Part 60

The keyboard is made up of 90 keys, which act directly on the matrices in their channels in the magazine. The slightest touch on the keybuttons releases the matrix, which drops to the assembler belt and is carried swiftly to the assembler. When a word is assembled, the spaceband key is touched and a spaceband drops into the assembler. When the necessary matrices and spacebands to fill the line have been assembled, the operator raises the assembler by pressing a lever on the side of the keyboard. When the assembler reaches its highest point it automatically starts the machine and the matrices are transferred to the casting position.

This illustration shows the manner in which matrices are constantly circulated in the Linotype. From the magazine they are carried to the assembler, then passed to the mold, where the line is cast, and from the mold after casting they are raised to the top of the machine and redistributed to their proper channels in the magazine.

The Linotype is sometimes called a typesetting machine, but this is not correct: it does not set type. It is a substitute for typesetting. It is strictly speaking a composing machine, as it does composition but its product is not set type, but solid slugs in the form of lines of type with the printing face cast on the edge.

It is in reality four machines so arranged that they work together in harmony--the magazine, the assembling mechanism, the casting mechanism and the distributing mechanism. The magazine is at the top of the machine sloping to the front at an angle of about 31 degrees, and consists of two brass plates placed together with a space of about five-eighths of an inch between. The two inner surfaces are cut with 92 grooves or channels running the up and down way of the magazine, for carrying the matrices. The matrices slide down these channels on edge, with the face or punched edge down, and the V-end extending toward the upper part of the magazine. Each of these channels will hold twenty matrices.]

[Illustration: LITTLE PIECES OF BRASS WHICH PRODUCE SOLID TYPE

ONE-LETTER AND TWO-LETTER MATRICES.

Linotype matrices are made of brass. In the edge of each matrix is either one or two letters or characters in intaglio. The thickness of the individual matrices is dependent on the width of the character. By an ingenious arrangement either one-letter or two-letter matrices can be used in the same machine, and either character on a two-letter matrix can be used at will.

The two-letter matrix bears two characters, one above the other, one of which may be a Roman face and the other an italic, small capital, or black face. If a line is to be composed partly of the Roman face, which is in the upper position on the matrix, and partly of the other face, which is in the lower position, this is accomplished by means of a slide on the assembler operated by a small lever.

When the lower characters on the matrices are required, the slide is shifted and the matrices are arrested at a higher level, so that the lower characters align with the upper characters of the other matrices in the assembler. When the slide is withdrawn the matrices are assembled at the lower level. By means of this simple contrivance, a line may be composed partly of one face, partly of the other face, or entirely of either face.]

[Illustration: THIS SHOWS HOW THE HEADINGS ARE MADE IN CAPITALS OF DIFFERENT TYPE.

Linotypes are guaranteed to be capable of setting above 5000 ems of 6 point per hour, and this output is widely obtained in commercial printing offices with first class operators. When a compositor speaks of the amount of type he sets per hour or day he speaks of “ems.” A column of type matter is so many “ems” wide. The term “em” means the square of the particular size of type that is being set. Thus if a column is said to be 13 ems wide it means that an em quad or square, could be set 13 times in the width of the column. Type is graded according to size by points. Machine type for book work runs from 5 points to 12 points. A point is one seventy-second of an inch, that is, there are 72 points to an inch. This guarantee, however, by no means indicates the limit of speed at which the machine can be operated, as evidenced by records of 10,000 to 11,000 ems per hour maintained for an entire day. The rapidity of the Linotype is limited only by the ability of the operator to manipulate the keys, and the extreme capacity of the machine has never yet been attained.]

[Illustration: HOW THE LINOTYPE MAKES SOLID TYPE

SECTIONAL VIEW OF MAGAZINE SHOWING CHANNEL FULL OF MATRICES.

This picture shows the machine with part of the magazine top and side removed. We can thus see how the matrices are arranged in their respective grooves in the magazine. When one of the keys of the keyboard is pressed down the first matrix in the corresponding grove in the magazine escapes and drops upon a conveyor belt and is carried in its proper order to an assembler, which answers much the same purpose as a printer’s stick. The correct spacing or justification of the line of matrices is accomplished by means of spacebands, which are assembled automatically between the words in the line by the touch of a lever at the left of the keyboard.]

[Illustration: LINOTYPE SLUGS.

Instead of producing single type characters, the Linotype machine casts metal bars, or slugs, of any length desired up to 36 ems, each complete in one piece and having on the upper edge, properly justified, the characters to print a line. These slugs are automatically assembled in proper order as they are delivered from the machine, when they are immediately available either for printing from direct or for making electrotype or stereotype plates. They answer the same purpose and are used in the same manner as composed type matter.]

[Illustration: CASTING THE SLUGS OF SOLID METAL

LINE OF MATRICES BEING LIFTED TO DISTRIBUTOR

After the slug has been cast, the matrices are carried up to the second transfer position, where they are pushed to the right, and the teeth in the V at the top of the matrices engage the grooves in the distributor bar of the second elevator, which descends from the distributor box at the same time that the matrices rise to the second transfer position. The second elevator then rises toward the distributor box, taking the matrices with it, but leaving the spacebands; these are then pushed to the right and slide into the spaceband box, to be used again.

As the second elevator rises toward the distributor box with its load of matrices, the distributor shifter lever moves to the left until the elevator head has reached its place by the distributor box. It then moves back to the right and pushes the matrices off the second elevator distributor bar into the distributor box, where they meet the “matrix lift” and are lifted, one at a time, to the distributor screws and distributor bar proper. The teeth in the matrix and the grooves in the bar are so arranged that when a matrix arrives at a point directly over the channel in which it belongs, it “lets go” and drops into its channel.

If, however, there is a matrix in the line which was not designed to drop into one of the channels operated from the keyboard, it will be carried clear across the distributor bar and dropped into the last channel, and from there it will find its way to the sorts box.]

[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF METAL POT WITH LINE OF MATRICES IN POSITION BEFORE THE MOLD

The casting mechanism consists of the metal pot, mold disk, mold, ejector, and trimming knives. The illustration shows a cross-section of the metal pot, mold disk, and mold, with a line of matrices in the casting position. When the line of matrices leaves the assembler, they pass to a position in front of the mold disk. The disk makes a one-quarter turn to the left, which brings the mold from the ejecting position, where it stands while the machine is at rest, to the casting position. It then advances until the face of the mold comes in contact with the matrices. The metal pot advances until the pot mouthpiece comes in contact with the back of the mold; at this point the pump plunger descends and forces the metal into the mold and against the matrices. The pot then recedes, the mold disk withdraws from the matrices and makes three-fourths of a revolution to the left, stopping in the ejecting position, from which it started. The slug is ejected and assembled in the galley.

During the last revolution of the disk the bottom of the slug is trimmed off, and in the process of ejection the sides of the slug are trimmed, so that when it drops in the galley the slug is a perfect line of type, ready for the form.]

[Illustration: HOW THE PRINTED PART OF A BOOK LOOKS AT FIRST

As the slugs of type, each of which represents a line, come from the linotype machine, they are arranged in order in a brass holder the width of the line of type, called a “galley.” This holder is about twenty inches long. As soon as it is filled one of the men in the typesetting office takes it to a proof press where he makes a rough impression of it. He runs an ink covered roller over the top of the slugs, lays a piece of blank paper on it and then either runs another roller over it or puts it in a hand press and secures an impression of the type just as it is. This is called making a “galley proof.”

The galley proof is then sent to the proof-reader who reads it carefully and indicates such errors in setting as appear and must be changed. Before correcting the actual type, however, the composing room sends the galley proof to the one who is publishing the book. The publisher also reads the proof over carefully and, if he does not wish to change any of the wording, he sends it back to the composing room with his “O. K.” attached in writing. If he wishes to change the wording, he does so and the galley proof is then returned to the composing room marked “O. K. after corrections and changes are made.”

The linotype operator then makes whatever changes are desired or necessary by setting new lines where mistakes or changes occur. If there is only one wrong letter in a line, he must reset the whole line as the machine, as you remember, only turns out solid lines of type. A revised proof is then sent to the publishing office and, if no further changes are to be made, he gives instructions to have the “galley” made up into pages. How the pages are made up is shown in the next picture.]

[Illustration: HOW THE PAGES OF A BOOK ARE MADE UP

When the revised proofs come back from the publisher ready to be made into pages, the publisher has marked on same what pictures are to go on the pages of the “make up” as this is called. The compositor then picks out the pictures in the form of cuts which are to go on the different pages and puts them in the page first. He then arranges the type matter from the galley proof around, above or below the pictures, puts in the proper headings and takes a “final proof” of how the pages are arranged to look. If this is satisfactory the publisher puts a “final O. K.” on the proof in writing and the page is ready to be printed. Thus the

## book is made up page by page. No page is printed without the O. K. of

the publisher and so, if there are any errors still in the page, the publisher is responsible.]

[Illustration: HOW THIS BOOK IS PRINTED

PRINTING THE BOOK OF WONDERS

This picture shows the pages of the Book of Wonders being printed. Thirty-two pages are printed on each side of a sheet of paper at one time. A printing office is a busy place as can be seen from the picture. As soon as the ink is dry on the printed sheets they are taken to the bindery where they are folded and sewed ready to have the covers put on.]

[Illustration: HOW THE BOOK OF WONDERS IS BOUND

When the printed sheets are received in the bindery they are fed into a folding machine which is shown here. A sheet of 64 pages is folded and cut and delivered in four sections of 16 pages each ready to be gathered.]

[Illustration: Here we see a machine which takes the folded sections of 16 pages each, which are called “signatures,” and sorts them, dropping them into compartments in order, so that each compartment finally contains the printed matter for one book all arranged in the order which it will be bound.]

Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co. New York.

[Illustration: SEWING THE PAGES OF THE BOOK OF WONDERS

Here we see the girls at work operating the sewing machines which sew the sections together at the back side of the book.]

[Illustration: The men in this picture are making the backs of the books round and preparing them for the putting on of covers.]

Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co., New York.

[Illustration: THE BOOK OF WONDERS IS READY TO READ

In this picture we see the “case makers” at work making the covers on which the actual book is bound.]

[Illustration: The book is now “bound” by having the covers put on and is ready for distribution.]

Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co., New York.

How Is Photo Engraving Done?

[Illustration: This cut shows a section of a photo-engraving screen enlarged, illustrating the squares above-mentioned. In reality it would take from 100 to 400 of these dots to make an inch, according to the fineness of screen.]

~HOW THE PICTURES IN THIS BOOK ARE MADE~

The first step is the making of the halftone negative which differs from an ordinary negative in being made up of different sized dots instead of shades of gray. This result is obtained by photographing the picture through a halftone screen consisting of two pieces of glass, ruled with black lines and cemented together so the lines cross at right angles and leave small squares of clear glass.

The effect of making the negative in this way is to represent the different shades from black to white by large or small dots. Wet plate photography is usually used in this process because the film is thinner and more intensely black besides being cheaper than dry plates.

[Illustration:

New Process Engraving Co.

This cut shows a portion of a halftone cut enlarged so that the dots can be seen very plainly.]

Having made the negative the next step is to make a printing plate from it. To do this, a piece of metal, copper if the work is fine, and zinc for coarser work, is coated with a solution which is sensative to light, fish glue is commonly used to which is added a small amount of ammonium bichromate. The metal being coated and dried, it is put in a very strong frame with the negative and squeezed together so that they are in perfect contact. A powerful light is now directed upon the negative with the metal behind it, the result being that wherever the light goes through the white spaces in the negative, the coating on the metal is rendered insoluble. Where the dots on the negative are, the light is unable to get at the coating so that when the metal is removed from the frame and thoroughly washed this part of the coating washes away, leaving the part which the light got at attached to the metal. This is now heated until the enamel, as the coating is called, turns dark brown and the picture can be easily seen.

The picture is now on the metal but it must be made to stand out in relief before it can be used for printing from, so it is put in a bath of acid which eats away that part of the metal left uncovered by the washing away of the coating and this leaves the dots which make up the picture standing up in relief. A roller covered with very thick paste-like ink is now rolled over the picture, or cut as it is now called, and when a piece of paper is pressed against the ink covered cut each little dot leaves a mark of ink on the paper the total making up the picture as we see it.

There are many more wonderful things connected with the making of cuts such as the routing machine which has a tool that revolves so fast that it turns around 300 times while the clock ticks once, and other machines which cut hard metal as easily as you can cut a potato with a knife.

Colored pictures are also made by the process outlined above. The picture is photographed three times with a different colored piece of glass in front of the lens, the result being three negatives, one of which has all the blue, one all the red and the other all the yellow in the picture. By making cuts from each negative and printing them on top of one another in yellow, red, and blue, the original picture is reproduced in all its colors. This is how all our pretty magazine covers are made.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Editors of the Book of Wonders make acknowledgment herewith to the following. All mentioned have been a great assistance in making the book not only possible but authentic:

Spencerian Pen Co. Eastman Kodak Co. American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Remington Arms Co. Bethlehem Steel Co. American Portland Cement Manufacturers Assn. Brainerd & Armstrong Silk Co. Corticelli Silk Co. Curtiss Aeroplane Co. U. S. Beet Sugar Industry. Hartford Carpet Co. Haynes Automobile Co. Jacobs & Davis, Engineers. Pennsylvania Railroad Co. Endicott, Johnson & Co. United Shoe Machinery Co. Sherwin-Williams Co. Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. The Colliery Engineer. Lake Torpedo Boat Co. Western Union Telegraph Co. New York Edison Co. Westinghouse Lamp Co. Consolidated Gas, Electric Light and Power Co. of Baltimore. Browning Engineering Co. The White Star Line. Marconi Wireless Co. Plymouth Cordage Co. American Woolen Co. The Vitagraph Co. The B. F. Goodrich Co. The Goodyear Rubber and Tire Co. The Lexington Chocolate Co. The Hecker-Jones Milling Co. The White Oak Mills. The H. C. White Company. A. I. Root Company. Kohler & Campbell. Browne & Howell Co. P. & F. Corbin. Otis Elevator Co. Scientific American. Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Homer W. Laughlin Co. S. D. Warren & Co. C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co. Mergenthaler Linotype Co. J. F. Tapley & Co. New Process Engraving Co. Mutual Film Corporation. Tobacco Trade Journal Co. McClure’s Magazine. James Arthur. Seth Thomas. American Locomotive Co. New York Central Railroad Co. Columbia Rope Co. Carl Werner. National Wool Growers Assn.

INDEX

=Acid=, carbonic, what it is, 509

=Aerial=, on ship, (illus.), 455

=Aeroplanes=, English Channel crossing (illus.), 132 Curtiss biplane (illus.), 131 first demonstrations of, 130 first flight in Europe, 129 first man-carrying (illus.), 128 first successful (illus.), 126 gas motors used in, 130 gliding, 137 greatest present value of, 136 records of, 131 red wing (illus.), 131 what two brothers accomplished for, 130 Wright Bros.’ inventions, 130

=Age=, why do we, 196

=Air=, does it move with the earth? 400 does it weigh anything? 398 dust in, 38 extend, how far does, 243

=Airlocks=, description of in tunnel building, 213

=Ammunition=, first invention of, 40 fixed, 47 in prehistoric times, 40

=Animals=, can they think? 194 is man an, 180 that leap greatest distance, 122 which foretell weather, 240

=Anthracite seams= (illus.), 260

=Aqueduct= (illus.), 505

=Are= matches poisonous, 294

=Armor=, in the Middle Ages, 44

=Army=, wireless in the, 448-451

=Are= there two sides to the rainbow? 254

=Arrow=, what causes it to fly? 408

=At= what point does water boil? 220

=At= what rate does thought travel? 242

=Australian Ballot=, where first used, 122

=Automobile= (illus.), axle, location of, 186 beginning of, 183 carburetor, location of, 184 carburetor, use of, 184 chassis, complete, 188 cog-wheels, use of, 183 cog-wheels, location of (illus.), 183 crankcase, location of (illus.), 183 cylinder, location of (illus.), 184 drive shaft, location of (illus.), 187 electric generator, use of, 185 exhaust, 184 fenders, location of, 188 fenders, use of, 188 finished car (illus.), 189 first American (illus.), 189 fly-wheel, location of (illus.), 183 fly-wheel, use of, 183 frame (illus.), 186 gasoline, what it does, 183 gasoline tank, location of, 187 gears, location of (illus.), 183 gears, use of, 183 heart of (illus.), 184 how improved, 190 magneto, location of, 185 magneto, use of, 185 marvellous growth of twenty years, 189 modern power plant complete, 190 oil pan, use of, 184 oil pump, location of, 184 piston, location of (illus.), 183 piston, use of, 183 power plant, an (illus.), 185 radiator, location of (illus.), 188 radiator, use of, 188 ready for the wheels, 187 second stage of construction (illus.), 186 self-starter, location of, 185 self starter, use of, 185 Smithsonian exhibit of complete power plant, 190 springs, location of (illus.), 186 springs, use of, 186 steering gear, location of (illus.), 187 street scene 20 years ago, 189 transmission, location of, 186 tire pump, use of, 185 tires, how made, 382 transmission, use of, 186 water pump, location of, 185 water pump, use of, 185 what the completed chassis looks like (illus.), 188

=Bacon, Roger=, discoverer of gunpowder, 44

=Balance=, effect of sunlight on, 37

=Baldness=, chief course of, 143 why some people are, 143

=Ball=, why it bounces, 63 bearings, what they are, 180

=Balloon=, what keeps it up, 199 why it goes up, 199

=Ballot=, when first used, 122 Australian, where first used, 122

=Bearings, Ball=, what they are, 180

=Bee=, how it lives, 336 why it has a sting, 336

=Bell, Alexander Graham= (illus.), 70 first telephone, 72

=Bend=, why things, 62

=Biplanes=, Curtiss (illus.), 131 in flight, Curtiss (illus.), 136

=Birds=, how do they find the old home? 408 how they learn to fly, 178 how they find their way, 407 reproduction of life in, 179 why do they sing? 408

=Birds’ Eggs=, why different colors, 233

=Blasting= gelatin, definition of, 206

=Bleriot, M.=, first European flights, 129

=Blotter=, capillary attraction of, 18 how it takes up ink, 18

=Blush=, why do we, 194

=Boat=, how it can sail under water, 269 hydroplane of submarine, 270 inside of a submarine (illus.), 272

=Bodies=, swiftest moving, 25

=Boiling= point of water, 220 what makes water, 220

=Boring mill= (illus.), 56

=Bottles=, gurgle in, 63

=Bounce=, why a ball will, 63

=Bow=, long (illus.), 42

=Bow-and-Arrow=, invention of, 43

=Boxes=, match, how made, 294

=Brazil, Emperor of=, receives first words over telephone, 74

=Bread=, how flour is made, 462 difference in Graham and whole wheat, 461 grinding wheat (illus.), 464 harvesting wheat, 460 loaves of world (illus.), 459 origin and meaning of, 460 purifying machine (illus.), 463 separating fibre germs (illus.), 463 wheat conditioning (illus.), 462 when wheat was first used in making, 461 where it comes from, 460 why so important, 460

=Break=, why things, 62

=Breech=, of a big gun, 53

=Breech-loaders= in Civil War, 48 in rifle, 47

=Brush=, in writing, invention of, 13 in writing (illus.), 13

=Bullets=, cupro-nickel used in, 50 grading of, 51 weighing of (illus.), 49