CHAPTER XVII
INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE (_By A. E. R. Gill_)
Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets — Size & Spacing — The Material — Setting Out — Tools — A Right Use of the Chisel — Incised Letters & Letters in Relief — The Sections of Letters — Working _in situ_.
TREATMENT & ARRANGEMENT
_Treatment._—Inscriptions are carved in stone for many uses: for Foundation Stones and Public Inscriptions, for Tombstones and Memorial Inscriptions, for Mottos and Texts, for Names and Advertisements, and each subject suggests its own treatment.
Names and Advertisements should be easily read, and usually entirely unornamental. The Treatment of Texts, Memorial Inscriptions, Foundation Stones, &c., may, according to the needs of the case or the opportunities of the carver, be either simple or elaborate.
Colour and Gold may be used both for the beauty of them and, in places where there is little light, to increase legibility.
_Arrangement._—There are two methods of arranging Inscriptions: the “_Massed_” and the [p390] “_Symmetrical_.” In the former the lines are very close together, and approximately equal in length, and form a mass. Absolute equality is quite unnecessary. Where the lines are very long it is easy to make them equal; but with lines of few words it is very difficult, besides being derogatory to the appearance of the Inscription. In the “_Symmetrical_” Inscription the length of the lines may vary considerably, and each line (often comprising a distinct phrase or statement) is placed in the centre of the Inscription space.
Short Inscriptions,such as those usually on Tombstones or Foundation Stones, may well be arranged in the “_Symmetrical_” way, but long Inscriptions are better arranged in the “_Massed_” way, though, sometimes, the two methods may be combined in the same Inscription.
THE THREE ALPHABETS
_The Roman Alphabet_, the alphabet chiefly in use to-day, reached its highest development in Inscriptions incised in stone (see Plate I.), and it became absolutely suited to the material.
Besides ROMAN CAPITALS, it is necessary that the letter-cutter should know how to carve Roman small-letters[119] (or “Lower case”) and _Italics_, either of which may be more suitable than Capitals for some Inscriptions.
Where great magnificence combined with great legibility[120] is required, use large Roman Capitals, [p391] Incised or in Relief, with plenty of space between the letters and the lines.
Where great legibility but less magnificence is required, use “Roman Small-Letters” or “Italics,” or Roman Capitals, either small, or close together, or both.
All three Alphabets may be used together, as, for instance, on a Tombstone, one might carve the Name in Capitals and the rest of the Inscription in Small-Letters, using Italics for difference.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 209.›]
_Beauty of Form_ may safely be left to a right use of the chisel, combined with a well-advised study of the best examples of Inscriptions: such as that on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.) and other Roman Inscriptions in the South Kensington and British Museums, for Roman CAPITALS; and sixteenth and seventeenth century tombstones, for Roman small-letters and _Italics_.[121] If the simple [p392] elementary form of the letter be cut firmly and directly, it will be found that the chisel will suggest how that form may be made beautiful. This may be shown, for example, by an attempt to carve a quite simple Incised letter with no Serifs and with all the strokes equally thick. In making the ends of the strokes nice and clean it will be found that there is a tendency to spread them into Serifs, and the letter is at once, in some sort, beautified (see fig. 209).
SIZE & SPACING
_Drawing out._—Take paper and pencil, or what you will, and write out the words of the Inscription in Capitals, or small-letters (or both), without any regard to scale or the shape of the space the Inscription is to go in. The carver will then see easily of what letters and words his Inscription is composed. Next draw the shape of the Inscription space (say to 1 inch or 1-1/2 inch scale), and in that space set out the Inscription, either “_Massed_” or “_Symmetrical_,” as has been decided. The drawing should be neither scribbled nor elaborated. A good plan is to cut the lead of the pencil to a chisel shape. The natural _thicks and thins_ of the letters (see p. 44) may then be produced easily and quickly. The carver will thus be able, after a little experience, to calculate quite easily what size he will be able to carve his letters, what space he will be able to leave between the lines, and what margins he can afford.[122] [p393]
_The Size of Lettering_ depends on where it is to go (_i.e._ outdoors or indoors, far away or near), the material to be used, and the space at the carver’s disposal.
_Out of Doors_ letters should not, as a rule, be less than 1-1/4 inch high, more if possible.[123]
_Indoors_ smaller lettering may be carved, but even then 1 inch is quite small enough, and that only in marble, slate, or the finest stones.
In such stones as _Ancaster_ or _Ham-Hill_ it is not possible to carve good letters less than 3 inches high.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 210.›]
More than one size of letter may be used in the same Inscription to give emphasis to certain words, thus: on a Foundation Stone the Date (see fig. 210), [p394] and on a Tombstone the Name (see fig. 211), may be made larger than the rest.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 211.›]
_Spacing._—Proper spacing is essential to a good Inscription. As a general rule, Roman letters should not be crowded together. Space should be left between each, varying according to the letters—a narrower space between two O’s, for example, and, generally, a wider space between two straight letters. The lines may be about the height of the lettering apart (see Plate I.) or pretty close together (see Plate XXIV.).
_Margins._—If the Inscription is to be carved in a panel, the surrounding mouldings take the place of margins, and the lettering may fill the panel (see fig. 211). If any space be left, let it come, as it [p395] naturally will, at the bottom. If the lettering is not to be in a panel, the margins depend primarily on what the carver can afford, and where the Inscription is to go. Every case must be treated on its own merits, but as a general rule one may say that the bottom margin should be the widest and the top margin the narrowest.
THE MATERIAL
The best quality a stone can have, from a letter-cutter’s point of view, is fineness or closeness of texture, combined with freedom from holes and flints or occasional shells, and the letter-cutter will do well to choose the stone himself, if possible, having regard to this quality.
The following is a list of a few of the best stones for outdoor and indoor use:—
_Outdoors or Indoors._
Portland.—Especially good for lettering on account of its fineness and its excellent weathering qualities, for it not only hardens on the surface, but also becomes quite white if exposed to wind and rain, thus showing very clearly any differences of light and shade.
Hoptonwood Slate Fine and hard: good weathering qualities. Great delicacy may be attained in these.
Ancaster Ham-Hill Ketton Only suitable for large lettering.
_Indoors only._
Clunch Chalk Very fine and delicate work may be done in these.
Bath.—A cheap stone, and easily carved; but unsuitable for small lettering.
Marbles and Alabasters.—Excellent for Inscriptions indoors, but much colour or veining tends to confuse lettering.
[p396]
SETTING OUT
The stone being ready for the setting out, _i.e._ smoothed and cleaned, lines are ruled on it for the lines of lettering and margins with a pencil or point. If the Inscription is to be arranged “_Symmetrically_,” a centre line is ruled from top to bottom.
The carver should rule and set out one line and carve that before ruling another, as pencil marks are liable to be rubbed off by the hand in carving.[124]
In “_Setting Out_,” the spacing of the letters is thought of rather than their forms. And though the beginner may find careful drawing helpful, the forms which may best be produced with the chisel are found only by practice and experience (p. 399).
TOOLS
_The chisels_ needed for simple work are flat chisels of the following sizes:—
1/16 inch, 1/4 inch, 3/8 inch, 1/2 inch, 1 inch.
The shanks should be about 7 inches long.
It will be found useful to keep a few “_Bull-nosed_” chisels (see 7, fig. 212) for use in cutting curves, and a few “_skewed_” chisels (8, fig. 212) for use in cutting the background of Raised letters, as a chisel of that shape is more easily used in a corner.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 212.›]
The chisels are either _Hammer-headed_ or _Mallet-headed_, or they may have wooden handles [p397] (see fig. 212, and pp. 401–2). The Hammer-headed are the most used, and a good number should be procured. The best are made with _cupped_ ends, to prevent them from slipping on the hammer (see 5, fig. 212). [p398]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 213.›]
_Temper and Sharpness._—Above all things the chisels must be of the right temper, and sharp.[125] They may be tempered by a smith or tool-maker—if the craftsman can do it for himself, so much the [p399] better. They are sharpened on a piece of _Grit-stone_ (hard York stone, for instance) with water. The Temper of a chisel may be seen by the colour (blue shows a soft or low-temper, straw colour a hard or high temper), and felt by the way it rubs on the Grit-stone (a hard tool will slide easily over the stone, while a soft one will seem to stick or cling).[126]
_Mallets._—A wooden mallet or _Mell_, a Zinc mallet or _Dummy_, and an iron or steel hammer are required (fig. 213).
_The Mell_ is made wholly of wood, and should, for letter cutting, be about 5-1/2 inches in diameter.
_The Dummy_ has a head of zinc and a wooden handle. It should be about 2-1/2 inches in diameter.
_The hammer_ should be about the same size and weight as the Dummy.
A RIGHT USE OF THE CHISEL
The workman must find out, for himself, how best to use his tools. In the ordinary way, it is best to hold the chisel at an angle of about 45° with the surface of the stone—in the manner shown in fig. 214—in cutting both straight stems and curves. The chisel is held firmly (usually in the left hand, with the little finger about an inch from the cutting end of the chisel) and tapped rather than banged, and lightly rather than heavily.
The best way to cut a letter is to start at the extreme left-hand point of the bottom Serif, and, working upwards, to cut the left side of the stroke first. Then start similarly at the extreme right-hand point of the bottom Serif, and cut the right side of the stroke. Then finish the Serifs. [p400]
When cutting a curve, cut the inside first (fig. 214), and start as near the narrowest part of the curve as possible.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 214.›]
In Incised letters unnecessary junctions of the parts may be avoided (see fig. 215). Where they are necessary, as in a capital E, or in a small «y», cut [p401] away from the junction or down on to it, rather than towards it.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 215.›]
The Mallet-headed and wooden-handled chisels are used with the Mell for large work and for cutting surfaces. [p402]
The Hammer-headed chisels are used with the hammer for ordinary work, and with the Dummy for small and delicate work.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 216.›]
A Mallet or Dummy is not used in carving chalk, but the chisel is pushed; the right hand doing the pushing, and the left hand guiding and steadying the chisel (see fig. 216). If the chisel [p403] were struck, the surface of the chalk would flake off.
In cutting an Incised Inscription with the ordinary “V” section (see fig. 217), use one size of chisel throughout. The width of the chisel should generally be about the width of the letter stem required. More elaborate sections necessitate the use of several sizes of chisels.
INCISED LETTERS & LETTERS IN RELIEF
Inscriptions may be _Incised_ or in _Relief_, that is, sunk or raised.[127] The _modus operandi_ and the time spent in carving the actual letters are the same in either case, but whereas when the Incised letter is carved there is nothing more to be done, after the carving of the Raised letter there is still the stone surrounding it (_i.e._ the background) to be dealt with, and this may simply be carved smooth,[128] or, if our imagination be strong enough, and our hand have the cunning, it may become under the tool a field of roses and lilies in which the letters are set.
Other things being equal, it becomes a question of economy which form of lettering one will carve, as the necessity of dealing with the background of a Raised Inscription, while more than doubling the opportunities of the carver, at least doubles the time spent in carving.
Raised lettering will show out more clearly than Incised lettering where there is little light. [p404]
Roman Capitals are more adapted for carving in Relief than are Roman small-letters or Italics, which are directly derived from the pen.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 217.›]
Raised lettering is more allied to ordinary carving, while Incised lettering may be thought of as writing in stone. [p405]
THE SECTIONS OF LETTERS
_For Incised letters_, a “V” section (1, fig. 217) of about 60° is best for regular use; deeper rather than shallower. The letters may with advantage be cut a little deeper towards the Serifs (see fig. 218).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 218.›]
Although the simple “V” section is the most useful, other sections may be used for large letters (_i.e._ letters more than 6 inches high), or letters in a very fine material (2 & 3, fig. 217).
If the lettering is to be gilded, and the stone will permit of it, Section 4 (fig. 217) is a good one to use. Only the curved part is to be Gilded, and not the small bevelled sides.
_For Raised letters_, the best and most useful section is No. 5; the slightly bevelled sides tell as part of the letter. Experience, and the weathering conditions, will suggest the amount of Relief to be given. For letters 1-1/2 inch high, out of doors, 3/16 inch of relief is ample, and if there be good light 1/8 inch is enough. Excessive relief looks clumsy.
Sections Nos. 6 and 7 are suitable only for large letters; and elaborate sections should as a rule be used only for letters standing alone.
WORKING _IN SITU_
If possible the carver should work _in situ_. When that is impracticable,[129] he should consider most carefully where his Inscription is to go. [p406]
In an Inscription which is much above the eye level, the letters may be narrower in proportion to their height, and the horizontal strokes extra thick to allow for foreshortening. (See also pp. 351, 270.)
The advantages of working _in situ_ are great, for by so doing the carver sees his job as he works under the same conditions of light and environment that it will finally be seen under, and the work is more likely to become a part of the place because it has grown there.
And it is good to carve an Inscription on the actual wall of a fine building, and better still to work in the inspiriting atmosphere of building in progress, or to work in the open air where the artificial notions of workshop or studio are dissipated and the feeling of life and freedom gained.
―――――――――――――――――――― FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX B:
[119] With which we may include Arabic numerals.
[120] It should be clearly understood that legibility by no means excludes either beauty or ornament. The ugly form of “_Block_” _letter_ so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful Roman lettering on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.).
[121] Roman small-letters and Italics, being originally pen letters, are still better understood if the carver knows how to use a pen, or, at least, has studied good examples of manuscripts in which those letters are used.
[122] Some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the client as to _the number of words_ and _the space they will occupy_ in cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other.
[123] Small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors, and is apt to get filled with dirt or moss.
[124] Whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound to follow a drawing strictly, but should do his work in the straightforward manner described above. Unfortunately he is often obliged to set out the whole Inscription exactly before carving it, and in such a case it is usual to carve the bottom line of letters first and to work upwards, cutting the first line last.
[125] Really sharp, _i.e._ sharp enough to cut a piece of paper without tearing it.
[126] The harder the stone to be carved, the more highly tempered will the chisels need to be.
[127] In learning to cut Inscriptions one would naturally begin with Incised letters.
[128] Where the ground between the letters is left plain, an absolute flatness and evenness is not necessary. The common method of jabbing or “pecking” the background is objectionable.
[129] _E.g._ Tombstones and Memorial Slabs are not usually fixed until finished.
[p409]
NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
(‹Note.›—_In order to make the illustrations [whether of facsimiles or enlargements] as large and as full as possible, I have sacrificed “appearance” to use and allowed most of the collotype plates, and many of the diagrams in the book, to encroach on the margins.—E. J._)
_GENERAL NOTE._—All the plates are in _facsimile_ as to size (or _nearly so_, allowing for errors in reproduction) except I., II., XXII., and XXIV., which had to be _reduced_, and therefore only _portions_ of the MSS. can be shown. ‹Note.›—All the MSS. are on “Vellum” (see p. 173). In order to get a better impression of the size and general proportion of a MS., the student might reconstruct it—or at least mark off the margins, text, &c.—on paper, from the measurements given. Or a sheet of paper might be cut to the size of the given page or _opening_, with an aperture (in its proper place) through which the plate might be viewed.
The plates are arranged in chronological order as nearly as possible. They are intended briefly to illustrate the _Development of the Formal Book Hands from the Roman Capital_ and _the General Development of the Illuminated MS._: I hope, moreover, that, fragmentary as they are, they will prove usefully suggestive in regard to _the Arrangement of Text and Lettering and Ornament_. The wonderful effect of the colouring cannot be given here, but, in any case, the illuminator should look at some original MSS. Several of the MSS. from which the plates are taken are exhibited in the British Museum.
_PLATE I.—Portion of Inscription on base of Trajan Column,^* Rome, circa 114 ‹A.D.› Scale approx. 1/9th linear._
THE STONE (within the internal line of the moulding): 3 feet 9 inches high, and 9 feet 3/4 inch long. [p410]
THE BORDERS.—The lettering practically fills the panel (see p. 352): the surrounding moulding is approx. 4 inches wide.
THE LETTERS (_for their forms_ see next note).
Approximate heights First two lines: 4-1/2 inches high. Second two lines: 4-3/8 ” ” Fifth line: 4-1/8 ” ” Last line: 3-7/8 ” ”
THE SPACES (between Lines) decrease from 3 inches to 2-3/4 inches. A decrease in the height of the letters from the top to the foot line is common in early inscriptions (see figs. 203–205). Several reasons for this suggest themselves: (_a_) (Sometimes the beginning words, being farther from the reader, may require to be larger). (_b_) The architectural beauty of a large heading (comp. _stem heads_, p. 288). (_c_) The importance of _beginnings_ generally (there is very often a marked difference between the upper lines containing important words and the rest of the inscription: comp. figs. 197, 91).
‹Note.›—The WORDS are separated by triangular points (p. 384).
―――――――――――――――――――― * There is a cast (No. 1864–128) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, where also the photograph of the inscription is obtainable, from portions of which Plates I. and II. are reproduced.
PLATE II.—_Alphabet from Trajan Inscription._ (_Circa_ 114 ‹A.D.›) _Scale approx. 1/6th linear._ (See note above.)
THE “TRAJAN” ALPHABET.— Very fine letters for inscriptions in stone: possibly painted before incision (see p. 292); see also remarks on Roman Capitals, pp. 268–296, and note:—
SERIFS.—Small and carefully curved.
THIN PARTS about half the width of the _thick stems_ (pp. 375, 285).
A (M and N), _pointed_ (p. 280).
B—a very beautiful form, with large lower _bow_ (p. 278).
C, G, and (D)—Upper parts rather straight (p. 281).
E and F—_mid arm_ slightly shorter than upper arm.
E and L—_lower serif_ pointed out (p. 282). [p411]
LO (shown sideways in collotype) and LT show L’s _arm_ projecting under next letter.
M—_pointed_: slightly spread (p. 284), distance apart of points above equal to _inside_ distance of stems below.
N—_pointed_: practically no difference in thickness of vertical and oblique parts (p. 285).
O—very beautiful: _width slightly less than height_ (p. 270); slightly _tilted_ (as are all the other curved letters: see p. 285).
P—_Bow_ not joined to stem below (first P rounder topped).
Q—_tail_ carried under V (U).
R—_large bow_: straight tail, with finishing-curve (p. 291).
S—leans forward slightly (p. 286).
_Proportions of widths to heights_ (comp. with pp. 269–273) OCDGMNQ width slightly _less_ than height. ARTV width approx. 1/6th _less_ than height. BX width rather more than _half_ height. P width approx. equal _half_ height. LS width slightly _less_ than half height. EF width approx. 3/7ths of height.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 219.›]
H, (J), K, (U), W, Y, Z are not present in the inscription. A rough diagram (fig. 219) is given below showing approximately suitable forms for these (_Re junction of_ «U» _in stone;_ see p. 400, & fig. 215). [p412]
PLATE III.—_Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century._ (_Virgil’s “Æneid”_).
(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 208, of a MS. in the library of S. Gall, Switzerland. See also “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 185.)
LETTERS.—Simple-written (slanted-pen) Roman “Square Capitals.”
WORDS in early MSS. were not separated (p. 112).
LINES ruled with a hard point (p. 343). The letters appear to have been written between every alternate pair (p. 299), but slightly over the line.
A very handsome writing which might still be used for special MSS. (see pp. 304, 300, 299).
PLATE IV.—_Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775._
(Shown in Brit. Mus. Department of MSS., Case G, No. 11.)
THE VOLUME contains 468 leaves (7 inches by 4-3/4 inches).
MARGINS, Approx.: _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 9/8 inch, _Foot_ 8/8 inch. (They may have been cut down by the binder.)
WRITING.—A fine _round_ Uncial MS. (pp. 38, 302), arranged in long and short lines.
‹Note.›—On many of the letters there are fine hair-line curved _tails_ and _flourishes_, which are scarcely visible in the photograph. (These tails were also used in the earlier Uncial shown in fig. 5—see also _Addenda_, p. 23.)
SECTIONS.—Marked by built-up letters of an Uncial type, and numbered, m‹R› cxxiiii to m‹R› cxxvi (with references to “Harmonies”). The passage is S. Mark xi. 21–25. [p413]
PLATE V.—_Uncial Writing, probably Continental Seventh Century. (Gospel of S. John). Ex libris Stonyhurst College. (See also enlargement, fig. 169.)_
(From a facsimile in the Palæographical Society’s Publications, 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 17.)
THE VOLUME contains 90 leaves, approx. 5-3/8 inches by 3-5/8 inches. The _Inner margin_ is approximately 1/2 inch wide.
WRITING.—A very beautiful pointed (slanted-pen) Uncial. The “pointed” character of the letters, which yet retain their typical roundness, give this writing a peculiar charm. Note the top of the P has a marked angle, and the M and H, and even the O, have this slightly or strongly.
RULING.—Single lines, rather wide (p. 305).
ARRANGEMENT.—Certain of the lines are _indented_ one letter (p. 264).
LARGE LETTERS.—On _verso_ Col marking a “Chapter” is built-up in _red_, on _recto_ the three large letters (marking sections) are simply written with the text pen (p. 299). (The passage is S. John xi. 46–56.)
_PLATE VI.—Half-Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century. “Book of Kells” (Latin Gospels). Ex libris Trinity College, Dublin._
(From a facsimile—part of Pl. XLVII.—in “Celtic Ornaments from the Book of Kells,” by the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott.)
THE LEAVES—which are cut down and much damaged—measure 13 inches by 10 inches.
WRITING.—A beautiful and highly finished (approx. straight pen) Half-Uncial (pp. 40, 304), tending to ornamental and fanciful forms whenever opportunity offered. (Note the treatment of inde.)
ARRANGEMENT.—Long and short lines: wide spacing. [p414]
THE LETTERS combine extreme gracefulness with an unusual appearance of strength. This is mainly due to the ends of _all_ the strokes being finished; the thick strokes have large, triangular heads (p. 327) on the left, and bases broadened by an additional stroke below on the right (thus @). And the horizontal thin strokes are either finished with a triangular terminal (p. 246), or run on into the next letter—_joining the letters together_.
The extreme _roundness_ of the letters is contributed to by their being written between DOUBLE LINES (pp. 304, 88), the upper line of which tends to flatten the tops.
The pen not being quite “straight” (see _footnote_, p. 304), together with a tendency to _pull_ the left hand curves, gives a characteristic shape to the letters @. @. @. @. @. @.
THE ILLUMINATION throughout the book is most elaborate and beautiful. Each division has an entire Initial page occupied with the first few letters. The COLOURS were “_paled green_, _red_, _violet_, _and yellow_, _intense black_, _and white_, _but no gold_”: see description of Celtic MSS., p. 40, Bradley’s “Illuminated Letters and Borders,” and also the Palæographical Society’s 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 55–58, 88, 89.
This notable book may be taken as an example of the marvellous possibilities of pen-work and complex colour-work (see p. 216).
In considering the value of the writing as a model, it may be noted that its highly finished nature demands practised skill on the part of the copyist, and that though modern _Irish writing_ (for which it would be an excellent model) still employs @. @. @. @. @. @. @. these letters would be apt to look peculiar in English. The Kells MS. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. @. however, might be used, and a very beautiful ornamental hand (p. 304) might be founded on this writing. [p415]
_PLATE VII.—Half-Uncial (English), circa 700_ ‹A.D.› _“Durham Book” (Latin Gospels). Brit. Mus., Cotton MSS. Nero D. IV._
THE VOLUME contains 258 leaves (13-1/2 inches by 9-7/8 inches).
THE WRITING is an English—or rather _Anglo-Irish_—Half-Uncial, written at Lindisfarne (_Holy I._) under Irish influence (p. 40). ARRANGEMENT—two columns of 24 lines—long and short—to the page (note how «eis» is got into the fifth line): wide spacing.
The writing bears a strong resemblance to that of the “Book of Kells,” but is generally much plainer; it is also less graceful, being _heavier_ and _wider_ in proportion. The “Book of Kells” O is a _circle_, while the “Durham Book” O is considerably wider than its height, and all the other letters are correspondingly wide. The RULING in both books consists of double lines, ruled with a hard point _on both sides of each leaf_.
THE ILLUMINATION also resembles that of the “Book of Kells” (see _opposite_), but a small amount of _gold_ is employed in it. (See also Palæographical Society’s 1st Series, Vol. II., Pl. 3–6, 22.)
‹Note.›—The “Gloss,” or interlinear translation, is in the Northumbrian dialect, and was put in in the tenth century, more than 200 years after the book was written.
A hand founded to some extent on the “Durham Book” hand is given in Chap. IV. as an easy copy: see figs. 49, 50.
_PLATE VIII.—English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2904._ (_See enlargement, fig. 172_). (Shown B. M. Grenville Lib. Case 2, No. 9.)
THE VOLUME contains 214 leaves (13-1/4 inches by 10 inches), 18 lines to the page; probably written at Winchester in late tenth century. (_Pl. reduced scale 8/9ths._)
WRITING.—An extremely good, formal, “slanted-pen” writing, having great freedom (note the very slight [p416] slope forward) and simplicity. This type of letter may be regarded as a link between the Half-Uncial and the Roman Small-Letter (see p. 310).
THE RULING: _single_ lines (see _footnote_, p. 305).
THE LETTERS show very strongly the effects of the “slanted pen” (see pp. 43, 305). Note the heavy shoulders and feet in «n», «b», &c., and the thick horizontals in @@. The curved tops or _arches_ are flattish and strong: the thick strokes end in points and are hooked below, thin strokes scarcely appear except as the _finishing strokes_ of «a», «c», «e», «l», @, while «d», («h»), «i», «m», «n», «u» end in small heavy _hooks_. Note generally the tendency to _internal angles_ and _external roundness_ (examples, @ and «o»).
Note particularly the junctions and accidental crossings of the strokes (seen best in the enlargement, fig. 172) as bearing on the mode of construction of the letters (see p. 84).
Note the fine shape of the _amperzand_ («&»: 3rd line).
THE ILLUMINATION (see _Characteristics of Winchester Illumination, or “Opus Anglicum,”_ pp. 82, 83, Bradley: “Illuminated Letters and Borders”). _All_ the CAPITALS beginning the verses are in raised, burnished gold, in the margin. The titles are in _red_ in fancy “Rustic Capitals” (p. 297). The Line-Fillings consist of groups of red dots, in threes (@ @ @).
This extremely legible MS. would form an almost perfect model for a modern formal hand («s» being substituted for long «ſ», and the straight «t» for the curved @ (see fig. 183): the removal of the «e» _flourish_ would also help readableness). And though it is somewhat large and heavy for ordinary use, it is good for practising, and might be developed into a form resembling any of the more difficult later forms (Plates IX., X., XX.).
_PLATE IX.—English Writing, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter of CNUT. Brit. Museum._ (_See also enlargement, fig._ 173.) [_Pl. reduced scale_ 11/12_ths._]
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case V., No. 3.)
THE WRITING resembles that in Plate VIII. [p417] (see above), but is more slender and rounder—the pen being a little less slanted, and the _arches_ more curved, and showing more of the _thin_ stroke. The ascenders and descenders are longer, the heads are more marked, and there is a general elegance and distinction, due perhaps to the MS. being a charter. Charter-hands are generally more showy and less legible than Book-hands, but in this hand there is great legibility, and a very few changes (similar to those suggested above) would make it quite suitable for modern use. Its relation to the Roman Small-Letter is obvious.
‹Notes.›—The (black) @ «V» and «u» were probably built-up with the writing pen.
The forms of «a», «e», «g», («h»), «r», may be noted as differing considerably from the tenth-century hand.
The combined «ra» (in the 4th line) is curious; and the «r» in _Anglorum_—this «r» (which represents the Bow and Tail of R) commonly follows the round letters «b», «o», «p», in “Gothic” writing: there is another curious form in the linked «rt» in _cartula_ (last line).
The word CNUT and several other names are in ornamental “Rustic” Capitals (see p. 297).
The two lines of English from another part of the charter have very long stems and ornamental serifs, giving a very decorative effect (see _footnote_, p. 326).
_PLATE X.—Italian (first half of) Twelfth-century Writing. (Homilies and Lessons). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183._ (_See also enlargement, fig. 174._)
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case C [lower part], No. 101.)
THE VOLUME.—Homilies and Lessons for Sundays and Festivals from Advent to Easter Eve—contains 317 leaves (approximately 21-1/2 inches by 15 inches); two columns, each of 50 lines, to the page. The MARGINS are, approximately, _Inner_ 1-1/4 inch, _Head_ [p418] 1-1/4 inch, _Side_ 3-1/4 inches, _Foot_ 4-1/4 inches (_between columns_ 1-1/8 inch: see Plate). The portion of a page, shown in Plate X., consists of the last eleven lines, second column, of folio 78.
WRITING.—This has all the qualities of good writing (p. 239) in a marked degree, and I consider it, taken all round, the most perfect and satisfactory penmanship which I have seen.
Its simplicity and distinctiveness are very marked, so also are its character and freedom. There is an almost entire absence of artificial finish—the terminals are natural hooks, beaks and “feet” made with a fine sleight of hand (p. 311)—and its very great beauty of form is the natural outcome of good traditions and eminently satisfactory craftsmanship.
‹Notes.›—The letters are very wide, and the _inside shapes_ differ considerably from those of the tenth-century MS. (above)—with which, however, there is a considerable affinity (see p. 416).
The «f» is longer than the «ſ», the «g» has a very fine form with a _closed_ loop, the «r» is sharpened, the «t» _straight_.
Small (Uncial) CAPITALS «um» follow the Versal; the serifs on the S and E are made with dexterous movements of the nib (p. 246), and resemble those on the Versal C. V and U are both used for the consonant (V).
There are very few VERSALS in this book: the C shown is in red (which has been smudged).
The large “ILLUMINATED INITIALS” in the book are in yellow, blue, and red, and appear to me to be comparatively poor, at least, to fall short of the perfection of the MS.
Of this writing, Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (“Greek and Latin Palæography,” pp. 271–2) says:—
“The sense of grace of form which we perceive in the Lombardic writing of Italy is maintained in that country in the later writing of the new minuscule type, which assumes under the pens of the most expert Italian scribes a very beautiful and round even style. This style, though peculiarly Italian, extended [p419] its influence abroad, especially to the south of France, and became the model of Spanish writing at a later time. We select a specimen from a very handsome MS. of Homilies of the first half of the 12th century (_Pal. Soc._ ii. pl. 55), written in bold letters of the best type, to which we shall find the scribes of the fifteenth century reverting in order to obtain a model for their MSS. of the Renaissance. The exactness with which the writing is here executed is truly marvellous, and was only rivalled, not surpassed, by the finished handiwork of its later imitators.
“It will of course be understood that this was not the only style of hand that prevailed in Italy. Others of a much rougher cast were also employed. But as a typical book-hand, which was the parent of the hands in which the greater proportion of carefully written MSS. of succeeding periods were written in Italy, it is to be specially noticed.”
(P. 284)—“we give a specimen of a hand of the Italian Renaissance, a revival of the style of the eleventh or twelfth century, and a very successful imitation of a MS. of that period. It was this practice, followed by the scribes of the Renaissance, of reverting to that fine period of Italian writing (see p. 272) to find models for the exquisitely finished MSS. which they were compelled to produce in order to satisfy the refined taste of their day, that influenced the early printers of Italy in the choice of their form of type.”^*
(P. 285)—“in the comparatively small number of extant literary MSS. of a later date than the close of the [fifteenth] century it is noticeable that a large proportion of them are written in the style of the book-hand of the Italian Renaissance—the style which eventually superseded all others in the printing press. The scribes of these late examples only followed the taste of the day in preferring those clear and simple characters to the rough letters of the native hands.”
―――――――――――――――――――― * The specimen hand given is of date 1466. Plate XVIII. may here be taken as an example of the Renaissance revival; Plate XX. and fig. 175 as examples of later MSS.
_PLATE XI.—English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2. A. x._
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case D, No. 111.)
THE VOLUME—sometimes called the St. Albans or _Albanus_ Psalter—contains 200 leaves (6-7/8 inches by [p420] 4-7/8 inches); twenty-seven lines to the page, some pages have two columns. MARGINS, approximately, _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ under 1/2 inch (see Plate), _Side_ 1-1/4 inch (part occupied by Versals), _Foot_ 1-1/8 inch.
THE WRITING is fairly legible, but approaches Black Letter (p. 331) too nearly to be of use to us for ordinary purposes. Note the ornamental Semi-Rustic Capitals in text. Note the RULING of the two head lines and of the foot line is carried into the margin.
THE VERSALS.—The main interest lies in the varied forms of the Versals, which are most beautifully made in _red_ and _green_ alternately. There is one elaborate _gold_ initial in the book, and several Versals in blue and white (_hollow_: see p. 208).
The five @’s—and the «D» in the text—on this page (folio 85b) by no means exhaust the varieties of «D» alone, and there are very many varieties of the forms of the other letters. On some pages each line begins with a small Versal, while the more important Initials are much larger, varying in size and ornament.
THE CONSTRUCTION of the Versals is unusually slender, curved, and gradated. A rather fine pen seems to have been used (p. 292), and though the letters are upright, the natural tendency to slant the pen can be detected in the thickening of the thin parts—_above_, on the right, and _below_, on the left—giving the suspicion of a _tilt_ to the O.
The «O»-part of each @ was made first, and the tail @ added. This is very obvious in the «D» in the text, where a stem @ was added to «O» to make «D».
Note the _dots_ inside the Versals, one above and one below. Originally these may have been intended to effect—or hide—the junction of the thin strokes, by a twirl of the pen at the end of the first stroke and the beginning of the second, thus @ @. Their use is very common in Versal forms (see fig. 189), and besides being decorative in the ordinary sense, they may be said to [p421] strengthen the thin parts (much as the weakest part of the loop in an old key was thickened for strength).
* * * * *
Note the right-hand Bows of the @’s are made thinner, as though the Rubricator had been afraid of running into the text in making their last curves—such an expert, however, may well have had a better reason for it.
_PLATE XII.—Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS. ‹A.D.› 1148. (Latin Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 14790._
(Shown in Brit. Museum, Department of MSS., Case C, No. 91.)
THE VOLUME—the _third_, and most interesting, of this MS. Bible (Numbered 14788–89–90)—contains 223 leaves (17 inches by 11-7/8 inches). MARGINS, approximately, _Inner_ 1-1/8 inch, _Head_ (_cut_) 1 inch, _Side_ 2-3/8 inches, _Foot_ 3-1/2 inches. (Between columns 15/16 inch.)
THE WRITING is a not very legible “Gothic.” The _zigzag_ tendency exhibited, especially by the word _niniuen_ (Niniveh), second line, is unsuited for such _formal_ writing (see p. 484). The rapid placing of the Heads of the letters is such that they appear broken and
## partly detached from the _stems_. The VERSALS are of a good type.
THE INITIAL is a monogrammatic ET. The arms of the round @ terminate in leaves folded back, its form is _hollow_ and _inwoven_ (p. 208), and gives rise to foliage, which fills the interior—passing over the fish and behind Jonah. Note also how the jaws of the fish are interlaced, and how compactly _all_ the parts are put together.
The close application of the background to the _curves_ adds to the general compactness, and together with its spacing from the _straight_ front _balances_ the masses (p. 424): it may be compared to the even spacing of curved and straight strokes (see fig. 53). There is an extension of the background to hold the fish’s tail. [p422]
THE COLOURS—
Initial, Foliage, Fish: red: outlined & lined; _Parchment left plain_.
Jonah: black: outlined & lined; _Parchment left plain_.
Bands on Initial, _gold_, outlined _red_. Hollows in Initial, _gold_, outlined _red_. Backs of folded leaves: _gold_, outlined _red_.
Outer background: _paled green._
Dots on outer ground: _red._
Inner background: _paled blue._
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 220.›]
We may not, I think, attempt to imitate the complex 12th-century decoration of this initial (see p. 196), but the treatment of the _elements_ of form and colour is very suggestive, and the whole piece of lettering is characteristic of the grand style in which a book was at that time begun. The ARRANGEMENT of the letters themselves is very simple, and might be made good use of (fig. 220). [p423]
_PLATE XIII.—English (2nd half) Thirteenth-century Writing and Illumination. (Latin Bible). Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._
THE VOLUME—probably written at York—contains 427 leaves (8 inches by 5-1/2 inches): two columns to the page: MARGINS, approx.: Inner 5/8 inch, _Head_ 5/8 inch, _Side_ 7/8 inch, _Foot_ 1-7/16 inch. (Between the columns 3/8 inch.) The pages have been cut down.
THE WRITING is very small, and there are many contractions.^* In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the whole Bible, written in this fashion, was often small enough to be carried in the pocket. Note the closed @ and the 7 form of &. The page is RULED with 50 lines; the 49 lines of writing lie between these, so that in each case the _ascenders_ touch the line above, and the _descenders_, the line below. Note the double lines in the Foot margin (see p. 343).
VERSALS.—A very narrow type is used in the narrow margins: the example shown is in red, flourished blue; it begins the second chapter (_‹Et› angelo ephesi, &c._), which is also marked by coloured Roman Numerals at the side (II). The page heading is “APOCA” in small red and blue Versals.
THE ILLUMINATED INITIAL is “historiated”—_i.e._ it contains a picture illustrating the text, viz. a representation of S. John writing to the Seven Churches—purely conventional forms, or rather symbols, for the most part, are used and beautifully fitted into the available space. The greater size and more careful drawing of the human figure (the centre of interest) is characteristic of a fine convention. The slope of the vellum page on which S. John is writing, and even the manner in which the quill is held, are such as would naturally be employed by a scribe (see _frontispiece_, & p. 67). [p424]
The _capitals_ of the pillars mark the position of the cross-bar of A. The top serif is carried up and forms a bud, which gives rise to leaf-like flourishes; the free thin stem runs down forming a grotesque, which gives out a leaf-like tongue. In either case the object—in every sense _recreative_—is a renewal of interest in the designed, elongated, growth of the forms.
Note the curved thickening of A’s left stem ends nearly level with the foot of the right stem. This gives balance to the letter (see R, fig. 81 & A, fig. 189), and preserves the _essential form_, which suffers no distortion by the thinner continuation below.
Note the balancing of the background mass on the _straight_ and _curved_ sides of the Initial (as in Plate XII., see above); also the extension and shape of the background accompanying the drawn out parts of the letter.
COLOURS of Initial—
Right stem: _red_ with _white_ lines and patterns.
Left stem and serif: _blue_ with _white_ lines and patterns.
L. stem, lower half, & dragon: _pale “lake.”_
The background (_counter- charged_) outer: _pale “lake.”_ inner: _blue_. lower extension: _blue_. final flourish: _pale “lake.”_
Band (dark) down left side, dragon’s wings, 6 “berries,” halo, seat, tops of pillar caps: _burnished gold._
Leaves (dark) & pillar caps: _red._
Small stems & leaves: _green._
Here again no natural work would come of a modern attempt to imitate so complex a “design”—natural and even inevitable _600 years ago_. But the spirit of delicacy and fantasy, the ingenious contrivance, and the balancing and disposal of form and colour shown by the antique art, may well be matter for imitation by the modern draughtsman-illuminator, and even by the mere penman.
―――――――――――――――――――― * The Apocalypse here begins “APocalipſis i@u x^i” (for I@U X@I, derived from the Greek and used as a mediæval Latin contraction for _Jesu Christi_). [p425]
_PLATE XIV.—Thirteenth-century Line-finishings: Pen-work. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Royal MS. 1. D. x._
THE LINE-FINISHINGS (see p. 205), of which there are very many throughout the book, all in red or blue pen-work, are very varied. Nine kinds are shown in the plate (which represents about a quarter of a page), and three others from the same MS. are given in figs. 87 (_b_) and 126 (_f_, _g_).
The directions of the thick and thin strokes indicate a pen held at right angles to its usual position (almost “upside down,” in fact: see fig. 126, _g_), and the penmanship exhibits great speed and lightness of hand—the rapidity and skill are indeed quite remarkable (_e.g._ in the Lion in the eighth line).
Note that, though the writing occasionally runs into the margin, the line-finishings stop at the marginal-line.
The photograph shows red _dark_ and blue _light_: _e.g._ the Bird is red, the Lion and the Fish are blue. The fifth Line-finishing is a red filigree with blue “berries”—it can hardly be described as a “floral growth,” as the “branching” is reversed: the rubricator gained speed and uniformity by the simple repetition of the whorls all along the line—the upper branches were probably put in afterwards, and the “berries” were added later when he was making the _blue_ Line-finishings.
The more complex decoration (not shown in the plate) in this MS. is inferior to the penmanship: the small _background_ Capitals with which the verses begin—presumably put in by a different hand—are more pretentious, and do not match the Line-finishings.
_General Note._—When a space occurs at the end of a line of writing, it is often best to leave it, and in a plain MS., if it be “well and truly” written, there is no objection to varying lengths of line (see pp. 263, 371). But a book, such as a _Psalter_, divided into many short verses—in which the last line usually falls short of the marginal [p426] line—offers a fair field for such simple and effective decoration. (See also pp. 428, 486, fig. 130, and Plate XXIII.)
_PLATE XV.—English Writing and Illumination, circa 1284 ‹A.D.› (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 24686._
THE WRITING is a fine, freely formed, “Gothic” (p. 331). Note, the i’s are “dotted.” Note the double MARGINAL LINES (p. 343).
THE SMALL INITIALS are of the “Lombardic” type (p. 210), in which the Serifs are much thickened and ornamented. Note the tails of the Q’s are turned to the left to clear the writing. The LINE-FILLINGS match the small initials (p. 193).
THE LARGE INITIAL, &c.—The plate shows the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth Psalm (@omine quis habitabit). Note “_Arabic_” numerals (15) in margin.
The tail of the Initial @ is formed of a dragon, the head of which rests on the O-part: its wings project into the inner margin (and these in the plate, which shows a fragment of a _verso_ page, run into the fold between the pages): the tail (together with the background) descends till a convenient point is reached from which the lower scroll-work springs. The tail, wing, and claws above, belong to a magpie which is perched on the initial.
THE DRAWING: see reference to this at p. 203, and below.
Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (p. 39, “English Illuminated MSS.”) says of this—
“—the Additional MS. 24686 in the British Museum, known as the Tenison Psalter, from its having once formed part of the library of Archbishop Tenison. This psalter is one of the most beautiful illuminated English manuscripts of its time, but unfortunately only in part, for it was not finished in the perfect [p427] style in which it was begun . . . in the first quire of the text the ornamentation is of peculiar beauty. . . .”^*
“—the progress of the art [since the earlier part of the thirteenth century] . . . is . . . manifest. There is more freedom in the drawing, the stiffness of the earlier examples is in great measure overcome; and the pendant has thrown out a branch which has already put forth leaves. A great variety of colours, blue, rose, vermilion, lake, green, brown, as well as burnished gold, is employed in the composition of the large initial and its accompanying pendant and border, and the small initials are of gold laid on a ground of blue or lake, and filled with lake or blue; while the ribbons which fill up the spaces at the ends of the verses are alternately of the same colours and are decorated with patterns in silver on the blue and in gold on the lake.”
“The group of the dismounted knight despatching^† a gryphon, which has proved too much for the horse, upon whose dying body the expectant raven has already perched, is tinted in lighter colours. It is an instance of the use to which marginal space was put,
## particularly by English artists, for the introduction of little
scenes, such as episodes in romances or stories, games, grotesque combats, social scenes, &c., often drawn with a light free hand and most artistic touch. Without these little sketches, much of the manners and customs, dress, and daily life of our ancestors would have remained for ever unknown to us.”
―――――――――――――――――――― * It is supposed that the book was at first intended as a marriage gift for Alphonso, son of Edward I.
† The characteristic _over and under_ arrangement of the gryphon’s upper and lower bill, makes this doubtful.
_PLATE XVI.—Italian Fourteenth-century MS., Brit. Mus., Addl. MS. 28841._
THE VOLUME: one of two (the other numbered 27695), a _Latin_ treatise on the Virtues and Vices (The miniatures, drawings, &c., probably by “the Monk of Hyères,” Genoa). The vellum leaves have been separated, and are now preserved in paper books. The leaf illustrated shows a margin of vellum of less than 3/16 inch all round (the plate).
The decorative borders are much more naturalistic in [p428] form and colouring than any other old illumination that I have seen (see reference to Plate XVI., p. 203).
The foliage is a delicate green, the berries are dark purple, the single fruits plain and pale orange-red; the two beetles in _crimson_ and _brown_ are made darker and too prominent in the photograph. The bands of small “Lombardic” Capitals are in burnished gold.
Note how skilfully and naturally the upper corners of the border are managed, and also the beautiful way in which the branches run into and among the text (see p. 213).
_PLATE XVII.—French Fifteenth-century Writing, with Illuminated Borders. Ex libris E. Johnston._
THE PAGE 9-1/2 inches by 6-1/8 inches: MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 1-1/8 inch, _Head_ 1-3/8 inch, _Side_ 2-3/8 inches, _Foot_ 2-7/8 inches (the edges have been slightly cut down). The marginal lines (from head to foot of the page) and the writing lines are RULED in faint red.
THE WRITING is a late formal “Gothic”—the thin strokes have evidently been added (p. 47). The written Capitals are blotted with yellow (see p. 140). The ILLUMINATED INITIAL Q is in blue, white lined, on a gold ground, contains a blue flower and five ornaments in “lake.” The LINE-FILLINGS are in blue and “lake,” separated by a gold circle, triangle, or lozenge.
THE FILIGREE ILLUMINATION springs from the initial in the narrow margin, and from a _centre_ ornament (see “knot,” fig. 127) in the wide side margin. The side margins are treated similarly on either page (see p. 213); the inner margins are generally plain. This repetition gives to the pages a certain sameness—which is a _characteristic_ rather than a fault of the treatment.
The border on the _recto_ of the vellum leaf shows through on the _verso_ or back of the leaf. The main lines of the first border, however, are freely traced and [p429] followed on the _verso_ (and so nearly hidden) by the second border. This is also suggestive of the more rapid methods of book production in the 15th century.
COLOURS—
Stems, tendrils, &c.: _black_.
Leaves ivy-shaped lanceolate: _burnished gold_, outlined black (p. 187). _plain. furred._
Flowers, buds, centre ornaments, &c.: (See p. 182.) _blue_, “_lake_,” or _green_ tempered with white, and shaded with pure colour; white markings; the forms not outlined.
This type of illumination is discussed in pp. 197–202. Its chief points are its simplicity and rapidity. A penman or a novice in illuminating can, by taking a little pains, beautify his MSS. easily and quickly; and he may perhaps pass on from this to “higher” types of illumination.
_PLATE XVIII.—Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and Illumination. (Perotti’s translation of Polybius). Ex libris H. Yates-Thompson._
THE VOLUME consists of 174 leaves (13-1/8 inches by 9 inches); 35 lines to the page. The plate shows a portion of the upper part of the Initial (_recto_) page.
THE WRITING.—The Capitals are simple-written, slanted-pen “Roman”—slightly ornamental—forms. They are freely copied on a large scale in fig. 168: see p. 297. The Small-letters match the Capitals—they are “Roman” forms with a slight “Gothic” tendency. Both these and the Capitals would make very good models for free Roman hands.
THE INITIAL is a “Roman” A in burnished gold. Note the exceedingly graceful shaping of the limbs, the ornamental, V-shaped cross-bar, and the absence of serifs (see fig. 116). [p430]
The “_White Vine Pattern_” (see p. 202), most delicately and beautifully drawn, interlaces with the letter and itself, and covers the BACKGROUND very evenly. The interstices of the background are painted in blue, red, and green, and its edge is adapted to the slightly projecting flowers and leaves. There are groups (@ and …) of white dots on the blue parts of the background.
THE BORDER (of which a small part is shown) is approximately 1/2 inch wide in the narrow margin at the side of the text—it is separate from the Initial. It extends above and below the text, where its depth is greater, matching the greater depth of the margins. Its treatment is similar to, though perhaps a little simpler than, that of the Initial decoration.
_PLATE XIX.—Italian MS., dated 1481. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._
“Part of a [verso] page from a book containing the Psalter of St. Jerome and various Prayers, written and decorated by Joachinus de Gigantibus of Rotenberg in 1481 for Pope Sixtus IV. Joachinus was employed at Naples by Ferdinand I., and there are other fine examples of his work at the British Museum and the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. In each of these, as well as in the present book, he states that he was both scribe and illuminator.”—[S. C. C.]
THE VOLUME contains 31 leaves (6-1/2 inches by 4-3/4 inches): MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 7/8 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 1-1/2 inch, _Foot_ 1-3/4 inch. (The head margin, together with the edge of the book-cover, is shown in the plate.)
THE WRITING.—Very clear, slightly slanted-pen “Roman.” Note the blending of «b» and «p» with «e» and «o» (see fig. 76, & p. 77). The CAPITALS are quite simple and plain, made (in _(A)NIMA CHRISTI_ and in text) in black with the text pen. Note the long, waved serifs (see p. 289). The last two lines of the preceding prayer are made in burnished gold with a larger pen.
[_Continued on p. 481_
[p431]
THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
[Illustration: Plate I.—Portion of Inscription on base of Trajan Column, Rome, _circa_ 114 A.D. Scale approx. 1/9th linear. (_See also Plate II._)]
[Illustration: Plate II.—Alphabet from Trajan Inscription (_Circa_ 114 A.D.) Scale approx. 1/6 linear. (_See also Plate I_). _Note.—L and O are shown sideways in the 2nd line._]
[Illustration: Plate III.—Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century. (Virgil’s “Æneid”).]
[Illustration: Plate IV.—Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775.]
[Illustration: Plate V.—Uncial Writing, probably Continental Seventh Century (Gospel of S. John). Ex Libris Stonyhurst College. (See also enlargement, fig. 169.)]
[Illustration: Plate VI.—Half Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century, “Book of Kells” (Latin Gospels). Ex Libris Trinity College, Dublin.]
[Illustration: Plate VII.—Half Uncial (English), _circa_ 700 A.D. “Durham Book” (Latin Gospels). Brit. Mus., Cotton MSS. Nero D. IV.]
[Illustration: Plate VIII.—English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2904. (See enlargement fig. 172.)]
[Illustration: Plate IX.—English Writing, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter of CNUT. Brit. Museum. (See also enlargement, fig. 173.)]
[Illustration: Plate X.—Italian (first half of) Twelfth-century Writing. (Homilies and Lessons). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183. (See also enlargement, fig. 174).]
[Illustration: Plate XI.—English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2. A.X.]
[Illustration: Plate XII.—Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS. A.D. 1148 (Latin Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 14790.]
[Illustration: Plate XIII.—English (2nd half) Thirteenth-century Writing and Illumination (Latin Bible). Ex. Libris S. C. Cockerell.]
[Illustration: Plate XIV.—Thirteenth-century Line-finishings: Penwork. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Royal MS. 1, D.X.]
[Illustration: Plate XV.—English Writing and Illumination, _circa_ 1284 A.D. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 24686.]
[Illustration: Plate XVI.—Italian Fourteenth-century MS., Brit. Mus., Addl. MS. 28841.]
[Illustration: Plate XVII.—French Fifteenth-century Writing, with Illuminated Borders. Ex. Libris E. Johnston.]
[Illustration: Plate XVIII.—Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and Illumination (Perotti’s translation of Polybius). Ex libris H. Yates-Thompson.]
[Illustration: Plate XIX.—Italian MS. dated 1481. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell.]
[Illustration: Plate XX.—One page of an Italian (late) Fifteenth-century MS. Ex. libris S. C. Cockerell.]
[Illustration: Plate XXI.—Italian (early) Sixteenth-century “cursive” or “Italic” MS. Ex. libris S. C. Cockerell. (See enlargement, fig. 178.)]
[Illustration: Plate XXII.—“Communion Service” written and illuminated by E. Johnston, 1902 A.D. (“Office Book,” Holy Trinity Church, Hastings). Reduced (nearly 3/4 scale).]
[Illustration: Plate XXIII.—The story of Aucassin and Nicolette, written and illuminated by W. H. Cowlishaw, 1898 A.D.]
[Illustration: Plate XXIV.—Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R. Gill, 1903 A.D. Reduced (3/16 scale). _Note._—To view these incised letters have the light on the left of the plate (_or cover with thin tissue paper_).]
[p481]
THE INITIAL A, its frame, the frame of the border, and the “furred” _berries_ (@) are all in burnished gold, outlined black. The “white vine pattern” is rather simpler, and has a rather thicker stalk (in proportion) than that in the previous plate (see above). Its treatment is very similar, but it may be noted that the border is in this case attached to the Initial, and the pattern has almost an appearance of springing from the Initial. The pattern—save one escaped leaf—is straitly confined, by gold bars, throughout the length of the text, but at the ends it is branched out and beautifully flourished in the free margins above and below. These terminals of the pattern having a broad blue outline (dotted white) may be said to carry their background with them.
The (recto) page opposite that shown in the plate has an initial D and a border similarly treated, and each one of the Psalms and Prayers throughout the book is begun in like manner.
_PLATE XX.—One page of an Italian (late) Fifteenth-century MS. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._
“From a book containing the Penitential Psalms in Italian, the Psalter of St. Jerome, and various prayers. Written with great delicacy by Mark of Vicenza for some one named Evangelista [see 11th line] in the last quarter of the fifteenth century. Other works of this accomplished scribe are known.”—[S. C. C.]
THE VOLUME—of which a complete (recto) page is shown—contains 60 leaves (5-1/2 inches by 3-3/4 inches): MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 1/2 inch, _Head_ 7/8 inch, _Side_ 1-3/16 inch, _Foot_ 1-13/16 inch.
This very fine WRITING is typical of the practical style and beautiful workmanship which should be the aim of a modern scribe (see pp. 47, 310).
It is written with a very narrow nib, hence the pen-forms [p482] are not so obvious as in some early formal hands; and for this reason alone it would be better to practise such a hand as the tenth-century MS. (Plate VIII.) before seriously attempting to model a hand on the above (see pp. 416, 311, 324).
The use of a fine pen is apt to flatter the unskilled penman, and he finds it hard to distinguish between delicate pen-work which has much character, and that which has little or none. And he will find, after some knowledge of penmanship gained in practice with a broad nib, that the copying of this fine Italian writing—while in reality made much more feasible—may even _appear_ more difficult than before.
CONSTRUCTION.—The pen has a moderate slant—see thin stroke in «e». The letters are very square, the tops flat (especially in «m», «n», and «r»), and the lower parts flat (as in «u»). This shows the same tendency that there is in the tenth century and other hands _to avoid thin or high arches in the letters_.
The feet in some of the letters (in «i», for example) are in the nature of stroke-serifs, but the pen probably made these with an almost continuous movement—from the stem.
_Note_—the fine form of the «a»;
that «b» and «l» have an angle where the stem joins the lower part;
that «f» was made something like «t», and the upper part was added: this was a common mode—see fig. 180 (the «f» shown in plate is unfortunately not a good specimen);
that «g»—a very graceful letter—lacks the coupling serif;
that «i», «p», «u» have _triangular heads_, and «m», «n», «r» _hooks_;
that the _ascenders_ have triangular heads, and the _descenders_ «p» and «q», stroke-serifs;
that the ascending and descending stems are longer than the bodies, and the writing is in consequence fairly widely spaced. [p483]
Like most of the finest writings, this bears evidences of considerable speed (see pp. 84, 311). Besides the great uniformity of the letters, the _coupling strokes_ are occasionally carried over the succeeding stroke, the _arches_ of «b», «h», «m», «n», «p», «r» (and the _heads_ of the ascenders) frequently are separated from the stems, and the «o» and «b» occasionally fail to join below. These broken forms are the _results of speed_, and are not to be imitated except as to that which is both a cause and a result—their _uniformity_ (p. 254).
The RULING is in faint ink: there are _two_ vertical marginal lines on the left and _one_ on the right of every page.
The DECORATION of the MS. is very simple. The Initial (here shown) is in green and powder-gold, on a lake ground, with white pattern: there is a very fine brownish outline, probably drawn first. The two upper lines of writing and ‖o[=r]ō are in red.
_PLATE XXI.—Italian (early) Sixteenth-century “cursive” or “Italic” MS. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell._ (_See enlargement, fig. 178._)
“From the Poems of Cardinal Bembo, a fine example of the cursive writing perfected in Italy in the first half of the sixteenth century. The book measures 8-1/2 by 5-1/4 inches, and contains 79 leaves.”—[S. C. C.]
THE MARGINS of the page from which the plate is taken are approximately: _Inner_ 5/8 inch, _Head_ 3/4 inch, _Side_ 2 inches, _Foot_ 1-1/2 inch. _Note._—The lines of writing begin as usual at the left margin, but do not extend to the (true) margin on the _right_, hence the latter (the _side_ margin on the recto, and the _inner_ margin on the verso) would appear unnaturally wide, but the effect is carried off by the (true) side margins being already exceptionally wide (and by the writing on the backs of the leaves showing through the semi-transparent vellum and so marking the true margins). [p484]
This mode is very suitable for a book of poems, in which the lengths of the lines of writing may vary considerably, because the _writing-line_ being longer than the _ordinary_ line of writing allows room for extraordinarily long lines, and any appearance of irregularity is carried off by the extra wide side margins.
THE WRITING is very beautiful, clear, and rapid—made with a “slanted pen” (see “Italics,” p. 311, and fig. 178). Note the _slightness_ of the slope of the letters (especially of the Capitals), and the length of the stems and the wide spacing.
Note, also, the flatness of the curves in _a c d e g o q_ and the horizontal top stroke in _a d g q_, oblique in _e c_ (giving angular tops). The branching away from the stem of the first part of the arch in _b h m n p r_ (seen also reversed in _a d g q u_), and the pointed, almost angular, quality of the _arch_. This, which is apt to become a fault in a more formal upright hand (see note on Plate XXII.) is helpful in a more rapid running hand, and gives _clearance_ to the junctions of the strokes (@ @)—see fig. 182.
The _heads_, simple or built-up, _hooks_ tending to become triangular.
The letters in this MS. are rarely coupled.
The very graceful _g_ has a large pear-shaped lower loop touching the upper part.
_PLATE XXII.—“Communion Service” written and illuminated by E. Johnston, 1902 ‹A.D.› (“Office Book,” Holy Trinity Church, Hastings). Reduced (nearly 3/4 scale)._
The MS. on 160 leaves (15 inches by 10 inches) of fine parchment (“Roman Vellum,” see p. 173), contains the Communion Service and many collects, epistles, and gospels for special festivals, &c. MARGINS: _Inner_ 1-1/8 inch, _Head_ 1-3/4 inch, _Side_ 2-3/4 inches, _Foot_ 3-3/4 inches. [p485]
THE WRITING—after tenth century model (see Plate VIII.)—has the fault (referred to at p. 421) of showing too much _thin_ line (running up obliquely), the upper and lower parts of the letters are not flat enough. The tail of the «g» is inadequate, and the lines of writing are too near together. The writing is readable, however, and fairly regular. The CAPITALS are Uncials (after Plate V.) and occasional “Romans.”
The RUBRIC (“¶ _Then shall be said or sung_”) is in red, fitted in beside the round initial and marking the top left-hand corner of the page (see _footnote_, p. 211).
The word “GLORY” (and decoration)—and also the F and T, showing in recto page—are in raised burnished gold, which, it will be seen, has cracked considerably in the G (see p. 164).
The STAVES are in red (p. 140), the _notes_ above GLORY in raised _gold_, those in the lower stave, _black_.
The BOOK was of a special nature (see pp. 344–5), being intended for use in a certain church and on certain special festivals: hence a considerable degree of ornament and a generally decorative treatment was permitted (p. 330). The Prayer of Consecration, together with a miniature, occupied a complete _opening_, the eight margins of which were filled with solid, framing borders (p. 213) in red, blue, green, and gold. Coats-of-arms and other special symbols and devices were introduced on the Title page and in other places.
_PLATE XXIII.—The Story of Aucassin and Nicolette, written and illuminated by W. H. Cowlishaw, 1898 ‹A.D.›_
THE VOLUME consists of 50 + leaves of “Roman Vellum” (7-1/2 inches by 5-1/2 inches).
MARGINS, approx.: _Inner_ 3/4 inch, _Head_ 15/16 inch, _Side_ 1-3/8 inch, _Foot_ 2 inches.
THE WRITING, very legible, rather “Gothic-Roman.” [p486]
THE CAPITALS are illuminated throughout the text in _gold_ on blue and red grounds. The backgrounds are square, with edges pointed or indented, outlined _black_, and lined inside _white_. The INITIAL «n» is in gold on blue: the moon and stars are in white and gold and white.
THE LINE-FINISHINGS, mostly in black pen-work, consist of little groups (sometimes of sprays) of flowers, &c. Sprays from the border separate the “Song” from the “Tale.”
THE MUSIC.—_Staves_ black; _Clefs_, gold; _Notes_, red.
THE BORDERS (in the opening from which the plate is taken) frame the text on both pages—nearly filling the margins (see p. 213): the side and foot edges of the (verso) page are shown in the plate. The main pattern is a wild rose, flowers and all, outlined with a rather broad blue line: the stalks and leaves (lined white) are apple-green, the flowers are _painted_ white with raised gold hearts, the thorns are red. Through the wild rose is twined _honeysuckle and woody nightshade_: stalks—(_h_) red, (_wn_) black; and flowers—(_h_) red with yellow spots, (_wn_) purplish red with gold centres.
The whole effect is very brilliant and charming. The freedom and naturalness of the “design” remind one of a country hedgerow (p. 213), and show that vital beauty which is the essence of true illumination.
_PLATE XXIV.—Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R. Gill, 1903 ‹A.D.› Reduced (3/16 scale). ‹Note.›—To view these incised letters have light on the left of plate (or cover with thin tissue-paper)._
The STONE—a slab of “Hopton Wood” (p. 395), 30 inches by 18 inches by 2 inches, is intended to go over a lintel. It has a simple moulding. Note how the INSCRIPTION occupies the space (pp. 352, 394): the LETTERS have approximately the same _apparent weight_ (p. 328)—the large stems are more than twice the _height_ of the small; they are only 1/3 _wider_. [p487]
Note the strongly marked and elegantly curved serifs; the straight-tailed R; the I drawn out (marking the word IN); the _beaked_ A, M, and N; the Capital form of «U».
The letters DEO would be rather wide for ordinary use (p. 270), but as _special_ letters, occupying a wide space,^* are permissible.
Even in the collotype, I think this inscription shows to what a high level modern inscription cutting might be raised by the use of good models and right and simple methods.
―――――――――――――――――――― * Letters in early inscriptions separated as these are indicated _each_ a word (contracted), as S. P. Q. R. (_Senatus Populus Que Romanus_).
[p490]
INDEX
A, 189, 271, 274, 280, 410–11
A, Ancient & Modern, 195–196
Abbott, Rev. Dr. T. K., 413
Accidental words, 259, 384
Acquiring a Formal Hand: (1) Tools, 48 (2) Methods, 61 (3) Models, 70 (4) Practice, 85
Addenda & Corrigenda, 23
Addresses, Illuminated, 353
Advertisements, &c., 340, 352, 389
Alabaster & Marbles, 395
Alcuin of York, 41
Aldus, 311, 373
Alphabet, derivation of the, 36
Alphabets, useful kinds of, 267, 377, 390
Aluminium leaf, 165
Amperzand (&), 361, 416
(Amperzand; _Examples._—Figs. 50, 79, 148, 172, 173, 208 & Plates)
Analysis of Versals, 115
Analysis of Writing, 72
Ancaster (stone), 393, 395
Angles in Writing, 43, 46, 118, 253, 416
Anglo-Saxon writing, 326
Annotations, &c., 144, 315, 317, 344
“Arabic Numerals,” 82, 426
_Arms_ or _branches_, 120 (v. _Letters_)
Arrangement of Lettering, 88, 122, 239, 255–268, 389
“_Ascenders_” and _Ascending strokes_, 79, 97, 119, 300, 314
_Asiso_ (gesso), 166
_Azzuro della magna_, 179
B, 189, 272, 273, 275–279, 280, 410–11
Backgrounds, 184, 186, 188–193, 211–213
Bands of lettering, 123, 136, 267
“Barbaric” illumination, 194
“Basket work,” 208, 209
Bath (stone), 395
Beauty, 237–240, (12)
Beauty of Arrangement, 255
Beauty of Form, 252
Beauty of Uniformity, 254
Bibliography, &c., 385
Binding books, 346, 103, 106, 110, 111, 171, 185, 197
Black and Gold, 185, 202
Black and Red, 127, 328
“Black letter,” 118, 141, 263, 331, 364
Black outlines, 182, 188, 212
Blake, William, (_footnote_) 343
“Block letter,” 384, 390
Blue, 176–180, 181, 182
Book-hands, 36
## Book Marks, 142
Books, binding, 346, 103, 106, 110, 111, 171, 185, 197
Books, Manuscript, 98, 341, &c.
Books, size and shape of, 100–101
Books, size of writing in, 101, 107
Book typography, foundations of, 13, 98
Borders, Illuminated, 98, 198–203, 211, 214, 427–430
Borders, penwork, 25
Bows & Curves, 121
Brasses, 237, 340, 375
Brazil-Wood, 175
British Museum, MSS. in, 386, 409, &c.
_Broadsides_, 338, 350
Brushes, 172
Brush-made (painted) letters, 376, 280, (118), 292, 384
Bubbles, in size, 148
“Built-up” letters, 291, 118–119, 254, 289, 331
Burnished gold, 160, 184 (see also _Gold_)
Burnisher, the, 158, 166, 171
Burnishing slab, 146, 153
C, 270, 281, 410–11
Cake colours, 175
Calligraphy, 14, 368
Cane, or Reed pens, 52
Capitals (see also _Letters_)
Capitals, arrangement of, 256, 258; (in Lines, Headings & Pages) 125–126, 128–136, 299, 422
Capitals, coloured, 113, 118, 122, 123, 134, 185
Capitals & _Small letters_, 40, 112, 122, 302
Capitals, severe type of, 294
Capitals, _simple-written_, 123, 297, 302
Capitals, sizes of, 108, 119, 122
Carbonate of Copper (blue), 179
Caroline (or Carlovingian) Writing, 41–43, 45, 305
Caslon, William, 373, (26)
Cennino Cennini, 165, 184, 386
Chalk, 395, 402
Chapters, beginnings of, 125, (_footnote_ 1) 342, (2) 343
Character, 237–240, 323
“_Characteristic Parts_,” 247, 252, 280
Characterization of letters, 278
Charlemagne, 41
Charter hands, 417
Chequers, 191, 197, 215–217
Chinese printing, 372
Chinese Vermilion, 178
Chinese White, 180
Chisel-made letters, 36, 196, 278, 280, 292, 375, 391, 396, 410
Chisel-shape of nib, 57, 63
Chiswick Press, the, 374
_Chronograms_, 363
Church Services, &c., 140, 345, 387, 484
Close spacing, 262–267
CNUT, charter of, 416
Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., (13), 368, 387
Cockerell, Douglas, 171, (on limp vellum bindings) 346, 387
Cockerell, S. C., 423, 430–483
Collotype plates, the, 407, 431
_Colophons_, 142, 342
Coloured “Inks,” 172, 322
Coloured Letters (_see Capitals, & Contrasts_)
Colour, cake & powder, 175
Colour, pan & tube, 176
Colour, preparations, 175–180
Colour, for Penwork, 176
Colour, proportions of, 182
Colour, Repetition & Limitation of, 181
Colours, Tints few & constant, 177
Colours, Use of, 195, 202, 203, 216, 422, 424, (389)
Colour-work Illumination, 17, 194
Columns, double, 104, 134, 136, 370
_Commonplace_, the, 268
Complex and simple forms, 195
Construction of writings, 73, 83–85, 118, 292, 311 (see also _the Notes on the Collotypes_)
Continental Writing, 41, 413
Contrasts, Decorative, 327, 363
Contrasts, Decorative, of Colour, 327, 336
Contrasts, Decorative, of Form, 330, 336, 352
Contrasts, Decorative, of Red & Black, 144
“Conventionalism,” 220
“Copy book” hands, 304, 305
Copying a hand, 71, 82, 311, 323
Copying early work, 83, 114, 195, 323, 414–417, 422–424, 482
Correcting mistakes, 174, 344
Countercharging, 188, 216, 424
Coupling-strokes, joining letters, 73
Cowlishaw, W. H., 485
_Cursive_ Writing, 37, 317, 483
Cutting sheets, 99
Cutting-slab, 61
Cutting the Pen, 52–60
“Cyphers” & Monograms, 361
D, 270, 281, 410–11
“_Deckle_” edge, 111
Decoration of Print, 194, 364, 371, 374
Decorative Contrasts, 327, 363
Decorative use of Red, 144
“_Descenders_,” and _Descending strokes_, 79, 97, 300, 314
“Design,” Decorative, 177, (183), 201, 210, 214–222
“Design” in illumination, 214
Designing in type, 365, 371
Desk, the, 49
Desk, Position of, 61
Desk, Writing level on, 62
Desk, Different slopes of, 68
Desk, Slope _for colour_, 118
Development of g, 325
Development of illumination, 16, 127, 204, 409
Development of illuminated initial, 48, 114, 205, 423
Development of Versals, 112
Development of Writing, the, 35, 409, & _Author’s Preface_
Devices in Letters, 362
Diaper patterns, 192, 215–217
“Display types,” 352
Distinct lines of writing, 326
Distinctiveness, 221, 247, 256
Divisions of the text, 123, 138, 256
Dividing Words, 258, 385
Dots, groups of, 188, 213
Drawing, 165, 203, 220, 227
Drawing letters, 118, 126, 146, 292, 293
“Durham Book,” 41, 71, 215, 415
E, 272, 273, 281, 410–11
Edges of Books, rough, or smooth and gilt, 111
Egg, white of, 163, 165, 166, 175, 179, 183
Egg, yolk of, 175, 179, 180
Egypt, Hieratic writing of, 36
Eleventh Century Writing, 46, 47, 305, 416
Elzevirs, the, 373
English Half-Uncials, 40
English, Writing, 40, 46, 47, 303, 305, (335), 415–417, 419, 423, 426
English, modern, writing in, 300, 326, 484, 485
Engraving, Metal, 365, 375
“_Essential Forms_,” 240, 275
Even Spacing, 265, 219
“Expression,” 240
F, 272, 274, 282, 410–11
“Face,” of type, 373, (26)
Fifteenth Century Writing, 46, 47, (326), 331, 428–483
“Filigree” Illumination, 197, 428
Filling the Pen, 51, 69
“Fine Writing” and “Massed Writing,” 260, 265, 299
Fine Pen Writing, 59, 86, 311, 324, 482, 26
Firth, C. M., 179
Flemish MS., 421
Floral Ornaments & Decoration, 182, 187, 191, 192, 198–203, 219
Fly-leaves, 111, 346
“Folder,” 64, 99, 348
Folding sheets for books, 99, 101–103, 111
_Folio_, 102
_Foot margin_, 106, 352, &c.
Formal Hand, acquiring a— (1) Tools, 48 (2) Methods, 61 (3) Models, 70 (4) Practice, 85
Formal Writing, 36, 317, 323
Formal Writing, Modern, 71, 86, 114, 310, 315, 323, 414–417, 481
Foundation Stones, 393
Fourteenth Century Writing, 46, (114), 423, (427)
Framed parchments, 356
Framing borders, 25, 213, 371
Freedom, 122, 126, 239, 258, 264, 324, 327, 342, 369, 21
“French chalk,” 167, 174
French Writing, 41, 305, 428
Froben, (_footnote_) 365, 373
G, 270, 282, 410–11
g, Development of, 325
“Geometrical” patterns, 205
_Gesso Sottile_, 166
Gilding (see _Gold_)
Gill, A. E. R., 383, 486, (on Inscriptions in Stone) 389
Gilt edges, 111
Gold-leaf, 151, 165, 169
Gold-leaf, Laying & Burnishing, 145–171, 184
“Gold Ink,” 165
Gold letters, 148, 166, 168, 186, 188, 299, 416, (405)
Gold powder, “paint,” or matt gold, 163, 183, 187
Gold, spots, bars, frames, 183
Gold, use of, 183–193 (see also _Other Colour Schemes_, 127–145)
Gold Writing, 164, 299
“Golden Psalter,” the, 218
“_Gothic lettering_,” 46, 118, 282, 331, 336, 373
Greek Writing, 36, 320
Green, 176–178, 181, 182, (202)
Gum arabic, 147, 175
Gutenberg, 372
H, 271, 273, 282, 411
Half-Uncials, 37, 40, 71, 238, 302, 413–415
Ham-Hill (stone), 393, 395
Hand-made paper, 111, 51
Handwriting, ordinary, 14, 15, 77, 280, 315, 323, 374
Headings in Capitals and Colour, 125, 132, 134, 297, (_footnote_ 2) 343, 353
_Heads, feet, serifs_, 84, 244, 311, 414, 416, 418, 482
Heraldry, 216, 360, 361, 336
Herbal, A, 221, 369
Herringham, Christiana J., 165, 386
Hewitt, Graily, 386, (Appendix: On Gilding) 167
_Historiated_ Initial, 423
Holding the Pen, 64–68
Holding the Horizontal shaft, 61, 67
Hollow letters, 119, 208
Holy Trinity Church, Hastings, Office Book, 484
_Hooks_, or _beaks_, 244, 280, 289
Hoptonwood (Stone), 395, 486
Horizontal thin strokes, 65, 66, 72, 73, (_footnote_) 304
Hübner’s _Exempla_, 378–380, 388
I, 189, 283
I for J., use of, 283
Illuminated Addresses, 353
Illuminated borders, 199, 211, 214
Illuminated Initials, 214 (see _Initial_, also _Collotype Notes_)
Illumination, 14, 486, 98
Illumination, a definition of, 193, 194
Illumination, a theory of, 193
Illumination, heavy, 263
Illumination, origin & development of, 48, 127, 204, 409, 16
Illumination, tools for, 172
Illustrations in MS. books, 13, 14, 221, (374)
Incised Letters, 377–384, 403–405, 392
_Indented_ (set in) lines, 113, 264
Initial, illuminated, development of, 48, 114, (134), 205, 330, 333, 423
Initials, round or square, 210
_Initial Pages, &c._, 112, 128, 365
Initial word (‹IN›), 128
Inks, 51, 70 (see also _Coloured_ “inks” and _Gold_)
_Inner margin_, 106
Inscription, modern, 487
Inscriptions, size & arrangement of, 88, 265, 351, 392
Inscriptions in stone, 389
Inscriptions on metal, stone, wood, &c., 375, 377, 264
“_Inside Shapes_,” 253, 281 (C)
Irish Half-Uncials, 40
Irish Writing, 34, 40, 302, 413-(415)
Italian Writing, 47, 305, 312, 317, 412, 417–419, 429–484
Italics, 311, 48, 130, 263
Italic Capitals, 315
“Italic” Writing, 138, 483
J, 283, 411
Joachinus de Gigantibus, 430
Jonah & fish, 195, 421
K, 273, 284, 401, 411
Ketton (stone), 395
Kells, Book of, 413, 40
Kelmscott Press, the, 364
Knife for pen cutting, 60
L, 273, 284, 410–11
Lamb’s skin, 167, 173–74
_Lapis Lazuli_, 178
Learning to Write, 48
Legibility, 86, 390 (see _Readableness_)
Lettering, arrangement of, 88, 122, 239, 255–268, 389
Lettering, construction & arrangement of, 237, 17–19
Lettering, contrasts of size, weight, &c., 327–328, 353
Lettering, divers uses of, 337
Lettering for Reproduction, 365
Letters in Bands, 123, 136, 267
Letters, Brush-made, (118), 292, 376
Letters, “Built-up,” 291, 254, 289, 331, 118–119
Letters, Characterization of, 278
Letters, Characterization of, “Arms & Branches,” 281 (C), 288, 331
Letters, Characterization of, Stems, 288 (drawn out), 282, 324, 331
Letters, Characterization of, Bows & Curves, 288
Letters, Characterization of, Serifs, 288
Letters, Characterization of, Tails, 289, 251, 331
Letters, drawn, 292–93, 146, 118
Letters, gold (see _Gold_)
Letters, “Hollow,” 119, 208, 333
Letters, incised & raised, 377–384, 403
Letters in inscriptions, size of, 351, 393
Letters, “Lombardic,” 119
Letters, monogrammatic, 260
Letters in outline, (294), 378–380
Letters, round (see _Round or Square types_)
Letters, Upper & Lower Parts, 273
Letters, Varied types of, 114, 119, 209, 377; (on one page), 352
Letters, Wide & narrow, 270, 278
“_Library gilt_,” 111
Lighting, 62
Limitation in decoration, 177, 181, 198, 215, 220, 352
“Limner’s” Illumination, 202
_Line-Finishings_, 205, 123, 134, 193, 263, 425, 486
Lines of Writing, 262, 326, 343
Lines, red, 144
Line-spaces in text, 123, 138, 256
Linked letters, 260, 361
“Lombardic” Capitals, 119, 210
Loumyer, G., 147
M, 271, 284, 410–11
Magnifying glass, use of, 57, 61, 84
_Majuscules_, (_footnote_) 300
Marbles & Alabasters, 395
Marginal lines, 109, 111, 136, 343
Margin, the Foot, 352, (106)
Margins, proportions of, 256, 89, 94, 95, 97, 103, 265, 394
Margins, wide, 89, 103, 213, 222, 265, 299, 317, 351, 483
“Massed writing,” 79, 260
Matt gold, 183, 187
Methods and Proportions, 100, 221, 256, 267
Middle Ages, the, 196
Miniatures, 98, 127, 165, 203, 220
_Minuscule_, 37, 302
Models of lettering, 70, 114, 237
Modern Handwriting, 315–323 (see also _Formal Writing & Handwriting, Ordinary_)
Monograms & Devices, 361, 260
Morris, William, 368, 386-7
MS. Books, 98, 256, 341
Music with red staves, 140, 345
N, 271, 285, 410–11
Narrow letters, 269–273, 278
“Natural” illumination, 202
Nib (see _Pen_)
Notes in red, &c., 130, 144
Numbering pages, 110, 142, 144, 342
Numerals, “Arabic,” 82
O, 270, 285, 411
“_Oblong_” shaped book, 103
Obsolete letters, &c., 86, 323
_Octavo_, 102
_Openings_, 101, 106, 213, 365
“Originality,” 268, 20
Ornament of backgrounds, 191
Ornament of backgrounds, use of, 123, 222, 254, 330
Ornament, “woven,” 208
Ornaments (see also _Design & Decoration_)
Ornamental Letters, 330, 48, 114, 208, 276, 298, 364, 25
Outlines, 186, &c.
Outlines, in black, 182
Oxgall, 175
P, 273–274, 285, 411
Page, proportions of a, 317
Pages in Capitals, 125, 128, 132, 299, 363–365
Pages, thickness of, 99
Painted (brush-made) letters, 376, 280, (118), 292, 384
Palæographical Society’s Publications, The, 388, 412, 413
Pan colours, 176
Paper, hand-made, 51, 111
Paper Sheets, sizes of, 103
Paragraphs & Paragraph marks, 112, 113, 123, 141, 144
Parchment & “Vellum,” 173, 38, 107, 110, 167
Parchment, framing of, 356
Patterns, elementary, 215, 205
Patterns, indented in gold, 191
Pens, for colour, 172, 180
Pens, metal, 60 (_footnote_, 20)
Pens, Quill, 52, 54, 59, 172, 20 23
Pens, Reed or Cane, 51, 52, 63, 84
Pen, cutting the, 52–60
Pen, holding the, 64–68
Pen, Nibs shape of, 56, 118
Pen, Nibs, width of, 84, 118, 292, 324
Pen, Pressure on, 63, 23
Pen-knife, 60
Pen-wiper, 61
Pen-work illumination, 197
Penmanship (or use of the pen), 35–38, 84–85, 118, 197, 198, 204, 218, 238, 239, 241–247, 254, 262, 278, 291, 311, 317, 375, 414, 418, & _Author’s Preface_
Personality, 239, 323
Phrasing, 384
“Plain song,” 140
Planning MS., Spacing, &c., 97, 100, 358 (see also _Scribes’ Methods_)
Planning sections & pages, 342
Plaster of Paris, 166
Platinum leaf, 165
Poetry, long lines in, 95, 97, 138, 484
Poetry, general treatment of, 95, 123, 138, 263, 337, 338, 371
“Pointed” Writing, 40, 41
_Pounce_, 145, 146, 167, 174
Portland Stone, 395
Powder Colours, 175
Powder gold or “gold paint,” 146, 163, 170, (see _Matt Gold_, 183, 187)
Practice (in _Lettering_), 21–22, 385
Practice, acquiring a formal hand, 85, 327
Practice & theory, 267
Prayer Book, 345
Prefaces in colour, &c., 130, 315
“Primary Colour Sensations,” 182
Printed books, Decoration of, 194, 369–372, 374
Printers’ marks, 142
Printers’ methods, 101, 113, 258, 264, 267, 363–374
Printing, 367
Proportion, 221, 251
Proportions and Methods, 100, 221, 256, 267, 358
Pumice, powdered, 146
Punctuation marks, 82, 384
Purple, 175, 177, 180
Purple Vellum, 299
Q, 270, 286, 411
Qualities of good Writing, 239
_Quarto_, 102
Quill pens, 52, 54, 59, 172, 20, 23
R, 272, 274, 286, 401, 411
Raised Letters in stone, &c., 377, 384, 403
Raising preparation (or “Size”), 145, 146, 166, 168
Readableness, 237–240, 254, 259, 260, 264, 265
_Recto_ (right-hand page), 105, 112, 181, 365
Red (paint), 176–78, 181, 182
Red & Black, 127, 328, 364, 372
Red lines, 144
Red writing, 130, 144, 194, 315, 328, 345
Reed or Cane pens, 51, 52, 63, 84
Renaissance, the, and writing, 47, 419
Repetition in decoration, 181, 215, 185, & see _Limitation_
“Rivers,” (_footnote_) 262
Roman Alphabet, the, 36, 114, 268, 390
Roman Capitals, 189, 210, 238, 294, 297, 299, 302, 377, 390–391, 409–412
Roman Capitals, _Written_, 297, 302
“Roman” characters, 118, 241, 263, 278
_Roman Small Letters_, 310, 47
Roman Uncials, 38
“_Roman Vellum_,” 173
Roman Writing, 36–40, 297, 412
Rooke, Noel, 227, 5
“Round” and “Square” letters, 269
Round or Square types of D, E, H, M, U, &c., 40, 119, 132, 210, 282, 300
Round, Upright, Formal Hands, 65, 302
Roundness in Writing, 38, 44, 45, 47, 304, 414
Rubricating, 127, 98, 130, 144, 180, 194, 344, 345, 372
“_Rules_,” 144, 364
Ruling, double, 88, 304, 414
Ruling pages, &c., 89, 99, 108, 258, 299, 343
Ruling stylus, 89, 100, 108, 110, 343
_Rustic Capitals_, 38, 297
Rustic Capital in Stone, 378
Rye, Slate at, 363, 382
S, 273, 274, 286, 411
“St. Albans Psalter,” the, 419
_Sandarach_ (resin), 174
Scale for ruling, 99, 25
Scalpel for pen-knife, 60
Scribes’, methods, 65, 88, 101, 103, 113, 128, 130, 221, 258, 268
_Scriptorium_, 4, 368
Scroll work, 203
“_Section_,” “_Gathering_”, (or “_Quire_”), 102, 110, 346
Sections of Letters in stone, 405, 403
Semi-formal Writing, 317
Semi-Uncials, see _Half-Uncials_
_Serifs_, 73, 84, 120, 241, 244–247, 288, 311, 314, 392
Service Books, 140, 345, 387, 484
_Set Inscriptions_, 350
Setting out & spacing, 126, 128, 221, 258, 351, 384–5, 396
Sgraffito, lettering in, 339
Sharpening stones, 61, 399
Sheets, cutting, folding & ruling, 99
Sign Writing & Brush-Work, 376
Silver leaf, 165, 299
Simple and complex forms, 195, 323
_Simple Written_ Capitals, 123, 297, 302
_Simple-Written Letters_, 291
Simplicity, 240, 255
“Size” or Raising preparation, 145, 146, 166, 168
Size & arrangement of inscriptions, 88, 265, 351, 392
Size & Shape of book, 100–101
Sizes of Capitals, 119, 122, 256
Sizes of paper sheets, 103
Skeleton forms, 240, 247, 275
“Sketching,” 126, 218, 258, 292
“_Slanted-Pen_” or _Tilted Writing_, 43, 73, 241, 247, 304, 310, 415
Slate, 382, 395
Sleight of hand, 23, 85, 311, 322
_Small-letters_ and Capitals, 40, 112, 122, 302
Small or Fine-pen Writing, 59, 86, 311, 324, 482, 26
Spacing close, 262–67
Spacing evenly, 265, 219
Spacing letters, words & lines, 77, 128, 256, 394: _see also_—
Spacing & planning MS., 89, 97
Spacing & setting out, 126, 128, 221–22, 258, 351, 385, 396
Spacing wide, 262–67, 314, 327
Special Books, 300, 304, 344–346, 412, 485, 299
Special words and letters, 123, 352
Speed in writing, 84, 305, 311, 315, 322, 324, 483
_Spots_, in “design,” 187–88
“_Spring_” for pens, 54, 59
“_Square Capitals_,” 37, 412
“Square and Round” letters, 269
Square or round types of D, E, H, M, U, &c., 40, 119, 132, 210, 282, 300
Stanzas or Verses, 123, 138 (see also _Poetry_)
Stones, best kinds of, for inscriptions, 395
Stones, Foundation, 393
Stonyhurst College, Gospel of S. John, in Uncials, 413
Straightforwardness, 97, 101, 221–22, 258, 264, 267, 327, 342, 344, 351, 396
“_Straight pen_,” 44, 241, 304
_Stylographic_ writing, 317
“_Swash Letters_,” 315
Symbolical devices, 142
“Symmetrical” arrangement, 264, 389
T, 272, 286, 411
Tail-pieces, 142, 342
“_Tailiness_,” 300
Tenison Psalter, the, 426
Tenth Century Writing, 46, 130, 295, 305, 325, (326), 415, 482, 485
Theory & practice, 267
_Thicks & Thins_, 43, 63, 83–85, 118, 292, 317, 375, 377, 392
Thin strokes, horizontal, 65, 66, 72, 304
Thirteenth Century Illumination, 185, 114, 195, 203, 210, 423–427
Thirteenth Century Writing, 46, 114, (116), 331, 423, 425, 426
Thompson, H. Yates-, 227, 429
Thompson, Sir E. M., 385 (quotations from), 36, 37, 41, 127, 418, 426
“Tilted” letters (O, &c.), 285, 44, 290
Title pages, 128, 142, 258, 363
Tombstones, 237, 394
Tool-forms, 278, 292, 323, 392
Tools and Materials for acquiring a formal hand, 48
Tools & Materials for illumination, 172, 20
Tools & Materials for laying & burnishing gold, 145
Tools for inscriptions in stone— Chisels, 396–403 Mallets, &c., 399–402
_Top margin_ (or _Head_), 106, 111, 343
Trajan Column, Inscription on, 409–411
Turkey’s Quill, a, 54
Twelfth Century Illumination, 195, 205, 218, 420–422
Twelfth Century Writing, 46, 47, (116), 305, 331, 417–422
“_Tying up_,” 260
Typography, book, foundations of, 13, 98
U, 271, 287, 411
Ultramarine Ash, 178
Uncials (Examples, &c.), 300
Uncials, Roman, 38
Uncials, Script II., 79
Uniformity, 244, 254, 311, 324, 181
Upright Round-hand, 44, 65, 70, 302–304, 412, 413–415
“_Upright_” shaped book, 103
V, 271, 287, 411
V for U, use of, 283
Variety, 177, 255, 352
Variety in initials, 209
Varied types of letters, 114, 119, 209, 377; (on one page) 352
“Vellum” & Parchment, 173, 38, 107, 110, 167: framing of, 356
Vellum for bindings, 348
Verdigris, 178
Vermilion, 177
_Versal Letters_, 34, 112–126, 205, 208, 218, 294, 296, 331, 420, 423 (see also