CHAPTER II

. THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF RACE

13 : 7. See W. D. Matthew, _Climate and Evolution_; John C. Merriam, _The Beginnings of Human History, Read from the Geological Record: The Emergence of Man_, especially pp. 208–209 of the first part; and Madison Grant, _The Origin and Relationships of North American Mammals_, pp. 5–7.

13 : 20. Mendelism. See Edwin G. Conklin, 1, chap. III, C, pp. 224 _seq._, or 2, vol. X, no. 2, pp. 170 _seq._ Also Punnett’s _Mendelism_, or the appendix to Castle’s _Genetics and Eugenics_, which is a translation of Mendel’s paper. Practically all late writers on heredity give Mendel’s principles.

13 : 22–14 : 10 For these and other statements on heredity see the writings of Charles B. Davenport, Frederic Adams Woods, G. Archdall Reid, Edwin G. Conklin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, E. B. Wilson, J. Arthur Thomson, William E. Castle, and Henry Fairfield Osborn, 2.

14 : 10 _seq._ Blends. E. G. Conklin remarks in correspondence: “In so far as races interbreed, their characters mingle but do not blend or fuse, and come out again in all their purity in descendants.” See also the same authority, 1, pp. 208, 280, 282–287.

Every now and then an observation is met with which corroborates this statement. The inheritance from one parent or the other of the shape of the skull, in a fairly pure form, has been noted a number of times.

Fleure and James in their study of the _Anthropological Types in Wales_, p. 39, make the following observation: “It may be said that certain component features of head form, in many cases, seem to segregate more or less in Mendelian fashion, but this is a matter for further investigation; we are on safer ground in saying that the children of parents of different head form very frequently show a fairly complete resemblance to one or other parent, _i. e._, that head form is frequently inherited in a fairly pure fashion.”

Von Luschan found still more striking evidence of this in his study of modern Greeks, which he describes in his _Early Inhabitants of Western Asia_. He has found that the children of parents of different head form inherit in quite strict fashion the shape of skull of one or the other parent, and that the population, instead of being mesaticephalic, is to-day as distinctly divided into two groups, dolichol- and brachycephalic, as in prehistoric times, in spite of the constant intermixture that has occurred.

14 : 18. See notes to p. 13. This is a statement made by Dr. Davenport, in correspondence.

15 : 17. On the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon types consult Professor Arthur Keith, 1, pp. 101–120, and 2; also Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1, the table on p. 23, pp. 214 _seq._, 289 _seq._, 291–305 and elsewhere, and the authorities given.

On the resurgence of types, see Beddoe, 4; Fleure and James; Giuffrida-Ruggeri; Parsons; and numerous other recent anthropologists.

15 : 25. See the notes to p. xix of the Introduction to this book, and Keith, 2.

15 : 29 _seq._ Professor G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, chap. IV, and pp. 41 _seq._ On p. 43 we read: “If we want to add to such sources of information and complete the picture of the early Egyptian ... he can be found reincarnated in his modern descendants with surprisingly little change, either in physical characteristics or mode of life, to show for the passage of six thousand years.” On p. 44: “Although alien elements from north and south have been coming into Upper Egypt for fifty centuries, it has been a process of percolation, and not an overwhelming rush; the population has been able to assimilate the alien minority and retain its own distinctive features and customs with only slight change; and however large a proportion of the population has taken on hybrid traits resulting from Negro, Arab, or Armenoid admixture, there still remain in the Thebaid large numbers of its people who present features and bodily conformation precisely similar to those of their remote ancestors, the Proto-Egyptians.” See also G. Sergi, 1, p. 65, and 4, p. 200.

17 : 5. See Franz Boas, _Changes in the Bodily Form of the Descendants of Immigrants_, pp. 9, 27, etc.

17 : 28–18 : 7. See the notes to p. 13.

18 : 13. See notes to p. 14. Also Ripley, pp. 465–466 for a statement as to brunetness.

18 : 24–19 : 2. E. G. Conklin, 1, pp. 454–455, and 2, especially vol. X, no. 1, pp. 55–58.

19 : 3. Anders Retzius was the first to make use of the head form in anthropological study, and to give the impetus to the index measurement system in _The Form of the Skulls of the Northern Peoples of Europe_. See also A. C. Haddon, 1, chap. I, in which he discusses these traits in full, and Ripley, chap. III, especially pp. 55 _seq._ Modern physical anthropologists still agree that the skull form is a most stable and reliable character.

19 : 25. Ripley, p. 39.

19 : 27–pp. 20 and 21. Beddoe, Broca, Collignon, Livi, Topinard and a host of other anthropologists all affirm the existence of three European racial types, which Ripley has discussed exhaustively. Deniker alone differs from them in classifying the populations of Europe, from the same data, into six principal races and four or more sub-races. See Appendix D, in Ripley’s _Races of Europe_.

The three terms, Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean, have now become quite generally accepted designations for the three European races. The term Nord, rather than Nordic, has been chosen, perhaps more wisely, by some authors. In the present book these names are applied with quite different connotations from those usually understood.

It cannot be too clearly stated that in speaking of Nordics, the proto-type was probably quite generalized, with hair shades including the browns and reds. In the author’s opinion the blond Scandinavian represents an extreme specialization of Nordic characters. (See p. 167 of this book.)

20 : 5–24. The term Nordic was first used by Deniker. The authorities for the descriptions of these races may all be found in Ripley. The Mediterranean race was first defined by Sergi, who also calls it Eurafrican. The term Alpine, proposed by Linnæus, was revived by DeLapouge, and later adopted by Ripley, since when it has come into general use. Sergi and Zaborowski prefer that of Eurasian. While this latter name does cover the requirements, since it correctly signifies not only the European and Asiatic range of the people under discussion, but also their actual relationship to Asiatics, it is objectionable because it implies the adoption of the similarly constructed term Eurafrican, which, as defined by Sergi, is misleading. Correct as Eurafrican may be for signifying the European and African range of the Mediterranean race, it involves an acceptance of the theory put forward by its sponsor, that the Mediterranean race originated in Africa and is closely related to the negro, both being long skulled peoples, descended from a common stock, the Eurafrican.

The chief objection to the term Mediterranean is that the race extends in habitat beyond the Mediterranean region, but the name is now so generally accepted and this fact so well known that misunderstandings are unlikely. The term Alpine, also, is not as inappropriate as it might seem, since the word Alps is frequently not confined to the Swiss ranges but extended to many other mountain chains, and Alpine, like the term Mediterranean, is not, at this late date, apt to be misunderstood.

20 : 24–21: 9. Von Luschan, _The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia_, pp. 221–244, and G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_.

22 : 10. Thomson, _Heredity_, p. 387; Darwin, _Descent of Man_; Boas, _Modern Populations of America_, p. 571.

22: 25. Haddon, 1, pp. 15 _seq._

22 : 29. The same, pp. 12–14.

23 : 8. Clark Wissler, in _The American Indian_, makes clear the general uniformity of American Indian types in chap. XVIII. See also Haddon, 1, p. 8, and Hrdlička, _The Genesis of the American Indian_, pp. 559 _seq._

23 : 13. Haddon, 1, pp. 10 and 11. There are numerous other references to this fact, especially in articles in various anthropological journals, and general works on anthropology, such as those of Deniker, Collignon, Martin and Ratzel.

23 : 16. For the differentiation of skull types in Europe during the Paleolithic period, see Keith, 2, the chapters on Pre-Neolithic, Mousterian and Neanderthal man; and 1, pp. 74 _seq._; as well as Osborn, 1, who also gives the dates of the Paleolithic in the table on p. 18.

24 : 3–5. This claim was put forth by Sergi, in his _Mediterranean Race_, pp. 252, 258–259, and was followed by Ripley in his _Races of Europe_.

24 : 14. Deniker, _Races of Man_, pp. 48–49; Ripley, p. 465.

25 : 5. Topinard, 1, 4; Collignon, 1; and Virchow, 1, p. 325; Ripley, p. 64. Ripley says: “If the hair be light, one can generally be sure that the eyes will be of a corresponding shade. Bassanovitch, ... p. 29, strikingly confirms this rule even for so dark a population as the Bulgarian.”

25 : 6. See p. 163 of this book on the Albanians.

25 : 8. Ripley, pp. 75–76 and the footnote on p. 76.

25 : 11. Deniker, 2, p. 51. Also Davenport, _passim_.

25 : 13. Sir Edmund Loder, in correspondence, February, 1917, asks: “Has it been noticed at Creedmore and elsewhere in America that nearly all noted shots have blue eyes? It has been very noticeable at Wimbledon and Bisby, where it was quite exceptional to find a man in the front rank of marksmen with dark colored eyes. There was, however, one man who shot in my team who had very dark eyes and was one of the best shots of the day.”

25 : 16. There are said to be blue eyes occasionally in other races, where traces of Nordic blood cannot be discovered. Green and blue eyes have been found among the Rendeli (Desert Masai), although they are otherwise normal negroes.

25 : 19. The following quotation is from Von Luschan, 1, p. 224: “In Marmaritza near Halikarnassos, where a British squadron had a winter station for many years, a very great proportion of the children is said to be ‘flaxen-haired.’” According to a statement made to the author by Professor G. Elliot Smith on May 4, 1920, a similar nest of blondness is found in the Egyptian delta near Aboukir and is due to the fact that after the battle of the Nile the Seaforth Highlanders were long stationed there. At one time this blondness was supposed to bear some relation to the ancient Lybian blondness depicted on the monuments.

25 : 25 _seq._ On the Berbers see Sergi, 4, pp. 59 _seq._, and Topinard, 3. In regard to the Albanians, Ripley refers to their blondness, on p. 414, as follows: “The Albanian colonists, studied by Livi and Zampa in Calabria, still, after four centuries of Italian residence and intermixture, cling to many of their primitive characteristics, notably their brachycephaly and their relative blondness.” See also Zampa, 1, and Deniker, 1, for scientific discussions of their physical characters. Giuffrida-Ruggeri gives a summary of the most recent literature on Albania.

25 : 29–26: 6. See Beddoe, _The Races of Britain_, pp. 14, 15 and _passim_.

26 : 18. Beddoe, 4, p. 147.

27 : 1 _seq._ See Ripley, pp. 399–400 for a summary of observations on this point. See also Darwin, _Descent of Man_, pp. 340–341 and 344 _seq._; and Fleure and James, p. 49.

27 : 14–28: 19. Haddon, 1, p. 2; also 2; Deniker, 2, chap. II and _passim_.

28 : 19. Davenport, _passim_; Ripley, _passim_; and any general book on anthropology.

28 : 24–29: 17. Ripley, pp. 80, 81, 84, 108–109, 131, 132, 252, 271, 307. Also see Davenport and Conklin, _passim_, and the notes to p. 18 of this book.

30 : 18–31: 8. For a very interesting discussion of this question see Conklin, 2, vol. IX, no. 6, pp. 492–6; Deniker, 2, p. 18; Haddon, 2, chap. IV; and Louis R. Sullivan, _The Growth of the Nasal Bridge in Children_, are other authorities. Some special studies of the nose have been made by Majer and Koperniki, Weisbach, and Olechnowicz, for which see Ripley, pp. 39 4–395. Jacobs, pp. 23–62, is particularly good on nostrility.

31 : 9. Deniker, 2, p. 83.

31 : 13. On the shape of the foot as a racial character see Rudolf Martin, _Lehrbuch der Anthropologie_, pp. 317 _seq._; and Beddoe, 4, pp. 245 _seq._; W. K. Gregory, 2, p. 14, and John C. Merriam, vol. IX, pp. 202 _seq._, have both discussed the evolution of the foot and the hand, and the anatomical differences which distinguish those of man from those of the apes.

31 : 16. P. Topinard, 2, chap. X, and Rudolf Martin, pp. 367 _seq._

32 : 4. Beard lighter than head hair. Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 850.

32 : 8. The red-haired branch of the Nordics. On red hair see Beddoe, 4, pp. 3, 151–156; Fleure and James, _Anthropological Types in Wales_, pp. 118 _seq._; Ripley, pp. 205–207, based on Arbo; T. Rice Holmes, _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul_, p. 337; and F. G. Parsons, _Anthropological Observations on German Prisoners of War_, pp. 32 _seq._

32 : 21. See notes to p. 66.

33 : 7. Haddon, 1, p. 9 _seq._; Deniker, _Races of Man_; Ratzel, _History of Mankind_; etc.

33 : 13. Haddon, 1, p. 16 _seq._; Deniker; Ratzel; etc.

33 : 23–34: 21. Haddon, 1, pp. 2 and 3, and Deniker, 2, pp. 42 _seq._ While this classification is substantially sound, and sufficient for our purpose, recent investigations have shown that other factors also contribute to straightness or kinkiness, such as coarseness of texture, as opposed to fineness. Probably these will be determined by Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, of the American Museum of Natural History, who is working on the subject. It has been found that the Japanese and Eskimo are exceptions to the rule of “straight hair, round cross section,” for they show an ellipse. There is also a wide range of variation in the cross-sections of hair for individuals of any race, who are classified according to the preponderance of cross-sections of a single type. For a fine series of plates which are photographs of the magnified hair of individuals of various races, see _Das Haupthaar und seiner Bildungsstatte bei den Rassen des Menschen_, Gustave Fritsch. Another recent paper is the study by Leon Augustus Hausmann of Cornell, “The Microscopic Structure of the Hair as an Aid in Race Determination.”

35 : 27. Livi, _Antropometria Militare_, and Ripley, pp. 115, 255 and 258.

36. Deniker, 1; Zampa, 1,2; Weisbach, 1, 2, 3; and others given by Ripley, pp. 411–415.

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