The English turned over the control of the city on the 6th of July. Their occupation greatly stimulated commerce, and from it dates the modern history of the city and of the island (see CUBA). The gradual removal of obstacles from the commerce of the island from 1766 to 1818 particularly benefited Havana. At the end of the 18th century the city was one of the seven or eight great commercial centres of the world, and in the first quarter of the 19th century was a rival in population and in trade of Rio Janeiro, Buenos Aires and New York. In 1789 a bishopric was created at Havana suffragan to the archbishopric at Santiago. From the end of the 18th century Havana, as the centre of government, was the centre of movement and interest. During the administration of Miguel Tacon Havana was improved by many important public works; his name is frequent in the nomenclature of the city. The railway from Havana to Guines was built between 1835 and 1838. Fifty Americans under Lieut. Crittenden, members of the Bahia Honda filibustering expedition of Narciso Lopez, were shot at Fort Atares in 1851. Like the rest of Cuba, Havana has frequently suffered severely from hurricanes, the most violent being those of 1768 (St Theresa's), 1810 and 1846. The destruction of the U.S. battleship "Maine" in the harbour of Havana on the 15th of February 1898 was an influential factor in causing the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, and during the war the city was blockaded by a United States fleet.

See J. de la Pezuela, _Diccionario de la Isla de Cuba_, vol. iii. (Madrid, 1863), for minute details of history, administration and economic conditions down to 1862; J. M. de la Torre, _Lo que fuimos y lo que somos, o la Habana antigua y moderna_ (Habana, 1857); P.J. Guiteras, _Historia de la conquista de la Habana 1762_ (Philadelphia, 1856); J. de la Pezuela, _Sitio y rendicion de la Habana en 1762_ (Madrid, 1859); A. Bachiller y Morales, _Monografia historica_ (Habana, 1883), minutely covering the English occupation (the best account) of 1762-1763; Maria de los Mercedes, comtesse de Merlin, _La Havana_ (3 vols., Paris, 1844); and the works cited under Cuba.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Renamed Paseo de Marti by the republic, but the name is never used.

[2] Dr Carlos Finlay of Havana, arguing from the coincidence between the climatic limitation of yellow fever and the geographical limitation of the mosquito, urged (1881 sqq.) that there was some relation between the disease and the insect. Reed worked from the observation of Dr H. R. Carter (U.S. Marine Hospital Service) that although the incubation of the disease was 5 days, 15 to 20 days had to elapse before the "infection" of the house, and from Ross's demonstration of the part played in malaria by the _Anopheles_. See H. A. Kelly, _Walter Reed and Yellow Fever_ (New York, 1907).

[3] The average number of deaths from yellow fever annually from 1885 (when reliable registration began) to 1898 was 455; maximum 1282 in 1896 (supposed average for 4 years, 1856-1859, being 1489.8 and for 7 years, 1873-1879, 1395.1), minimum 136, in 1898; average deaths of military, 1885-1898, 278.4 (in 1896-1897 constituting 1966 out of a total of 2140); deaths of American soldiers, 1899-1900, 18 out of 431.

HAVANT, a market-town in the Fareham parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 67 m. S.W. from London by the London & South Western and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3837. The urban district of Warblington, 1 m. S.E. (pop. 3639), has a fine church, Norman and later, with traces of pre-Norman work, and some remains of a Tudor castle. Havant lies in a flat coastal district, near the head of Langstone Harbour, a wide shallow inlet of the English Channel. The church of St Faith was largely rebuilt in 1875, but retains some good Early English work. There are breweries and tanneries, and the manufacture of parchment is carried on. Off the mainland near Havant lies Hayling, a flat island of irregular form lying between the harbours of Langstone and Chichester. It measures 4 m. in length from N. to S., and is nearly the same in breadth at the south, but the breadth generally is about 1(1/2) m. It is well wooded and fertile. A railway serves the village of South Hayling, which is in some favour as a seaside resort, having a wide sandy beach and good golf links. The island was in the possession of successive religious bodies from the Conquest (when it was given to the Benedictines of Jumieges, near Rouen), until the Dissolution. The church of South Hayling is a fine Early English building.

HAVEL, a river of Prussia, Germany, having its origin in Lake Dambeck (223 ft.) on the Mecklenburg plateau, a few miles north-west of Neu-Strelitz, and after threading several lakes flowing south as far as Spandau. Thence it curves south-west, past Potsdam and Brandenburg, traversing another chain of lakes, and finally continues north-west until it joins the Elbe from the right some miles above Wittenberge after a total course of 221 m. and a total fall of only 158 ft. Its banks are mostly marshy or sandy, and the stream is navigable from the Mecklenburg lakes downwards. Several canals connect it with these lakes, as well as with other rivers--e.g. the Finow canal with the Oder, the Ruppin canal with the Rhin, the Berlin-Spandau navigable canal (5(1/2) m.) with the Spree, and the Plaue-Ihle canal with the Elbe. The Sakrow-Paretz canal, 11 m. long, cuts off the deep bend at Potsdam. The most notable of the tributaries is the Spree (227 m. long), which bisects Berlin and joins the Havel at Spandau. Area of river basin, 10,159 sq. m.

HAVELBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Havel and the railway Glowen-Havelberg. Pop. (1905), 5988. The town is built partly on an island in the Havel, and partly on hills on the right bank of the river, on one of which stands the fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the 12th century. The two parts, which are connected by a bridge, were incorporated as one town in 1875. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in tobacco manufacturing, sugar-refining and boat-building, and in the timber trade.

Otto I. founded a bishopric at Havelberg in 946; the bishop, however, who was a prince of the Empire, generally resided at Plattenburg, or Wittstock, a few miles to the north. In 1548 the bishopric was seized by the elector of Brandenburg, who finally took possession of it fifty years later, and the cathedral passed to the Protestant Church, retaining its endowments till the edict of 1810, by which all former ecclesiastical possessions were assumed by the crown. The final secularization was delayed till 1819. Havelberg was formerly a strong fortress, but in the Thirty Years' War it was taken from the Danish by the imperial troops in 1627. Recaptured by the Swedes in 1631, and again in 1635 and 1636, it was in 1637 retaken by the Saxons. It suffered severely from a conflagration in 1870.

HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY (1795-1857), British soldier, one of the heroes of the Indian Mutiny, the second of four brothers (all of whom entered the army), was born at Ford Hall, Bishop-Wearmouth, Sunderland, on the 5th of April 1795. His parents were William Havelock, a wealthy shipbuilder in Sunderland, and Jane, daughter of John Carter, solicitor at Stockton-on-Tees. When about five years old Henry accompanied his elder brother William to Mr Bradley's school at Swanscombe, whence at the age of ten he removed for seven years to Charterhouse school. In accordance with the desire of his mother, who had died in 1811, he entered the Middle Temple in 1813, studying under Chitty the eminent special pleader. His legal studies having been abridged by a misunderstanding with his father, he in 1815 accepted a second lieutenancy in the Rifle Brigade (95th), procured for him by the interest of his brother William. During the following eight years of service in Britain he read extensively and acquired a good acquaintance with the theory of war. In 1823, having exchanged into the 21st and thence into the 13th Light Infantry, he followed his brothers William and Charles to India, first qualifying himself in Hindustani under Dr Gilchrist, a celebrated Orientalist.

At the close of twenty-three years' service he was still a lieutenant, and it was not until 1838 that, after three years' adjutancy of his regiment, he became captain. Before this, however, he had held several staff appointments, notably that of deputy assistant-adjutant-general of the forces in Burma till the peace of Yandabu, of which he, with Lumsden and Knox, procured the ratifications at Ava from the "Golden Foot," who bestowed on him the "gold leaf" insignia of Burmese nobility. His first command had been at a stockade capture in the war, and he was present also at the battles of Napadee, Patanago and Pagan. He had also held during his lieutenancy various interpreterships and the adjutancy of the king's troops at Chinsura. In 1828 he published at Serampore Campaigns in Ava, and in 1829 he married Hannah Shepherd, daughter of Dr Marshman, the eminent missionary. About the same time he became a Baptist, being baptized by Mr John Mack at Serampore. During the first Afghan war he was present as aide-de-camp to Sir Willoughby Cotton at the capture of Ghazni, on the 23rd of July 1839, and at the occupation of Kabul. After a short absence in Bengal to secure the publication of his _Memoirs of the Afghan Campaign_, he returned to Kabul in charge of recruits, and became interpreter to General Elphinstone. In 1840, being attached to Sir Robert Sale's force, he took part in the Khurd-Kabul fight, in the celebrated passage of the defiles of the Ghilzais (1841) and in the fighting from Tezeen to Jalalabad. Here, after many months' siege, his column in a sortie _en masse_ defeated Akbar Khan on the 7th of April 1842. He was now made deputy adjutant-general of the infantry division in Kabul, and in September he assisted at Jagdalak, at Tezeen, and at the release of the British prisoners at Kabul, besides taking a prominent part at Istaliff. Having obtained a regimental majority he next went through the Mahratta campaign as Persian interpreter to Sir Hugh (Viscount) Gough, and distinguished himself at Maharajpore in 1843, and also in the Sikh campaign at Moodkee, Ferozeshah and Sobraon in 1845. For these services he was made deputy adjutant-general at Bombay. He exchanged from the 13th to the 39th, then as second major into the 53rd at the beginning of 1849, and soon afterwards left for England, where he spent two years. In 1854 he became quartermaster-general, then full colonel, and lastly adjutant-general of the troops in India.

In 1857 he was selected by Sir James Outram for the command of a division in the Persian campaign, during which he was present at the

## actions of Muhamra and Ahwaz. Peace with Persia set him free just as the

Mutiny broke out; and he was chosen to command a column "to quell disturbances in Allahabad, to support Lawrence at Lucknow and Wheeler at Cawnpore, to disperse and utterly destroy all mutineers and insurgents." At this time Lady Canning wrote of him in her diary: "General Havelock is not in fashion, but all the same we believe that he will do well. No doubt he is fussy and tiresome, but his little old stiff figure looks as

## active and fit for use as if he were made of steel." But in spite of

this lukewarm commendation Havelock proved himself the man for the occasion, and won the reputation of a great military leader. At Fatehpur, on the 12th of July, at Aong and Pandoobridge on the 15th, at Cawnpore on the 16th, at Unao on the 29th, at Busherutgunge on the 29th and again on the 5th of August, at Boorhya on the 12th of August, and at Bithur on the 16th, he defeated overwhelming forces. Twice he advanced for the relief of Lucknow, but twice prudence forbade a reckless exposure of troops wasted by battle and disease in the almost impracticable task. Reinforcements arriving at last under Outram, he was enabled by the generosity of his superior officer to crown his successes on the 25th of September 1857 by the capture of Lucknow. There he died on the 24th of November 1857, of dysentery, brought on by the anxieties and fatigues connected with his victorious march and with the subsequent blockade of the British troops. He lived long enough to receive the intelligence that he had been created K.C.B. for the first three battles of the campaign; but of the major-generalship which was shortly afterwards conferred he never knew. On the 26th of November, before tidings of his death had reached England, letters-patent were directed to create him a baronet and a pension of L1000 a year was voted at the assembling of parliament. The baronetcy was afterwards bestowed upon his eldest son; while to his widow, by royal order, was given the rank to which she would have been entitled had her husband survived and been created a baronet. To both widow and son pensions of L1000 were awarded by parliament.

See Marshman, _Life of Havelock_ (1860); L. J. Trotter, _The Bayard of India_ (1903); F. M. Holmes, _Four Heroes of India_; G. B. Smith, _Heroes of the Nineteenth Century_ (1901); and A. Forbes, _Havelock_ ("English Men of Action" series, 1890).

HAVELOK THE DANE, an Anglo-Danish romance. The hero, under the name of CUHERAN or CUARAN, was a scullion-jongleur at the court of Edelsi (Alsi) or Godric, king of Lincoln and Lindsey. At the same court was brought up Argentille or Goldborough, the orphan daughter of Adelbrict, the Danish king of Norfolk, and his wife Orwain, Edelsi's sister; and Edelsi, to humiliate his ward, married her to the scullion Cuaran. But, inspired by a vision, Cuaran and Goldborough set out for Grimsby, where Cuaran learned that Grim, his supposed father, was dead. His foster-sister, moreover, told him that his real name was Havelok, that he was the son of Gunter (or Birkabeyn), king of Denmark, and had been rescued by Grim, who though a poor fisherman was a noble in his own country, when Gunter perished by treason. The hero then wins back his own and Goldborough's kingdoms, punishing traitors and rewarding the faithful. The story exists in two French versions: as an interpolation between Geffrei Gaimar's _Brut_ and his _Estorie des Engles_ (_c._ 1150) and in the Anglo-Norman _Lai d'Havelok_ (12th century). The English _Havelok_ (_c._ 1300) is written in a Lincolnshire dialect and embodies abundant local tradition. A short version of the tale is interpolated in the Lambeth MS. of Robert Mannyng's _Handlyng Synne_. The story reappears more than once in English literature, notably in the ballad of "Argentille and Curan" in William Warner's _Albion's England_. The name of Havelok (Habloc, Abloec, Abloyc) is said to correspond in Welsh to Anlaf or Olaf. Now the historical Anlaf Curan was the son of a Viking chief Sihtric, who was king of Northumbria in 925 and died in 927. Anlaf Sihtricson was driven into exile by his stepmother's brother Aethelstan, and took refuge in Scotland at the court of Constantine II., whose daughter he married. He was defeated with Constantine[1] at Brunanburh (937), but was nevertheless for two short periods joint ruler in Northumbria with his cousin Anlaf Godfreyson. He reigned in Dublin till 980, when he was defeated. He died the next year as a monk at Iona. Round the name of Anlaf Curan a number of legends rapidly gathered, and the legend of the Danish hero probably filtered through Celtic channels, as the Welsh names of Argentille and Orwain indicate. The close similarity between the Havelok saga and the story of Hamlet (Amlethus) as told by Saxo Grammaticus was pointed out long ago by Scandinavian scholars. The individual points they have in common are found in other legends, but the series of coincidences between the adventurous history of Anlaf Curan and the life of Amlethus can hardly be fortuitous. Interesting light is thrown on the whole question by Professor I. Gollancz (_Hamlet in Iceland_, 1898) by the identification of Amhlaide--who is said by Queen Gormflaith[2] in the _Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters_ to have slain Niall Glundubh--with Anlaf's father Sihtric. The exploits of father and son were likely to be confused.

The mythical elements in the Havelok story are numerous. Argentille, as H. L. Ward points out, is a disguised Valkyrie. Like Svava she inspired a dull and nameless youth, and as Hild raised the dead to fight by magic, so Argentille in _Havelok_ and Hermuthruda in _Amleth_ prop up dead or wounded men with stakes to bluff the enemy. Havelok's royal lineage is betrayed by his flame breath when he is asleep, a phenomenon which has parallels in the history of Servius Tullius and of Dietrich of Bern. Part of the Havelok legend lingers in local tradition. Havelok destroyed his enemies in Denmark by casting down great stones upon them from the top of a tower, and Grim is said to have kicked three of the turrets from the church tower in his efforts to destroy the enemy's ships. John Weever (_Antient Funerall Monuments_, 1631, p. 749) says that the privilege of the town in Elsinore, where its merchants were free from toll, was due to the interest of Havelok, the Danish prince, and the common seal of the town of Grimsby represents Grim, with "Habloc" on his right hand and Goldeburgh on his left.