Part 2

Talking and the words used came into being through the desire of men to communicate with each other. Before words became known and used man talked to those about him by the use of signs, gestures and other movements of the body. Even to-day when men meet who cannot talk the same language they will be seen trying to come to an understanding by the use of signs and gestures and generally with fair results. The need of more signs and gestures to express a constantly increasing number of objects and thoughts led to the introduction of sounds or combination of sounds made with the vocal cords to accompany certain signs and gestures. In this way man eventually developed a very considerable faculty for expressing himself. Sign by sign, gesture by gesture and sound by sound language was slowly developed. A man would be trying to explain something to another by sign or gesture and to make it more clear would make a sound or combination of sounds to put more expression into his efforts. Finally the other man would understand what was meant and he would tell some one else, using the same signs, gestures and sounds. Later on it would develop that to express thus any certain thought, act or the name of a thing, all of the people in the community would make this same combination of sounds, signs and gestures to express the same thing. Finally the gestures and signs would be dropped and it was found that people understood perfectly what was meant when only the sound or combination of sounds was produced. That made a word. All the other words were made in the same way, one at a time, until we had enough words to express all the ordinary things and the combination of words became a language. The children learned the language by hearing their parents talk it, and that is how men learned to talk.

How Did Shaking the Head Come to Mean “No”?

The origin of this method of indicating “No” is found in the result of the mother’s efforts in the animal kingdom of trying to feed her young. A mother animal would be trying to get her young to accept the food she brought them and tried to put it in their mouths. Perhaps, however, the young animal had had sufficient food or did not fancy the kind of food offered. The natural thing to do under the circumstances would be to close the mouth tight and shake the head from side to side to prevent the mother from forcing the food into the mouth. Thus we get the closed lips and the shaking the head from side to side to mean “No.” In other words, that kind of a way of saying “No” came from an effort to say “I don’t want any.”

How Did a Nod Come to Mean “Yes”?

The idea of nodding to mean “Yes” comes from the opposite of the action which, as just described, indicates a “No.”

When the young animal was anxious to accept the offered food, it made an effort to get at the food quickly. Hence, the pushing forward of the head and the open mouth (always more or less opened when you nod to indicate “Yes”) and an expression of gladness. You will notice if you see anyone nod the head to indicate “Yes” that the lips are open rather than closed, and that there is always a smile or an indication of a smile to accompany it. In other words, the nod to mean “Yes” is only another way of saying “I shall be pleased.”

Why Do We Count in Tens?

When man even in his uncivilized state found it necessary to count, the only implements at hand were his fingers and toes, and as he had ten toes and ten fingers, he naturally began counting in tens, and has been doing so ever since.

When we to-day count on our fingers we confine ourselves to our fingers leaving our toes stay in our shoes, where they naturally belong. But the first men who counted used both fingers and toes, and so he was able to count twenty before he had to begin over again, while little children to-day, when they count with their fingers, must begin where they started after they reach ten.

What Does Man Mean by Counting Himself?

The expression “counting himself” was originated by the first man who counted. Such a man would count all of his fingers and toes and the result would be twenty. Then, so that he would remember the number of times he had counted himself, he made a mark some place each time he reached twenty. The mark he made was a mere scratch in the dirt or on a hoe or something else. To make a scratch you merely, of course, score the surface of whatever you happen to be scratching on, and that is how it happened that the word “score” in our language to-day means as a term in counting, twenty.

There has been a great effort made to change our system of counting in tens to one where you count in twelves. That would fit in very well with our system of measuring which is based on the foot of twelve inches, and of our calendar for recording the passage of time which has twelve months. There are many arguments in favor of this change, among the principal of which is the fact that it would make our problems of division much easier, for our ten can be evenly divided by but two of our single figures, two and five, whereas twelve can be evenly divided by four of our single figures, viz., two, three, four and six. It is believed that sooner or later the system of counting by twelve instead of ten will be adopted by the entire world for counting everything. As it is now we do part of our counting by one system and part of it by another.

Where Did All the Names of People Originate?

There is no scientific plan by which people get their names. There is not much except curious interest to be gleaned from the study of how people got their names.

In the earliest days of the world, or at least as soon as men had learned to speak by sounds, all known persons, places and groups of human beings must have had names by which they could be spoken of or to, and by which they were recognized. The study of these names and of their survival in civilization enables us in certain instances to tell what tribes inhabited certain parts of the earth now peopled by descendants of an entirely different race and of another speech altogether. We learn such things from the names of mountains and other things, for instance, which still cling to them.

The story of personal names is very complex, but comes from very simple beginnings. The oldest personal names were those which indicated a group of people rather than individuals who may have been actually related to each other or even bound together for reasons of protection or other convenience. In the races of Asia, Africa, Australia and America examination shows that groups of people who considered themselves to be of the same relationship, attached to themselves the name of some animal or other object, whether animate or inanimate, from which they claimed to be descended. This animal or object was called the “totem,” and thus the earliest and most widely spread class and family names are totemistic. Such groups called themselves by names from wolves, turtles, bears, suns, moons, birds, and other objects, and these people wore badges with pictures of the animal or object from which they took their names to identify them to other people.

When, then, we come to investigate the giving of personal names among the tribes, we see that most uncivilized races gave a name to each new-born infant derived from some object or incident. So a new-born member of the “Sun” tribe would be named “Dawn,” and would be known as “Dawn” of the “Sun” tribe; or perhaps a new-born son of the tribe of “Wolf” would be called “Hungry,” and be known as “Hungry Wolf.” A member of the “Cloud” tribe would be named “Morning,” because he was born in the morning. He would always be known as “Morning Cloud.”

Later, as society became more established and paternity became recognized, we find the totem name give way to a gentile name. Among the Greeks and Romans the system was early adopted and proved satisfactory. Thus we have Caius Julius Caesar. Caius indicates that he is Roman; Julius is the gentile name given him and the Caesar a sort of hereditary nickname. On the other hand, the early Greeks began the system of introducing a local name instead of the gentile name. Thus Thucydides (obtained from the grandfather), the son of Olorus, of the Deme (township) of Halimusia.

~HOW DIFFERENT NAMES ORIGINATED~

This was all right and suited the purposes of the Greeks and Romans, who had plenty of time to give full explanations in this way. But in Europe, for instance, civilization demanded more speed, and the increase of population demanded more names, so that nicknames and names indicating personal descriptions and peculiarities came into use. Such names as Long, Short, Small, Brown, White, Green and others of the same kind came from this source, and as families grew these surnames stuck to the family and parents gave their children Christian names to further distinguish them as individuals. Other surnames such as Fowler, Sadler, Smith, Farmer, etc., became attached to people because of the occupations in which they were engaged, and yet other names were derived from places. The owner of an extensive estate would be designated by a Christian name which might be George (after his King) and then to indicate his landownership, von (meaning of) Wood, making the combination of George von Wood, meaning George, the owner of the place called Wood. On the other hand, he might have working for him a laborer who lived at the place and, if his name was Hiram, they would, to indicate where he belonged, put the Wood after the Hiram; but, lest there be confusion as to his class, they would put an At before the Wood and make him Hiram Atwood, indicating his Christian name, where he worked and the fact that he was not a landowner.

Many other names were invented in similar manner. When Adams became so common that there would likely be confusion on account of there being so many of them, a son of one of the Adams family would add to the name the fact that he was a son by writing his name Adamson, and thus start a new family name. Thus, in the same way also came Willson, Clarkson, and other names of that kind.

For a long time the Jews had only one word for a name, such as Isaac, Jacob, Moses, etc. They became so numerous that it was impossible to distinguish them, and so a commission was named to give surnames to all the Jews in addition to their other names. As the race was then, as now, held in derision by the rulers of many nations into which the tribe had become scattered, the people who had charge of the naming of the Jews took advantage of the opportunity to make sport of them, and gave them such names as

Rosenstock (Rose bush),

Rosenszweig (Rose twig),

Rosenbaum (Rose tree),

Blumenstock (Flower bush),

Blumenthal (Flower valley),

etc., etc.

Our Christian names are from similar sources, and while many of them are well selected because of their beautiful meanings, there are many of them which mean nothing as words as they were only invented for the purpose of giving a new name to a new child.

Why Can You Blow Out a Candle?

When you light a candle it burns, because the lighted wick heats the wax sufficiently to turn it into gases, which mix with the oxygen in the air and produce fire in the form of light. You know it is not easy to light a candle quickly. You must hold the lighted match to the wick until the wax begins to melt and change to gases. As long as the wax continues hot enough to melt and turn to gas the candle will burn until all burned up; but if there is a break in the continuous process of changing the wax to gas, the light will go out. Now, when you blow at the lighted candle, you blow the gases which feed the flame away from the lighted wick, and this makes a break in the continuous flow of gas from the wax to taper, and the light goes out.

[Illustration]

The Story in a Photograph

How Does a Camera Take a Picture?

When we look upon the surface of a mirror we see the image of ourself and our surroundings. The extent of the view depends upon the size of the mirror and the distance we are standing from it.

If we hold the mirror close to our face we see only the face, or perhaps but a portion of it, and the farther away we are the more the mirror will reflect, only, of course, the various images will be smaller. The mirror reflecting exactly what the eye sees, without doubt had a great influence in inducing the experiments that resulted in the process we call photography.

The taking of a photograph with a camera may in a way be compared with the action of your eyes, when you gaze upon your reflection in a mirror, or look at any object or view. Any object in a light strong enough to render it visible will reflect rays of light from every point.

Now, the eye contains a lens very similar in form to that used in a camera. This lens collects the rays of light reflected from the object looked at and brings them to a focus in the back of the eye, forming an image or picture of whatever we see, just as the mirror collects the rays of light and reflects them back through the lens of the eye.

Certain nerves transmit the impression of the image so focused in the back of the eye to the brain and we experience the sensation of sight.

What Is the Eye of the Camera?

The lens is the eye of the camera, and the process we call photography is the method employed to make permanent the image the eye or lens of the camera presents to a sensitive surface within the camera.

Fig. 1 shows a simple form of camera, it being merely a light tight box with a lens fitted to the front, and a means for holding a sensitive plate at the back, the plate being placed at just the right distance to focus the rays of light admitted through the lens in exactly the same manner as the rays of light pass through the lens of the eye and come to a focus in the back part of the eye.

Now, if we could look inside the camera we would note that the image was inverted, or upside down.

Fig. 2 will explain this.

The rays of light from “A” pass in a straight line through the lens “B” until they are interrupted by “C,” upon which they strike, forming an upside down image of the object “A.” But, you exclaim, “we do not see things upside down.” No, we do not, because some mental process readjusts this during the passing of the impression from the eye to our brain.

Let us suppose we have our camera loaded with its sensitive plate or film. We select some object or view we wish to photograph, uncover the lens for an instant, and let the light impress the image upon the sensitive surface of the plate or film. Now, how are we going to make this image permanent?

If we were to examine the creamy yellow strip of film upon which the picture was taken there would seemingly be no difference between its present appearance and before the snapshot was made.

Now let us suppose that this strip of film is a little trundle bed, and in it tucked securely away from the light are many hundreds of little chaps called silver bromides, little roly-poly fellows lying just as close together as possible, and protected by a coverlet of pure white gelatine.

~HOW A PHOTOGRAPH IS DEVELOPED~

Until the sudden flash of light in their faces when the picture was taken, they have been content to lie still and sleep soundly. Now they are seized with a strange unrest, and each little atom is eager to do his part in showing your picture to the world. Alone they are powerless, but they have, all unbeknown to them, some powerful chemical friends, who, organized and aided by the photographer, will bring about their transformation. These chemicals, with the help of the photographer, form themselves into a society called the developer.

The photographer takes just so many of the tiny feathery crystals of pyro, just so many of the clear little atoms of sulphite of soda, and just so many little crystals of carbonate of soda, and tumbles them all into a beaker of clear cold water. Unaided by each other, any one of these chemicals would be powerless to help their little bromide of silver friends. The first of these chemicals to go to work is the carbonate of soda.

He tiptoes softly over to the trundle bed and gently begins turning back the gelatine covers over the little bromide of silver chaps, so that Pyro can find them in the dark.

It is Pyro’s mission to transform the little silver bromides into silver metal, but he is rather an impulsive chap, so he is accompanied by sulphite of soda, who warns him not to be too rough, and whose sole mission is to strain his eagerness to help his friends.

“Go slow now,” says Sulphite, “don’t frighten the little silver bromides, or else you’ll make them cuddle up in heaps, and the picture won’t be as nice as if you wake them up gently and each little bromide stayed just where he belonged.”

After all the little silver bromides that the light shone on have been transformed into metallic silver by the developer, another chemical friend has to step in and carry away all the little bromides that were not awakened by the flash of light.

This friend’s name is “Hypo,” and in a few minutes he has carried away all the little bromides that are still sleeping, so that the trundle bed with the now awakened and transformed silver bromides will, after washing and drying, be called a negative, and ready to print your pictures from.

If we take this negative, as it is called, and hold it up to the light, we will see that everything is reversed, not only from right to left, but also that whatever is white or light in color is dark in the negative, and that what would correspond to the darker parts of our picture are the lightest in the negative, and it is from these facts that we give it the name negative.

Now, to get our picture as it should be, we must place this negative in contact with a sheet of coated paper that is also sensitive to light.

So we place the negative and the sheet of sensitive paper in what is called a printing frame, with the negative uppermost, so that the light may shine through the negative, and impress the image upon the sheet of sensitive paper. Now, it stands to reason that if the lightest parts of our picture are the darkest in the negative that less light can pass through such portions of the negative in a given time, so that with the proper exposure to light the image upon the sheet of sensitive paper will be a correct picture of whatever the lens saw.

[Illustration: The swiftest thing that the human race has ever put into motion is the steel projectile of a twelve-inch gun. No human eye can follow its flight. Released at a pressure of forty thousand pounds to the square inch--in a heat at which diamonds melt and carbon boils--it hurls through the air at the rate of twenty-five miles a minute, and reaches the mark _ahead of its own sound_! (Pictures and story by courtesy of McClure’s Magazine.)]

TWENTY-FIVE MILES A MINUTE

AN EXCLUSIVE STORY, ILLUSTRATED WITH A SERIES OF REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN WITH THE FASTEST CAMERA IN THE WORLD

BY CLEVELAND MOFFETT

~HOW SHOOTING SHELLS ARE PHOTOGRAPHED~

One of the most progressive branches of our military service is the Department of Coast Defenses, which, under the far-seeing guidance of General E. M. Weaver, holds our shores and harbors in a state of alert preparedness against foreign aggression. At Hampton Roads sits the Coast Artillery Board, composed of officers and consulting engineers to whom are referred all problems relating to coast artillery, and who have the responsibility of testing all new instruments proposed for artillery use. The purpose of this article is to describe one among several notable achievements of the Hampton Roads Coast Artillery School, this particular work having been done by Captain F. J. Behr of the Coast Artillery Corps, who, after years of effort, has recently developed a system that makes it possible to take pictures of the swiftest moving bodies, the great steel projectiles of our biggest guns--to seize them with the camera’s eye as they hurl through the air at enormous velocities or at the very moment of their emergence from the gun muzzles, and to preserve these images, never seen before, for military study and comparison. Captain Behr was ably assisted in this work by Engineer J. A. Wilson.

[Illustration: THE FASTEST CAMERA IN THE WORLD

The big gun, equipped with the fastest camera shutter in the world, about to be fired and the shell photographed.

For years a young officer of the Coast Artillery has been trying to devise a camera so incredibly swift that it will record every stage of this lightning flight from the gun-barrel to the target. At last he has succeeded. His photographs--some of them taken one hundred thousandth of a second apart--have revealed remarkable and unsuspected facts to the military world. The story of his invention had never before been told.]

Reckoning in Millionths of a Second.

Some of the increments and decrements of time involved in the series of photographs herewith published (several of them for the first time) are as small as one ten-thousandth part of a second. And Captain Behr has devised a method of taking photographs of projectiles as they arrive at a steel target and penetrate the target, inch by inch, that involves increments or decrements of time as small as the one hundred-thousandth part of a second. To the uninitiated it seems incredible that such infinitesimal divisions of time can be used in practical calculations; but every trained physicist knows that in wireless work scientists of to-day speak casually of experiments that take account of _two-tenths or one-tenth of a millionth part of a second_!

[Illustration: THE PROJECTILE EMERGING FROM MORTAR