Part 32
The “Plunger” was never submerged, her construction covering a period of several years, and she was finally abandoned. Mr. Holland had, however, in the meantime prepared the designs of another vessel which he called “The Holland.” This vessel was accepted by the United States Government in 1900, and a number of other vessels of this type were built. These vessels were known as submarines of the diving type. They were controlled by means of a horizontal and vertical rudder placed at the stern of the vessel and the boat was, by means of these rudders, inclined down by the bow, and driven under the water by the force of their screw propeller.
England also built a number of submarines of the diving type.
In 1901 Mr. Lake brought out a larger vessel of his type, which was controlled by hydroplanes, which vessel was sold to the Russian Government, was shipped across the Atlantic to Kronstadt, and from there by rail to Vladivostok, and was in commission off Vladivostok just before the close of the Russian-Japanese War.
Mr. Lake then received orders from the Russian and other Governments for a number of additional boats of the even keel type, to be controlled by hydroplanes.
Mr. Lake’s principles of control have been now generally adopted by all Governments, as providing the safest and most reliable means of control of the vessel when navigating under the surface.
The United States Government has recently adopted this type to be built in their Navy Yards, and most other builders have adopted the hydroplanes as the means of maintaining depth when running beneath the surface.
[Illustration: CLEARING A CHANNEL OF BUOYANT MINES
This is one of the services to which submarine boats of this type lend themselves with peculiar fitness. It is possible for them to carry on this work with deliberation and to success, under the very guns and searchlights of a vigilant foe, without the slightest danger of being detected.
This would be accomplished preferably by the co-operation of two boats. They would take opposite sides in the channel, with a connecting rope extending out through the diving compartment. It is obvious that as they move along the rope will sweep the whole mine-field and gather in the connecting cables. This would be indicated at once to the operators in the diving compartment by the load upon the sweeping line. A grapple may then be attached to the rope and sent out of one boat and hauled into the other, and thus drag the mine so near that a diver could go out and destroy its electrical connections or cut it adrift. Should the latter operation be the aim, the grapple may be so fashioned as to accomplish this without the diver leaving the compartment. This latter method is one strongly recommended by some of the most prominent military authorities on submarine defense.]
[Illustration: This picture indicates the manner in which the boats have traveled many miles over all kinds of bottom. In the present instance the boat is shown systematically searching the bottom with her diving door open and strong lights being used to facilitate a more perfect examination.
There is no trim or equilibrium to maintain. When the propelling machinery stops the boat comes to rest. A cyclometer attached to these wheels gives a fairly reliable reading of the distance traveled under normal circumstances. As the currents do not carry her out of her course, and as her gauges give an absolute record of changing depths, it is possible to so navigate upon the bottom with remarkable precision. In shallow waters this method has many advantages.]
[Illustration: A MACHINE WHICH MAKES THE DIVER’S TASK EASY
SHOWING TUBE HANDLING CARGO IN SUNKEN SHIP.]
Recovering Cargo or Submerged Objects Without the Aid of Divers.
The operating tube is here shown within the body of a hulk and co-operating with the lifting derrick on the surface craft in the removal of the submerged cargo. A grab-dredge bucket of well-known construction is used, the jaws of which, when being lowered by one rope, open, and when strain is brought on the lifting rope, the jaws close. The working end of the tube is placed in the immediate neighborhood of the cargo to be lifted and, as the grab is being lowered from the boat above, the operator in the compartment controls the grab by means of the guide line shown attached to the small derrick boom, and leads it directly over the cargo to be lifted. The grab is then dropped and the signal sent to the vessel above to hoist. The moment the lifting line tautens the bucket grasps a load and fills itself with material in the manner common to this type of dredge. This method of directing intelligently and deliberately the dredge bucket may be applied as well to the removal of rock or any other obstruction or to any of those various services of kindred character familiar to submarine engineers. The great and prime advantage of the system is the fact that no divers are required, and the work is under the perfect control of an operator subject only to atmospheric pressure. In consequence, therefore, the only limit to the effective operating of this apparatus is the length of the tube, and, as has been said, this can be made long enough to reach depths denied to the diver simply by interposing additional sections.
[Illustration: LIFE ABOARD A SUBMARINE
LIVING QUARTERS ABOARD A SUBMARINE.]
Where Do Sponges Come From?
Until within comparatively recent years, the sponge was regarded as a plant; it is now known to belong to the animal kingdom, and to the order spongida of the class of rhizopoda. Sponge is an elastic, porous substance, formed of interlaced horny fibers, which produce by their numerous inosculations, a rude sort of network, with meshes or pores of unequal sizes, and usually of a square or angulated shape. Besides these pores there are some circular holes of large size scattered over the surface of most sponges, which lead into sinuous canals that permeate their interior in every direction. The oscula, canals, and pores, communicate freely together. The characteristic property of the sponge is the facility with which it absorbs a large quantity of any fluid, more especially of water, which is retained amid the meshes until forced out again by a sufficient degree of compression, when the sponge returns to its former bulk. From this peculiarity, combined with its pleasant softness, arises the value of the sponge for the purposes to which it is applied. In domestic economy and in surgical practice, there is no other product that can be satisfactorily substituted for it.
Sponge is an aquatic production, indigenous to almost every sea and shore. It is abundant and varied between the tropics, but becomes less so in temperate latitudes and continues to diminish in quantity, variety, and size, as it is traced into European and colder seas, until it almost disappears in the vicinity of the polar circles. Some sponges are known to be hermaphrodite, but that the individual at one period produces chiefly male elements, and later, chiefly female elements. Fertilization takes place in the body of the mother, and the egg here undergoes its early development. The embryo eventually bursts the maternal tissue and, passing into one of the canals, is caught by the current sweeping through the canal system and is discharged into the surrounding water through one of the large apertures on the surface of the sponge. In the Bahama Islands and along the coast of Florida, the breeding time of many sponges covers the period from mid-summer on through early Autumn.
There is propagation sometimes by ciliated gemmules, yellowish and oval, arising from the sarcode mass, and carried out by the currents. These are mostly formed in the spring, and after swimming freely about for a time, become fixed and grow. In its natural state, the sponge is a very different looking object from the article of commerce. The entire surface is covered with a thin, slimy skin, usually of a dark color, and perforated to correspond with the apertures of the canals. The sponge of commerce is in reality only the home or the skeleton of the sponge.
There are a few sponges that inhabit ponds and sluggish rivers; the others are marine. Of these, many of the calcareous and siliceous kinds inhabit the shores between tide-marks, preferring a site near the low ebb, where, nevertheless, they are daily alternately submerged, and left exposed to the atmosphere. The figured sponges with a fibrous texture, to whatever genus they belong, are denizens of deeper water, and are never left uncovered. They grow usually in groups, on rock shells, shellfish, corallines, and seaweeds, and either have no power of selection, or the quality of the site is indifferent to them.
How Do Sponges Grow?
In their growth, some sponges assume a determinate figure or at least one whose variations are confined within certain limits. The greater number are irregular and variable, their shape depending in a great measure upon the peculiarities of their state, to which they easily accommodate themselves. They will incrust a shell, or a crab, a rock, or seaweed, following every projection and sinuosity. The offshoots will spring up with a more luxuriant growth in the deeper sheltered places until the original shape of the foundation they grow upon is lost to sight.
Sponges are unmoving and inirritable. They never remain rooted to the places of the germination, and are incapable either of contracting or dilating themselves or even of moving any fiber or portion of their mass. The functions which distinguish them as living beings are few, and faintly imaged.
How Do Sponges Eat?
Although sponges lack the power of motion possessed by most animals, being nearly always attached, in one position or another, to some object, the study of their habits in captivity brings out many of their animal characteristics in a striking manner. Small specimens taken from the sea and placed in dishes of salt water may be kept alive for several hours if well cared for; and by using finely powdered coloring matter, such as carmine or indigo, the manner of their feeding may be readily observed. Sponges are more active in fresh sea water than in stale; they cannot be kept alive out of water and soon die if exposed to the air. Being unable to go in search of food, as a natural result, they can grow only in places where there is always an abundance of food suited to their wants. The great sponging grounds of the world are wholly confined within waters having a relatively high temperature during the entire year. The Old World sponges grow principally in the Mediterranean and the Red seas; the New World sponges are found about the Bahamas, southern and western Florida, and parts of the West Indies. The finest sponges come from the East, but one of the American species, the so-called “sheep’s wool,” stands high in favor.
The commercial sponges are separated into six species, three of which are European and three American. They are all referred to a single genus called spongia, and though having much in common as regards structure, their texture varies to such an extent as to make them of very unequal value for domestic purposes.
The Old World species may be arranged as follows, in order of their grade of excellence, beginning with the best quality: The Turkey cup sponge, Levant toilet sponge, the horse, honey comb, or bath sponge, and the Zimoca sponge. The American species include the sheep’s wool sponge, the yellow glove, violet, and grass, sponges. A very close relationship exists between the species of the two continents.
All known regions in which useful specimens abound contribute to the world’s supply. The trade is extensive. The demands upon the fisheries are great. In the Mediterranean, the fishing is carried on in some places at a depth of forty fathoms. Divers, naked, or in armor, go down to the bottom and tear off the sponges from their places of growth. In some places drag dredges are employed.
How Are Sponges Caught?
In the past quarter-century the sponge-fishery of the Florida coast has grown remarkably. Its headquarters is at Key West and several hundred sailing vessels are engaged in the industry. The fishing appliances consist of a small boat, a long hook, and a waterglass. The hook is in reality a three-pronged spear attached to a pole thirty-five feet long. In searching for sponge the fishers row about in the small boat. By holding the glass on the surface of the water the bottom is plainly seen and small objects are readily discerned. When a sponge is sighted the pole with the hook attached is shot down and the product deftly gathered. The boat-load is brought to the deck of the schooner, allowed to remain there a few hours, and then is carried down into the hold. On Friday nights, the fishing generally ends for the week, and the vessel sails for some spot on the neighboring coast where there are established crawls, or places for curing the catch. These crawls are about 8 x 10 feet square, their purpose being to hold the sponges while maceration and decomposition take place. The resulting refuse is carried off by the tide.
The fishermen go away for another catch and the sponges are left in the crawls until the end of the following week when a new cargo is brought in. The returning fishermen beat the decomposed sponges with clubs, removing the impurities. The water is squeezed out, then the sponges are allowed to dry on the ground.
After drying, the hold of the large vessel is loaded to the utmost with the product and the voyage to Key West is made. Buyers from New York look over the sponges, and make offers for entire cargoes. The fishermen dispose of their goods rapidly and sail away for more. The buyers store the sponges in some dry building, and cause them to be bleached by lime. A popular manner of bleaching is to wash the sponges thoroughly in water, and then to immerse them in diluted hydrochloric acid to dissolve any of the calcareous substance. Having again been washed they are placed in another bath of dilute hydrochloric acid to which six per cent. of hyposulphite of soda, dissolved in a little warm water, has been added. In this bath the sponges remain for twenty-four hours, or until the bleaching process is completed. After bleaching, the sponges are pressed until their bulk is greatly reduced; they are then baled, and shipped to New York, which is the distributing point for the entire Florida product.
Sponges are by far the most important fishery products of Florida, representing about one-third of the annual value of the fishing industry. In 1899, the yield was over 350,000 pounds of sponges of which the first value was nearly $400,000.
Why Does Yeast Make Bread Rise?
There is a lot of sugar in the dough from which bread is made. Sugar contains three things--carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. When sugar is fermented it amounts practically to burning it. To make good bread from the dough it is necessary to ferment the sugar which is in the ingredients from which it is made. Yeast, which is a simple living plant, has the power to ferment sugar. When sugar ferments, two things are produced. One thing is the formation of carbonic acid gas. A great deal of this carbonic acid gas is caught in the dough in the form of large or small bubbles and some of it escapes into the air. The other part tries to escape into the air also but cannot, and causes the dough to rise, which makes the bread light, as we say. The holes you see in the bread after it is baked are the little pockets where the carbonic acid gas was retained in the dough. These bubbles of gas all through the dough act like a lot of little balloons and lift the dough up with themselves as they try to get to the top and escape into the air.
What Is Yeast?
Yeast is a living plant that is used for the purpose of causing fermentation. The yeast we use in baking bread is an artificial yeast--really a dough made of flour and a little common yeast and made into small cakes and dried. If kept free from moisture it retains the power of causing fermentation for some time. The flour and other matter in a cake of yeast are only used to keep the yeast in a form where it can be preserved. It is necessary to add water to start fermentation and that is why we add hot water when we stir in the yeast for a baking.
Is a Moth Attracted By a Light?
It seems to be a strange contradiction of the nature of living things that a moth should fly deliberately into a light or dash itself to death against the glass surrounding a strong light. This is contrary to the usual law of nature which gives the living thing an instinct to protect itself against enemies.
For a long time we thought that moths did not deliberately burn themselves up by flying right into a light, but our naturalists have proven that not only moths but certain birds, bees, flies and butterflies, burn themselves up by flying into the flame of a light or fire.
[Illustration: HOW MAN LEARNED TO MAKE A FIRE
SAWING
This was probably man’s first method of producing fire. By rubbing two sticks together in this way sufficient heat was produced to set fire to easily burnable material such as dried grass, etc.]
[Illustration: DRILLING
An improvement came when man learned that by twirling a dry stick in a hole in another piece of dry wood the fire could be started more quickly.]
How Man Discovered Fire
Fire was probably one of man’s first, if not the first, great discoveries, and has been one of his greatest servants as well as one of his greatest dangers. We do not know who discovered fire, or what nation first used it. It is, however, one of the signs that distinguishes man from the other animals. Not any of the lower animals was acquainted with the use of fire, while probably the earliest races of mankind seem to have been acquainted with it.
Mythology tells us wonderful stories of the origin of fire: according to these tales it was stolen from the sun, or the gods, and given to man; and Pandora, the first woman, was sent down to earth to punish man for his theft.
The most popular of these stories is the legend of Prometheus. According to this legend, fire, in the early days, was under the exclusive control of the gods. Prometheus, brother of Atlas, the god who supported the world on his shoulders, determined that the use of fire should be given to the people. He decided by some means to send a spark of fire to the earth, believing that one spark caught by man would start a burning flame that would never go out.
With this idea in mind, Prometheus visited Zeus, the great ruler, to carry out his purpose, for Zeus controlled fire. While Zeus was not looking, Prometheus “stole some brands of fire from the hearth, which he hid in the stalk of a fennel and sent it down to the earth.” Through this Prometheus gave to man his first knowledge of fire.
But while this story of fire may or may not be true, the use of fire rests entirely with man and his ingenuity. Through his ingenuity man was able to subject fire to his will; making it perform certain of his labors; and to a certain extent making it his servant; although it always did and always will get beyond his control at times.
Our ancestors were not satisfied with preserving the fire which the gods gave them; they tried and succeeded in producing it. One day one of them discovered that by rubbing two sticks together rapidly, the friction would create a fire. It was a most useful discovery. Before long the whole of mankind had learned this trick; others improved on this crude method until step by step men learned that by striking two pieces of flint or other hard mineral together, quicker action was obtained.
[Illustration: DRILLING WITH BOW STRING
Man’s ingenuity soon taught him that if he tied one end of a string to something and wrapped it around his drilling stick, one end of which was in a hole as in the first drilling picture, he could increase the rapidity of making fire.]
[Illustration: DRILLING WITH HELP
With some other to hold the drilling stick while he operated the string he was able to produce fire more quickly than he had ever done before.]
All kinds of methods were devised to increase knowledge of producing fire. The early Greeks found out how to catch the rays of the sun on a burning-glass and produce fire; the Romans achieved the same results through the use of mirrors.
[Illustration: PLOWING
This is another method man used for rubbing two pieces of wood together. In following this plan he usually used one stick of bamboo and rubbed it back and forth in a slot he had made in another piece of bamboo.]
[Illustration: FLINT AND PYRITES
In some places it was discovered that if you struck a piece of hard stone, like flint, against another, a spark was produced which could be caught on a bunch of dry grass or moss and so start a fire.]
In about A.D. 900, an Arab, named Bechel, discovered phosphorus, but it took almost 800 years more for Haukwitz to learn that when phosphorus was brought into friction with sulphur, fire would result. In another hundred years the world was benefited by the invention of the friction match--and since that time about one-half the people have been carrying matches about with them, able thus to start a fire easily any time.
~FIRE A MARK OF CIVILIZATION~
Fire and man’s knowledge of it have had much to do with man’s progress in civilization. Before man had fire, his life and movements were much like those of other animals. When man had learned to make a fire he was free to move and live anywhere and, therefore, people began to cover more territory.
[Illustration: THE FLINT AND STEEL METHOD OF MAKING FIRE
THE INTRODUCTION OF THE FLINT AND STEEL METHOD
Because fire was so important to him, man kept on trying to make this task easier. He finally contrived a tinder box when iron and steel became known. The tinder box is where he kept his flint and the piece of steel which he struck upon the flint. He also kept in the box pieces of cloth or paper on which he caught the sparks so produced.]
[Illustration: PISTOL TINDER BOX
This is a picture of a tinder box in the form of a pistol. It enabled man to produce sparks in greater numbers and more rapidly.]
[Illustration: PRODUCING SPARK WITH FLINT AND STEEL
This shows the method for striking the piece of steel against the flint to make the sparks fall on the cloth or paper in the box.]
[Illustration: A COMPLETE TINDER BOX SET
This picture shows a very complete tinder box set used by the wealthy people in the old days. A man carried this outfit with him just as today he carries matches.]
[Illustration: This tinder box set is very neat and compact. It is said still to be used among the Himalayan tribes where it was discovered.]
[Illustration: THE FIRST MATCHES
THE OXYMURIATE MATCH