Part 27

HAUER, FRANZ, RITTER VON (1822-1899), Austrian geologist, born in Vienna on the 30th of January 1822, was son of Joseph von Hauer (1778-1863), who was equally distinguished as a high Austrian official and authority on finance and as a palaeontologist. He was educated in Vienna, afterwards studied geology at the mining academy of Schemnitz (1839-1843), and for a time was engaged in official mining work in Styria. In 1846 he became assistant to W. von Haidinger at the mineralogical museum in Vienna; three years later he joined the imperial geological institute, and in 1866 he was appointed director. In 1886 he became superintendent of the imperial natural history museum in Vienna. Among his special geological works are those on the Cephalopoda of the Triassic and Jurassic formations of Alpine regions (1855-1856). His most important general work was that of the _Geological Map of Austro-Hungary_, in twelve sheets (1867-1871; 4th ed., 1884, including Bosnia and Montenegro). This map was accompanied by a series of explanatory pamphlets. In 1882 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London. In 1892 von Hauer became a life-member of the upper house of the Austrian parliament. He died on the 20th of March 1899.

PUBLICATIONS.--_Beitrage zur Palaontolographie von Osterreich_ (1858-1859); _Die Geologie und ihre Anwendung auf die Kenntnis der Bodenbeschaffenheit der osterr.-ungar. Monarchie_ (1875; ed. 2, 1878).

_Memoir_ by Dr E. Tietze; _Jahrbuch der K. K. geolog. Reichsanstalt_ (1899, reprinted 1900, with portrait).

HAUFF, WILHELM (1802-1827), German poet and novelist, was born at Stuttgart on the 29th of November 1802, the son of a secretary in the ministry of foreign affairs. Young Hauff lost his father when he was but seven years of age, and his early education was practically self-gained in the library of his maternal grandfather at Tubingen, to which place his mother had removed. In 1818 he was sent to the Klosterschule at Blaubeuren, whence he passed in 1820 to the university of Tubingen. In four years he completed his philosophical and theological studies, and on leaving the university became tutor to the children of the famous Wurttemberg minister of war, General Baron Ernst Eugen von Hugel (1774-1849), and for them wrote his _Marchen_, which he published in his _Marchenalmanach auf das Jahr_ 1826. He also wrote there the first part of the _Mitteilungen aus den Memoiren des Satan_ (1826) and _Der Mann im Monde_ (1825). The latter, a parody of the sentimental and sensual novels of H. Clauren (pseudonym of Karl Gottlieb Samuel Heun [1771-1854]), became, in course of composition, a close imitation of that author's style and was actually published under his name. Clauren, in consequence, brought an action for damages against Hauff and gained his case. Whereupon Hauff followed up the attack in his witty and sarcastic _Kontroverspredigt uber H. Clauren und den Mann im Monde_ (1826) and attained his original object--the moral annihilation of the mawkish and unhealthy literature with which Clauren was flooding the country. Meanwhile, animated by Sir Walter Scott's novels, Hauff wrote the historical romance _Lichtenstein_ (1826), which acquired great popularity in Germany and especially in Swabia, treating as it did the most interesting period in the history of that country, the reign of Duke Ulrich (1487-1550). While on a journey to France, the Netherlands and north Germany he wrote the second part of the _Memoiren des Satan_ and some short novels, among them the charming _Bettlerin vom Pont des Arts_ and his masterpiece, the _Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller_ (1827). He also published some short poems which have passed into _Volkslieder_, among them _Morgenrot, Morgenrot, leuchtest mir zum fruhen Tod_; and _Steh' ich in finstrer Mitternacht_. In January 1827, Hauff undertook the editorship of the Stuttgart _Morgenblatt_ and in the following month married, but his happiness was prematurely cut short by his death from fever on the 18th of November 1827.

Considering his brief life, Hauff was an extraordinarily prolific writer. The freshness and originality of his talent, his inventiveness, and his genial humour have won him a high place among the south German prose writers of the early nineteenth century.

His _Samtliche Werke_ were published, with a biography, by G. Schwab (3 vols., 1830-1834; 5 vols., 18th ed., 1882), and by F. Bobertag (1891-1897), and a selection by M. Mendheim (3 vols., 1891). For his life cf. J. Klaiber, _Wilhelm Hauff, ein Lebensbild_ (1881); M. Mendheim, _Hauffs Leben und Werke_ (1894); and H. Hofmann, _W. Hauff_ (1902).

HAUG, MARTIN (1827-1876), German Orientalist, was born at Ostdorf near Balingen, Wurttemberg, on the 30th of January 1827. He became a pupil in the gymnasium at Stuttgart at a comparatively late age, and in 1848 he entered the university of Tubingen, where he studied Oriental languages, especially Sanskrit. He afterwards attended lectures in Gottingen, and in 1854 settled as _Privatdozent_ at Bonn. In 1856 he removed to Heidelberg, where he assisted Bunsen in his literary undertakings; and in 1859 he accepted an invitation to India, where he became superintendent of Sanskrit studies and professor of Sanskrit in Poona. Here his acquaintance with the Zend language and literature afforded him excellent opportunities for extending his knowledge of this branch of literature. The result of his researches was a volume of _Essays on the sacred language, writings and religion of the Parsees_ (Bombay, 1862). Having returned to Stuttgart in 1866, he was called to Munich as professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in 1868. He died on the 3rd of June 1876.

Besides the _Essays on the Parsees_, of which a new edition, by E. W. West, greatly enriched from the posthumous papers of the author, appeared in 1878, Haug published a number of works of considerable importance to the student of the literatures of ancient India and Persia. They include _Die Pehlewisprache und der Bundehesch_ (1854); _Die Schrift und Sprache der zweiten Keilschriftgattung_ (1855); _Die funf Gathas_, edited, translated and expounded (1858-1860); an edition, with translation and explanation, of the _Aitareya Brahmana of the Rigveda_ (Bombay, 1863), which is accounted his best work in the province of ancient Indian literature; _A Lecture on an original Speech of Zoroaster_ (1865); _An old Zend-Pahlavi Glossary_ (1867); _Uber den Charakter der Pehlewisprache_ (1869); _Das 18. Kapitel des Wendidad_ (1869); _Uber das Ardai-Virafnameh_ (1870); _An old Pahlavi-Pazand Glossary_ (1870); and _Vedische Ratselfragen und Ratselspruche_ (1875).

For particulars of Haug's life and work, see A. Bezzenberger, _Beitrage zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen_, vol. i. pp. 70 seq.

HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN (1771-1824), Norwegian Lutheran divine, was born in the parish of Thuno, Norway, on the 3rd of April 1771, the son of a peasant. With the aid of various religious works which he found in his father's house, he laboured to supplement his scanty education. In his twenty-sixth year, believing himself to be a divinely-commissioned prophet, he began to preach in his native parish and afterwards throughout Norway, calling people to repentance and attacking rationalism. In 1800 he passed to Denmark, where, as at home, he gained many followers and assistants, chiefly among the lower orders. Proceeding to Christiansand in 1804, Hauge set up a printing-press to disseminate his views more widely, but was almost immediately arrested for holding illegal religious meetings, and for insulting the regular clergy in his books, all of which were confiscated; he was also heavily fined. After being in confinement for some years, he was released in 1814 on payment of a fine, and retiring to an estate at Breddwill, near Christiania, he died there on the 29th of March 1824. His adherents, who did not formally break with the church, were called _Haugianer or Leser_ (i.e. Readers). He unquestionably did much to revive the spiritual life of the northern Lutheran Church. His views were of a pietistic nature. Though he cannot be said to have rejected any article of the Lutheran creed, the peculiar emphasis which he laid upon the evangelical doctrines of faith and grace involved considerable antagonism to the rationalistic or sacerdotal views commonly held by the established clergy.

Hauge's principal writings are _Forsog til Afhandeling om Guds Visdom_ (1796); _Anvisning til nogle morkelige Sprog i Bibelen_ (1798); _Forklaring over Loven og Evangelium_ (1803). For an account of his life and doctrines see C. Bang's _Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Samtid_ (Christiania; 2nd ed., 1875); O. Rost, _Nogle Bemaerkninger om Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Retning_ (1883), and the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.

HAUGESUND, a seaport of Norway in Stavanger _amt_ (county), on the west coast, 34 m. N. by W. of Stavanger. Pop. (1900), 7935. It is an important fishing centre. Herrings are exported to the annual value of L100,000 to L200,000, also mackerel and lobsters. The principal imports are coal and salt. There are factories for woollen goods and a margarine factory. Haugesund is the reputed death-place of Harald Haarfager, to whom an obelisk of red granite was erected in 1872 on the thousandth anniversary of his victory at the Hafsfjord (near Stavanger) whereby he won the sovereignty of Norway. The memorial stands 1(1/4) m. north of the town, on the Haraldshaug, where the hero's supposed tombstone is shown.

HAUGHTON, SAMUEL (1821-1897), Irish scientific writer, the son of James Haughton (1795-1873), was born at Carlow on the 21st of December 1821. His father, the son of a Quaker, but himself a Unitarian, was an active philanthropist, a strong supporter of Father Theobald Mathew, a vegetarian, and an anti-slavery worker and writer. After a distinguished career in Trinity College, Dublin, Samuel was elected a fellow in 1844. He was ordained priest in 1847, but seldom preached. In 1851 he was appointed professor of geology in Trinity College, and this post he held for thirty years. He began the study of medicine in 1859, and in 1862 took the degree of M.D. in the university of Dublin. He was then made registrar of the Medical School, the status of which he did much to improve, and he represented the university on the General Medical Council from 1878 to 1896. He was elected F.R.S. in 1858, and in course of time Oxford conferred upon him the hon. degree of D.C.L., and Cambridge and Edinburgh that of LL.D. He was a man of remarkable knowledge and ability, and he communicated papers on widely different subjects to various learned societies and scientific journals in London and Dublin. He wrote on the laws of equilibrium and motion of solid and fluid bodies (1846), on sun-heat, terrestrial radiation, geological climates and on tides. He wrote also on the granites of Leinster and Donegal, and on the cleavage and joint-planes in the Old Red Sandstone of Waterford (1857-1858). He was president of the Royal Irish Academy from 1886 to 1891, and for twenty years he was secretary of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland. He died in Dublin on the 31st of October 1897.

PUBLICATIONS.--_Manual of Geology_ (1865); _Principles of Animal Mechanics_ (1873); _Six Lectures on Physical Geography_ (1880). In conjunction with his friend, Professor J. Galbraith, he issued a series of Manuals of Mathematical and Physical Science.

HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598), English playwright. He collaborated in many plays with Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, John Day and Richard Hathway. The only certain biographical information about him is derived from Philip Henslowe, who on the 10th of March 1600 lent him ten shillings "to release him out of the Clink." Mr Fleay credits him with a considerable share in _The Patient Grissill_ (1599), and a merry comedy entitled _English-Men for my Money, or A Woman will have her Will_ (1598) is ascribed to his sole authorship. _The Devil and his Dame_, mentioned as a forthcoming play by Henslowe in March 1600, is identified by Mr Fleay as _Grim, the Collier of Croydon_, which was printed in 1662. In this play an emissary is sent from the infernal regions to report on the conditions of married life on earth.

_Grim_ is reprinted in vol. viii., and _English-Men for my Money_ in vol. x., of W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_.

HAUGWITZ, CHRISTIAN AUGUST HEINRICH KURT, COUNT VON, FREIHERR VON KRAPPITZ (1752-1831), Prussian statesman, was born on the 11th of June 1752, at Peucke near Ols. He belonged to the Silesian (Protestant) branch of the ancient family of Haugwitz, of which the Catholic branch is established in Moravia. He studied law, spent some time in Italy, returned to settle on his estates in Silesia, and in 1791 was elected by the Silesian estates general director of the province. At the urgent instance of King Frederick William II. he entered the Prussian service, became ambassador at Vienna in 1792 and at the end of the same year a member of the cabinet at Berlin.

Haugwitz, who had attended the young emperor Francis II. at his coronation and been present at the conferences held at Mainz to consider the attitude of the German powers towards the Revolution, was opposed to the exaggerated attitude of the French _emigres_ and to any interference in the internal affairs of France. After the war broke out, however, the defiant temper of the Committee of Public Safety made an honourable peace impossible, while the strained relations between Austria and Prussia on the question of territorial "compensations" crippled the power of the Allies to carry the war to a successful conclusion. It was in these circumstances that Haugwitz entered on the negotiations that resulted in the subsidy treaty between Great Britain and Prussia, and Great Britain and Holland, signed at the Hague on the 19th of April 1794. Haugwitz, however, was not the man to direct a strong and aggressive policy; the failure of Prussia to make any effective use of the money supplied broke the patience of Pitt, and in October the denunciation by Great Britain of the Hague treaty broke the last tie that bound Prussia to the Coalition. The separate treaty with France, signed at Basel on the 5th of April 1795, was mainly due to the influence of Haugwitz.

His object was now to save the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine from being lost to the Empire. No guarantee of their maintenance had been inserted in the Basel treaty; but Haugwitz and the king hoped to preserve them by establishing the armed neutrality of North Germany and securing its recognition by the French Republic. This policy was rendered futile by the victories of Napoleon Bonaparte and the virtual conquest of South Germany by the French. Haugwitz, who had continued to enjoy the confidence of the new king, Frederick William III., recognized this fact, and urged his master to join the new Coalition in 1798. But the king clung blindly to the illusion of neutrality, and Haugwitz allowed himself to be made the instrument of a policy of which he increasingly disapproved. It was not till 1803, when the king refused his urgent advice to demand the evacuation of Hanover by the French, that he tendered his resignation. In August 1804 he was definitely replaced by Hardenberg, and retired to his estates.

In his retirement Haugwitz was still consulted, and he used all his influence against Hardenberg's policy of a _rapprochement_ with France. His representations had little weight, however, until Napoleon's high-handed action in violating Prussian territory by marching troops through Ansbach, roused the anger of the king. Haugwitz was now once more appointed foreign minister, as Hardenberg's colleague, and it was he who was charged to carry to Napoleon the Prussian ultimatum which was the outcome of the visit of the tsar Alexander I. to Berlin in November. But in this crisis his courage failed him; his nature was one that ever let "I dare not wait upon I will"; he delayed his journey pending some turn in events and to give time for the mobilization of the duke of Brunswick's army; he was frightened by reports of separate negotiations between Austria and Napoleon, not realizing that a bold declaration by Prussia would nip them in the bud. Napoleon, when at last they met, read him like a book and humoured his diplomatic weakness until the whole issue was decided at Austerlitz. On the 15th of December, instead of delivering an ultimatum, Haugwitz signed at Schonbrunn the treaty which gave Hanover to Prussia in return for Ansbach, Cleves and Neuchatel.

The humiliation of Prussia and her minister was, however, not yet complete. In February 1806 Haugwitz went to Paris to ratify the treaty of Schonbrunn and to attempt to secure some modifications in favour of Prussia. He was received with a storm of abuse by Napoleon, who insisted on tearing up the treaty and drawing up a fresh one, which doubled the amount of territory to be ceded by Prussia and forced her to a breach with Great Britain by binding her to close the Hanoverian ports to British commerce. The treaty, signed on the 15th of February, left Prussia wholly isolated in Europe. What followed belongs to the history of Europe rather than to the biography of Haugwitz. He remained, indeed, at the head of the Prussian ministry of foreign affairs, but the course of Prussian policy it was beyond his power to control. The Prussian ultimatum to Napoleon was forced upon him by overwhelming circumstances, and with the battle of Jena, on the 14th of October, his political career came to an end. He accompanied the flight of the king into East Prussia, there took leave of him and retired to his Silesian estates. In 1811 he was appointed _Curator_ of the university of Breslau; in 1820, owing to failing health, he went to live in Italy, where he remained till his death at Venice in 1831.

Haugwitz was a man of great intellectual gifts, of dignified presence and a charming address which endeared him to his sovereigns and his colleagues; but as a statesman he failed, not through want of perspicacity, but through lack of will power and a fatal habit of procrastination. During his retirement in Italy he wrote memoirs in justification of his policy, a fragment of which dealing with the episode of the treaty of Schonbrunn was published at Jena in 1837.

See J. von Minutoli, _Der Graf von Haugwitz und Job von Witzleben_ (Berlin, 1844); L. von Ranke, _Hardenberg u. d. Gesch. des preuss. Staates_ (Leipzig, 1879-1881), note on Haugwitz's memoirs in vol. ii.; _Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von Hardenberg_, ed. Ranke (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la Revol. Franc., passim_.

HAUNTINGS (from "to haunt," Fr. _hanter_, of uncertain origin, but possibly from Lat. _ambitare_, _ambire_, to go about, frequent), the supposed manifestations of existence by spirits of the dead in houses or places familiar to them in life. The savage practice of tying up the corpse before burying it is clearly intended to prevent the dead from "walking"; and cremation, whether in savage lands or in classical times, may have originally had the same motive. The "spirit" manifests himself, as a rule, either in his bodily form, as when he lived, or in the shape of some animal, or by disturbing noises, as in the case of the poltergeist (q.v.). Classical examples occur in Plautus (_Mostellaria_), Lucian (_Philopseudes_), Pliny, Suetonius, St Augustine, St Gregory, Plutarch and elsewhere, while Lucretius has his theory of apparitions of the dead. He does not deny the fact; he explains it by "films" diffused from the living body and persisting in the atmosphere.

A somewhat similar hypothesis, to account for certain alleged phenomena, was invented by Mr Edmund Gurney. Some visionary appearances in haunted houses do not suggest the idea of an ambulatory spirit, but rather of the photograph of a past event, impressed we know not how on we know not what. In this theory there is no room for the agency of spirits of the dead. The belief in hauntings was naturally persistent through the middle ages, and example and theory abound in the _Loca infesta_ (Cologne, 1598) of Petrus Thyraeus, S.J.; Wierius (c. 1560), in _De praestigiis daemonum_, is in the same tale. According to Thyraeus, hauntings appeal to the senses of sight, hearing and touch. The auditory phenomena are mainly thumping noises, sounds of footsteps, laughing and moaning. Rackets in general are caused by _lares domestici_ ("brownies") or the Poltergeist. In the tactile way ghosts _push_ the living; "I have been thrice pushed by an invisible power," writes the Rev. Samuel Wesley, in 1717, in his narrative of the disturbances at his rectory at Epworth. Once he was pushed against the corner of his desk in the study; once up against the door of the matted chamber; and thirdly, "against the right-hand side of the frame of my study door, as I was going in." We have thus Protestant corroboration of the statement of the learned Jesuit.

Thyraeus raises the question, Are the experiences hallucinatory? Did Mr Wesley (to take his case) receive a mere hallucinatory set of pushes? Was the hair of a friend of the writer's, who occupied a haunted house, only pulled in a subjective way? Thyraeus remarks that, in cases of noisy phenomena, not all persons present hear them; and, rather curiously, Mr Wesley records the same experience; he sometimes did not hear sounds that seemed violently loud to his wife and family, who were with him at prayers. Thyraeus says that, as collective hallucinations of sight are rare--all present not usually seeing the apparition--so audible phenomena are not always experienced by all persons present. In such cases, he thinks that the sights and sounds have no external cause, he regards the sights and sounds as delusions--caused by spirits. This is a difficult question. He mentions that we hear all the furniture being tossed about (as Sir Walter and Lady Scott heard it at Abbotsford; see Lockhart's _Life_, v. 311-315). Yet, on inspection, we find all the furniture in its proper place. There is abundant evidence to experience of this phenomenon, which remains as inexplicable as it was in the days of Thyraeus. When the sounds are heard, has the atmosphere vibrated, or has the impression only been made on "the inner ear"? In reply, Mr. Procter, who for sixteen years (1831-1847) endured the unexplained disturbances at Willington Mill, avers that the material objects on which the knocks appeared to be struck did certainly vibrate (see POLTERGEIST). Is then the felt vibration part of the hallucination?

As for visual phenomena, "ghosts," Thyraeus does not regard them as space-filling entities, but as hallucinations imposed by spirits on the human senses; the spirit, in each case, not being necessarily the soul of the dead man or woman whom the phantasm represents.

In the matter of alleged hauntings, the symptoms, the phenomena, to-day, are exactly the same as those recorded by Thyraeus. The belief in them is so far a living thing that it greatly lowers the letting value of a house when it is reported to be haunted. (An action for libelling a house as haunted was reported in the London newspapers of the 7th of March 1907). It is true that ancient family legends of haunts are gloried in by the inheritors of stately homes in England, or castles in Scotland, and to discredit the traditional ghost--in the days of Sir Walter Scott--was to come within measurable distance of a duel. But the time-honoured phantasms of old houses usually survive only in the memory of "the oldest aunt telling the saddest tale." Their historical basis can no more endure criticism than does the family portrait of Queen Mary,--signed by Medina about 1750-1770, and described by the family as "given to our ancestor by the Queen herself." After many years' experience of a baronial dwelling credited with seven distinct and separate phantasms, not one of which was ever seen by hosts, guests or domestics, scepticism as regards traditional ghosts is excusable. Legend reports that they punctually appear on the anniversaries of their misfortunes, but no evidence of such punctuality has been produced.