CHAPTER VII

VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS

Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on Construction of Versals — Spacing & Arrangement of Versals.

DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS

The earliest books consisted of a number of lines of continuous writing in capital letters. There were seldom any divisions of the text—into paragraphs, chapters, or the like—or even of one word from another; nor were important words distinguished by larger initials. The first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the text and a mark; later, the first letter of the first complete line of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger. When “small-letters” were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the body of the text, and became distinguishing letters for headings and important words. [p113]

The capitals written at the beginnings of books, chapters, and paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at length were made in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were called “Versals.”[23]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 78.›]

In modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph is generally _indented_ (_a_, fig. 78), but the earlier method of employing a special mark or letter (_b_ or _c_) is more effective, and it might very well be used, even in modern printed books, for fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for illumination and book-ornament, it was (and _is_) the natural method for the penman, who, starting with these useful capitals, by flourishing them—in their [p114] own colour, or by dotting, outlining, or ornamenting them, with a contrasting colour (see fig. 79, from an old MS.), evolved the _Illuminated Initial_.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 79› (_13th century_).]

_Types of Versal Letters_ (examples: Plates IX., X., XI., XII., and figs. 1, 78 to 94, 150, 161, 165, 166, 189).—The earlier Versals had very simple and beautiful pen shapes, and are the best models for the modern penman to follow. After the fourteenth century they were often fattened and vulgarised and overdone with ornament. In this way they not only lost their typical forms; but their “essential forms”—as letters derived from the Roman Alphabet—became much disguised and confounded (see fig. 128). [p115]

GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS

1. THE LETTERS (Pen-made), Built-up, Ornamental (coloured), “Gothic” Capitals (Round and Square forms).

2. HORIZONTALS— _STRAIGHT:_ Medium—commonly the width of the nib.

_CURVED:_ Thin—the thin stroke of the pen.

3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on either side.

4. SERIFS: Long, thin, slightly curved.

5. LONG STEMS: Various (see p. 119, & figs. 84, 90).

6. SPACING— _Letters & Words:_ Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166). _Lines:_ Usually one or more of the _line-spaces_ apart (see pp. 126, 128).

7. ARRANGEMENT: _Singly:_ set in text or margin, or

## part in both (fig. 86).

_Grouped:_ after large initials (fig. 92). _In Lines:_ wide or close, often one word to the line (fig. 89).

8. MEASUREMENTS: _Stem width:_ commonly two or three widths-of-nib across thinnest part (fig. 165). «O» _height:_ commonly one, two, or more of the line-spaces.

9. COMPONENT PARTS: «A» has approx. 10 strokes & filling. «B» has approx. 8 strokes & filling. «C» has approx. 7 strokes & filling. and so on (see fig. 81).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 80.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 81.›]

[p118]

NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION OF VERSALS (See figs. 80, 81, 85, 165)

_Versal Letters_ are properly _built-up_ (p. 291) with true pen-strokes (_b_, fig. 81). Drawn or painted, they acquire a different character (p. 292). Their office being to mark important parts of the text, they are generally distinguished by colour and freedom of form—tending to curves and flourishes.

The pen has an extra long slit (1/2 inch to 3/4 inch), and the _writing-board_ may be lowered (see fig. 46, _b_) to permit of the thick, liquid colour running out freely. The nib is of the ordinary shape (but not too oblique), and generally rather less in width than the nib used for the accompanying text (_a_, fig. 81).

The outlining strokes are quickly written and immediately filled in, each letter being loaded well with the colour, which thereafter dries evenly, with a slightly raised “flat” surface. The liquid colour should be fairly thick (see _colour_, p. 176).

“_Gothic lettering_” is a term used for “Black-letter” and related types, as distinguished from “Roman” types. “Gothic” capitals tend to roundness, the small-letters to angularity, but in each the abrupt change from thick to thin strokes, and the resulting contrast of stroke, are characteristics—the result of pen work.[24] In Versals this contrast is marked; _the ends of the thinner strokes spread_ (see _Addenda_, p. 25, & cross-bar of «A», fig. 71), _and the heavy parts are crossed by thin serifs_. Versals may retain their pen character and yet approach [p119] the “Roman Letter” (p. 294), or be changed into the ornate “Lombardic” (p. 34). They are capable of great variety, and the “round” or “square” «D», «E», «H», «M», and «W» may be used at pleasure.

_The Stems_ curve in slightly on either side. When they are very tall the mid part may be quite straight, imperceptibly curving out towards the ends (_b_, fig. 82). This gives an effect of curvature throughout the length, while keeping the letter graceful and straight. The head of a stem (especially of an _ascender_) should be slightly wider than the foot (fig. 83). _This applies generally to every sort of built-up capitals._

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 82.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 83.›]

The _stem width_ may be nearly the same in Versals of different heights (_a_, fig. 84): generally the letters tend to become _more slender in proportion_ as the letters grow taller (_b_). Very large Versals (or initials) are often made with a hollow stem to avoid a heavy appearance («L», fig. 84). [p120]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 84.›]

_The Serifs_ are long and slightly curved in ornamental forms (fig. 79): shorter, and nearly straight in stiffer forms (fig. 166). In many cases the serifs appear to have been written _first_, the stems being added between them (_f_, fig. 81)—in old MSS. the stems often show ragged ends crossing the serifs. Sometimes the serif appears to have been _added to the stem in two pieces_, half on either side springing from the corners of the stem (_g_). The safest way seems to be the _complete finishing stroke added to, and forming sharp angles with, the stem_ (_h_).

_Arms or Branches._—Width of nib at start, and built-up at free end. (Pen horizontal, figs. 81, 165). [p121]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 85.›]

_The Bows or Curves of Versals_ (and of _built-up_ letters generally) are begun with the _inside stroke_—a rather flat curve: and finished with the outer stroke—a pronounced curve (_a_, fig. 85). This preserves [p122] the continuity of the interior curve, together with the clean contrast of the thick and thin strokes (see _inside shapes_, p. 253). The normal form may be flattened or curved a little (_b_), but _exaggeration_ in either direction produces a degraded form. Part round letters, as «D», «P», and «q», may be begun with _a complete inner oval_, or _a nearly completed_ «O» (to which the stem is added); this preserves their interior symmetry (_c_).

The beauty and quality of Versal letters depends very much on their freedom; _touching-up_ or trimming after they are made is apt to spoil them; and when good letters are made with a free hand, minute roughnesses, which are due to their quick construction, may be regarded as shewing a _good_ rather than a bad form of _care-less_ workmanship (see (_c_) fig. 164).

SPACING & ARRANGEMENT OF VERSALS

(Allowing for the special treatment of Versals called for by the extreme freedom and elasticity of their pen forms, the following remarks apply _generally to the spacing and arrangement of coloured capitals in written pages_)

_Versals accompanying Small Text_ are generally _dropped_ below the writing-line, so that their tops are level with the tops of the small letters (fig. 86).

_Sizes of Versals._—Letters which are of the same importance—_i.e._ serve the same purpose—are usually of like size and form throughout; and the more important a letter, the more it tends to be elaborated and decorated (see figs. 90, 92).

_Special words in Text marked by Versals._—Where coloured capitals are used throughout the text (fig. 92), the colours are usually varied (pp. 134, 185). [p123]

_Line beginnings marked by Versals._—Where every line on a page begins with a coloured capital, the majority of the forms are kept rather plain (see (5) p. 136). They may be effectively treated as a _band_ of simple or variegated colour (p. 136). This is a common treatment for a list of names or a poem; sometimes, especially if there are many lines, _simple-written_ capitals (p. 297) may be used instead of Versals.

_Verses or Paragraphs_ may be marked by Versals _set in the text_ (_a_), or _part in margin, part in text_ (_b_), or _wholly in the margin_ (_c_, fig. 86). The marginal capital is the simplest, and it has the advantage of leaving the page of text entire; it may, however, sometimes be desirable _to break the continuity_ by an inset capital, especially in cases of closely written text, or of _stanzas not spaced apart_ (see p. 138).

The first word of a paragraph, which is begun with a Versal, is often completed in _simple-written_ capitals of the same colour as the text (_a_, fig. 86).

_Various ways of marking Paragraphs._—(_a_) The paragraph marks @, ¶, preferably coloured, may be used instead of (or even _with_) Versals (_comp._ fig. 95); (_b_) by one word or line (or several words or lines) of _simple-written_ (or built-up) capitals in black or colour (see fig. 93); (_c_) by some suitable _ornament_ (see fig. 87); (_d_) in many cases it is well to have spaces between the paragraphs or verses (see p. 138).

_Line-Finishings at the ends of Verses, &c._ (pp. 205, 425), _may be made with the Versal pens and colours._ [p124]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 86.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 87.›]

[p125]

_To mark Chapters_ (or even Books), extra large Versals (fig. 88) may be used, in lieu of more elaborate initials. Smaller Versals may be grouped round about, beside or inside initials (p. 208 & fig. 92).

_Headings and Pages in Capitals_ (see also pp. 128, 132).—Each line of capitals is generally kept uniform throughout its length,[25] though different lines vary in size and colour (see fig. 89). If it be possible it is well to keep the individual word entire [p126] and to let the heading or page contain the complete _initial phrase or sentence_ (see fig. 91).

Generally the greater the number of capitals the _plainer_ their forms are kept, and the closer their spacing. It is best to keep to the regular method of _spacing the lines of Versals one of the writing-line spaces (or more) apart_—though in special cases the Versals may be independent of the writing-lines.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 88.›]

_Spacing Out._—Coloured letters and ornaments are usually put in after the plain MS. has been written. A very little practice enables the scribe accurately to guess the amount of space which he should leave for the Versals, &c., whether it is designed to have several lines of them, or a single letter only on the page. A few pencil marks may be used to settle a doubtful point, but an elaborate sketching or setting out in pencil spoils the freedom of the work. [p127]

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