Chapter XII

. [on Lettering, &c.] of “Embroidery and Tapestry Weaving,” by Mrs. A. H. Christie, in this Series.

_Decoration for hangings_, (p. 336)_:_

_Marking clothes, &c._ [p341]

All the arts employ lettering directly or indirectly, in fine decoration or for simple service.

The following list of ancient uses is interesting:[90]—

“I. TITULI

1. Dedicatory and Votive Inscriptions (_Tituli Sacri_). 2. Sepulchral Inscriptions (_Tituli Sepulchrales_). 3. Honorary Inscriptions (_Tituli Honorarii_). 4. Inscriptions on Public Works (_Tituli Operum Publicorum_). 5. Inscriptions on Movable Objects (_Instrumentum_).

II. INSTRUMENTA

1. Laws (_Leges et Plebi Scita_). 2. Decrees of the Senate (_Senatus Consulta_). 3. Imperial Documents (_Instrumenta Imperatorum_). 4. Decrees of Magistrates (_Decreta Magistratuum_). 5. Sacred and Public Documents (_Acta Sacra et Publica_). 6. Private Documents (_Acta Privata_). 7. Wall Inscriptions (Inscriptiones Parietariae). 8. Consular Diptychs (_Diptycha Consularia_).”

MS. BOOKS, &C.

Books in the making—as compared with ordinary inscriptions—are capable of great compression or expansion, and may be said to have a quality of _elasticity_. Nearly all other ordinary inscriptions are _set inscriptions_ (p. 350), requiring a given number of words to be set out in a given space. But in books, while it is convenient that the treatment of the text should conform generally to a chosen size of page (p. 103), the contents of the page may vary according to the letter-form and the spacing (pp. 107, 262), and the number of the pages is not definitely limited, so that another page, or a [p342] number of additional pages, may always be taken to complete the text.

The size of page, margin, and writing having been settled (see Chap. VI.)—and the pages ruled—the penman writes out the text with the utmost freedom, not stopping to make fine calculations, but leaving such spaces and lines, for Initials, Headings, &c., as his fancy and common-sense dictate, and letting the text—or its divisions—smoothly flow on from page to page till a natural termination is reached. And if the terminal page has only one or two lines on it, it is not necessary to attempt a balance with the previous page—the book or chapter[91] ends just there, for the good reason _that there is no more of it_.

_Colophons, Tail-pieces, &c._ (see p. 142), make a pleasant finish, and may complete the page or not as convenient.

_Planning: Sections and Pages._—Calculations of the amount of text, of the number of sections or pages required, and so on, are useful, and planning the pages may be convenient—for example, one or more of the verses of a poem, or a given number of words, may be allotted to the page—provided always that the scribe preserves his freedom, and treats each case on its merits. If he think it most suitable to devote a complete page to each paragraph, he may do so in spite of its resulting in the pages all being of different lengths.

The one general limitation which it is proper to [p343] observe is that of the _Writing-line_—its length[92] and spacing—and to this may be added the desirability of beginning the text of every page on the first or _head_ line.[93] For most of us it is not practically possible to do without the _aid_ of the writing-lines—which really lead, through uniformity, to greater freedom—though a book written without them[94] might be as beautiful as any ruled manuscript.

_Marginal Lines._—These, the terminals of the writing-lines, are frequently made double, with about 1/4 inch between (see Plates XX. and XV.). On the left this space is utilised for marginal capitals, or is left blank; on the right the _first_ line acts as a warning mark and the normal termination of the text, the _second_ as a barrier beyond which the writing should not go. The double lines, in being more obvious than single lines, are also more effective in “straightening” the page (p. 109): presumably for this reason the two upper and two lower _writing-lines_ were often ruled from edge to edge of the page (see Plate XI.).

_Ruling._—Marginal and writing-lines, once ruled, are to be left intact, and may be regarded as actual component parts of the finished pages. They are best made with a hard blunt point (p. 108)—the _furrows_ so made give an interesting character, almost a “texture,” to the smooth surface of the page. But they may be ruled with a fine lead pencil, or with a fine pen and faint black or [p344] coloured inks. Inked or coloured lines, however, are not generally written _upon_ (see _footnote_, p. 305), but _between_ (see Plates XIII., XVII., XX., &c.).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 192.›]

_Correcting Mistakes._—A neatly made rather small letter above and a “carat” below (as in ordinary writing) may be used for an omission (fig. 192). A superfluous letter may be neatly struck out. Erasures are usually unsatisfactory, and a simple, unostentatious correction, besides disarming criticism, is in accordance with the proper freedom of the craft (see p. 174).

_Annotations, &c._, preferably in smaller _coloured_ writing, are very decorative in the broader margins (pp. 144, 315).

_Special Books._—A MS. book is necessarily unique, and some special or personal interest—either of the craftsman (see p. 142) or his “client”—inevitably attaches to it. This may affect its size and form, the treatment of the text, and the decoration and construction generally (see p. 100). Every legitimate opportunity of adding to its individual character should be taken by the scribe and illuminator. [p345]

Fig. 175 and Plate XX. are both taken from private prayer books or psalters; in each the name of the owner (e.g. “_Euanzelista famulo tuo_,” Plate XX.) is frequently inserted. Plates XV. and XXII. are also taken from specially commissioned MSS., and many evidences of their ownership, such as portraits or coats-of-arms, form part of the decoration of such books.

_Church Services, &c._—(For a special church or person.) Church uses are so varied, that it is most important to ascertain the custom, use, or taste of the persons concerned—especially as to the order of, and the introduction or omission of, certain words, paragraphs, or parts, the colours used in the text, the notation of the music—and the manner in which the book will be used.

A service book for the use of a priest gives prominence to the parts in which he is concerned—the responses[95] may be smaller, and different in form or colour. The rubrics—in red (see pp. 140, 144)—are kept quite distinct, and may form a very decorative feature. For a private person the other parts—such as are said by the congregation—might be specially marked. In either case a certain amount of planning—_e.g._ completing prayers, &c., in an _opening_, to avoid turning over—may be justified by its convenience to the reader. Should very careful planning ever be required, a _pattern-book_ may be made, having the contents of each page roughly indicated in it.

_Wedding Service Books, &c._—The interest and [p346] value is enhanced if the book is specially prepared—containing the proper names and dates, and only the special psalms, hymns, prayers, homilies, &c., which will be used. Dated pages may be provided at the end of the book for the signatures of the “friends and neighbours” of the principals.

BINDING MSS.

MSS. should be bound without delay in order to complete and protect them.

To bind books in stiff boards, in leather, requires considerable practice and skill, but a very effective _limp vellum cover_ can be made by the scribe himself, who, in binding his own books, will learn to think of the binding _as a part of the book_, and to allow for it in the writing and planning (see p. 106).

The following note[96] on covering books in limp vellum is specially contributed by Mr. Douglas Cockerell:—

“_How to cover a book in a limp vellum cover without using special appliances._

“Cut four strips of stiff vellum 3/8 inch wide and about four inches long. On these slips you will sew the sections of your book.

“Add to your book a plain section at either end;[97] vellum for a vellum book, paper for a paper book. Knock up the backs of the sections squarely, keeping the heads level, and across the back mark with a soft pencil guided by a square, lines to show the position of the slips. The positions of the four slips should leave the space between the slips the same as that between the [p347] top slip and the head of the book; the space between the bottom slip and the tail should be a little longer than the spaces between the slips. At about 1/2 inch from either end make an additional line across the back for the “kettle” or catch stitch. These lines will show as dots on the back of single sections. Each individual section should now have at the back a dot at either end for the kettle stitches, and four pairs of dots 3/8 inch apart to show the position of the slips, ten dots in all.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 193.›]

“To sew the book, fold the vellum slips about 1-1/2 inch from one end and bend to a right angle. Place your front end-paper outside downwards, with the back even with the edge of a table or board, and place your folded slips with their shorter ends under it. Then insert your needle from the outside, at the head “kettle stitch” mark, into the centre of the section and bring it out at the first band mark; put the slip in position and reinsert your needle at the mark on the other side of the slip, and so on to the end of the section, coming out at the tail kettle stitch. This should leave your section with a thread,[98] passing alternately along the centre fold inside and across the slips outside, with a loose end hanging from the kettle stitch mark where you began, and a thread with the needle hanging from the other kettle stitch mark (fig. 193). [p348]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 194.›]

“Lay on your next section and sew it in the same way but in the reverse direction, tying up with the first loose end when you come to it. Sew the whole book in the same way, tying on a new needleful of thread as each is exhausted, making practically a continuous thread going backwards and forwards inside the sections and across the slips from end to end of the book. Each succeeding kettle stitch should be caught up by a loop (fig. 194), and it is well to catch together the loose threads crossing the slips.

“When the book is sewn, the back may be covered with thin glue and lined with a piece of leather, but as this is a little difficult to manage neatly, and as the book will hold together without it, for a temporary binding the sections may be left without glue.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 195.›]

“For the cover cut a piece of covering vellum[99] (vellum with a surface) large enough to cover the book and to leave a margin of 1-1/2 inches all round. Mark this with a _folder_ on the underside, as shown at A, fig. 195. Spaces (1) and (2) are the size of the sides of the book with the surrounding “squares,”[100] space (3) is the width of the back, and space (4) the width for the overlaps on the foredge.[101] Cut the corners as shown at (5), and fold the edges over as at B, and then fold over the overlaps [p349] and back as at C. Be sure to make all folds sharp and true.

“To avoid mistakes it is well to make a cover of stiff [p350] paper first, and then, when that fits exactly, to mark up the vellum from it.

“On the inside of the vellum cover, mark faint lines about 3/4 inch from, and parallel to, the creases of the back, and further lines about 1/4 inch from these. Place your book in the cover and mark the places where the slips cross these lines. Make slits in the cover there, and lace the slips through them (fig. 196), first putting a piece of loose, toned paper inside the cover to prevent any marks on the book from showing through the vellum. Then lace pieces of silk ribbon of good quality[102] through the cover and end-papers, leaving the ends long enough to tie.”

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 196.›]

BROADSIDES, WALL INSCRIPTIONS, &C.

_Set Inscriptions._—Ordinary inscriptions generally consist of a given number of words to be set out in [p351] a given space. Careful planning may sometimes be required to fit in the words suitably, or to adapt the lettering to the space. But setting-out (p. 258) becomes much simpler after a little practice, and the good craftsman avoids over-planning.

_The Place of the Inscription._—The actual space for a wall inscription is commonly suggested by an architectural feature—a stone, a panel, or a niche—of the wall; but in choosing a suitable space for a given inscription, or suitable lettering for a given space, we must take into account—

1. _The office of the inscription._ 2. _How it is to be read_— (_a_) _“At a glance,” or_ (_b_) _by close inspection_. 3. _The distance from the reader._ 4. _The lighting of the space._ 5. _The character of the surroundings._ 6. _Any special features._

_The Size of the Letters._—The all-important question of readableness may be settled thus: the inscription having been planned suitably to fill the space, one or two words are written or painted (the exact size) on paper—smoked or otherwise coloured if necessary to resemble the background. This is stuck upon the chosen part of the wall, and then viewed from the ordinary position of a reader. When the inscription is high up, the _thin_ parts—especially the horizontals of the letters—must be made extra thick to be seen properly from below.

_Margins._—_Wide margins are only required for comparatively small lettering which demands the close [p352] attention of the reader_,[103] and generally a set inscription looks best if the lettering be comparatively large—covering most of the given surface, and leaving comparatively narrow margins. The frame or moulding, or the natural _edge_ or environment of the circumscribed space, is very often sufficient “margin” (see Plate XXIV.).

The margins vary, however, according to circumstances; especially the foot margin, which may be very narrow if all the space is required for the lettering (see fig. 211), or very large[104] if there is plenty of space (see fig. 210). And, as in special pages or _terminal pages_ of books, so in _single sheets_, _panels_, &c., the “foot margin” may show—as it really is—as _the space which did not require to be filled_, and was therefore “_left over_.”

_Number of Different Types._—While in a book of many pages considerable diversity is allowed, it is essential to the strength and dignity of a single sheet or set inscription to limit the number of types employed in it. Three or four ordinary types will generally give sufficient variety, and if it be necessary—as in notices and placards—that ‹Important Words› be put in _special_ types to catch the eye, let two—or at most three—special types suffice, and let the remainder of the text be as quiet and reserved as possible. “Display Types” commonly defeat their object by being _overdone_. A simple contrast is the most effective (fig. 197). [p353]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 197.›]

ILLUMINATED ADDRESSES, &C.

_Forms of Addresses, &c._—The writer should be prepared to advise his “clients” on the form which the address may take, on special features in its writing and illuminating, and on its general treatment.

Ordinarily an Illuminated Address is prepared either as a _Framed Parchment_ (p. 356), a _Parchment Scroll_, or sheet (p. 356), or a _small bound MS._ (_i.e._ in book form: p. 357).[105]

The wording commonly consists of three parts: the ‹Heading› (usually the name of the addressee), the ‹Text› (usually divided into paragraphs), the ‹Signatures› (or a list of names) of the subscribers.

An address is commonly in the 1st or 3rd person, and in case of any confusion of these, any slip of the pen, or other oversight in the draft, the penman [p354] should, if possible, call attention to it before the document is put into permanent form.

A very convenient and agreeable style of “address” is a formal letter, beginning “_Dear Mr. A———— B————_,” and ending in the ordinary way. This is a form which may be drawn up more simply, and which reads more naturally, than the ordinary 1st or 3rd personal statement.

An “address” is sometimes in the form of a resolution passed by a public or private body or committee. For municipal or other important corporations, such an extract from their minutes, neatly and “clerkly” written out on parchment, and duly attested by the signatures of their “head” and their secretary, and without ornament save their seal—on a dependent ribbon—or their coat-of-arms, or badge, would not only be the most natural, but possibly the most dignified and effective shape which might be given to the formal presentation of their compliments.

An “address” accompanying a present is frequently little more than a list of names with a brief complimentary or explanatory statement. If possible such an inscription should be written or engraved on the article itself, or be specially designed to accompany it. In some cases this is very simple: when a volume, or set of volumes, is given, the inscription may be written in the first volume—or on a parchment which may be inserted—or it may be prepared in book form, in a binding to match. A silver or other ornament sometimes has a little drawer provided to hold a narrow scroll of names. A portrait may have an inscription on the frame—or even in a corner of the picture—or be accompanied by a simple, framed parchment. [p355]

_Signatures._—A neatly written out list of subscribers—especially when their number is large—is very convenient: it does not require individual personal appointments, nor involve risks of damage to the address. The actual signatures of subscribers, however, are of greater interest and sentimental value, and on such grounds are preferable to a mere list of names.

To avoid risks (or with a view to incorporating the signatures in the decorative scheme) the decoration, gilding, &c., may sometimes be deferred until _after the signing of the address_.

When the exact number and the names of the subscribers are known beforehand, lines may be provided for their signatures, marked with letters in alphabetical order (the proper number of lines under each). This method solves any difficulty in regard to _precedence_ in signing.

‹Note.›—Ordinary signatures require about 1/2 inch by 3 inches space each. If there are many they may be conveniently arranged in two or more columns, according to the space available.

_Directions for Signing_[106]—

_Edges of parchment not to project beyond desk or table, lest they be creased._

_Paper to be provided to cover the address, with_ ‹FLAPS› _to raise when signing._

_When lines for signatures are grooved (p. 108), signatories to face the light (this makes the lines more evident)._

_Ink of one colour to be used if possible._

_Clean_, ‹ORDINARY› _pens to be provided, and pieces of paper for trying them on._ [p356]

_Framed Parchments._—The parchment may have—beyond the top and foot margins—spare pieces which (after the writing and illuminating is finished) are bent over the ends, and glued to the back, of a stout, white card, or millboard—covered with white or light coloured paper. Or—extra margin being allowed all round—the edges of the parchment are cut into tags or “scallops,” and folded over an ordinary canvas stretcher, and well tacked at the back with small brads. The wedges are carefully adjusted till the parchment lies flat.

A parchment glued to the surface of a millboard is more convenient for framing, but has a less natural surface, and is not so easily managed by the penman as the plain, flexible parchment.

_Frames_ should be gold, black, or white; very plain, and generally without mounts. The parchment, however, must be framed so that there is no danger of any part of it coming into contact with the glass (as that, being damp, would lead to cockling).

_Parchment Scroll._—The foot edge of the parchment may be folded over twice,[107] a strong, silk ribbon (see _footnote_, p. 350) is laced along through slits in the folded part (_a_, fig. 198), so that the two ends come out again at the centre—where they may be knotted together—and are ready to tie round the scroll when it is rolled up (_b_). A rather narrow, “_upright_” parchment is most convenient (_c_). An “_oblong_” parchment may be very effectively arranged in long lines of writing (_d_). If a special casket or case is not provided, a neat [p357] japanned tin case may be obtained for a few shillings.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 198.›]

_A small Bound MS._ is certainly the most easily handled form in which an address may be prepared—its convenience to the penman, the signatories, the reader, and the addressee, is strongly in its favour. A lengthy address, or a very large number of names, may be contained in a comparatively small book.

_Method of Planning out Addresses, &c._—If in the [p358] _book form_, the address is treated much as an ordinary book (see Chap. VI., and _Binding_, p. 346). The _framed_ or _scroll_ address is planned similarly to a single sheet (p. 90). The following notes of a working method were made during the planning out of an address:—

(1) Decide approximately the general _form_, shape, and decorative treatment of address.

(2) Count words in TEXT (leaving out HEADING and SIGNATURES) = 130

Count paragraphs = 3

(Decide whether first or last paragraph is to be in a different form or colour.)

Decide approximate width = 12 inches.

Decide approximate side margins (2-1/2 inches each) = 5 ”

Hence _length of writing-line_ = 7 ”

Allow 1/2 inch lines, and approximately _eight_ words to the line. ‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗

(3) 130 words TEXT, approx. 16 lines = 8 in. deep.

Allow extra (on account paragraphs) 1 line = 1/2 ” ”

(Roughly sketch out HEADING on lines each 1/2 inch by 7 inches.) Allow for HEADING 6 lines = 3 ” ”

Allow for two SIGNATURES, &c. 3 lines = 1-1/2 ” ” ———————————————————————— _Total depth of Writing, &c._ 26 lines = 13 inches.

Allow for Top margin 2 ”

Allow for Foot margin 3 ”

(‹Note.›—_This was a “scroll,” and the foot margin was folded up to within an inch of the SIGNATURES. A plain sheet would have required about 4 inches foot margin._) ——————————— Length of Parchment 18 inches.

(4) Cut a paper pattern, 12 inches by 18 inches. Rule (in pencil) _Side margins_ (2-1/2 inches and 2-1/2 inches), and _Top margin_ (2 inches), and 26 (1/2 inch) lines. On this write out the address in ordinary handwriting, using ordinary black and red (or coloured) inks: make approximately eight words to the line, and _write as fast as possible_; this helps to keep the spacing uniform.

This written pattern should not take more than twenty minutes for its entire preparation: it is intended to be used as a check on the previous calculation (not as an exact _plan_), and as a _copy_, it being easier to copy from your own, than from another’s, handwriting.

If the original draft is typewritten, it is hardly necessary to make such a pattern.

(5) Check this _copy_ very carefully with the original to see that the words, &c., are correct.

(6) Cut, rule, and pounce the _parchment_ (pp. 343, 174).

(7) On some _scraps_ of parchment, ruled with a few similar lines, and pounced, try one or two lines of writing, both in vermilion and black, to see that all goes well. This enables you to get the pens and inks into working order, and will very likely save the carefully prepared _parchment_ from being spoilt.

(8) Write out the address, leaving suitable gaps for _gold_ or special letters.

(9) Put in special letters, decorative capitals, and any other decoration.

(10) Check the finished _address_ very carefully with the original draft (see (5) above) and look it over for mistakes, dotting i’s, and putting in commas, &c., if left out. It is important that such a formal document should be accurate.

_General Remarks._—The above simple mode of planning out can be further simplified in custom and practice. By the penman _keeping to regular shapes, proportions,[108] and modes of treatment for regular [p360] occasions_, the addresses, &c., will practically “plan themselves” (p. 101), and better workmanship is the natural result.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 199.›]

Generally the simpler the form and the treatment of an Illuminated Address, the better the effect. The most effective decoration is the plain coloured or gold capital, and the finest ornament is a coat-of-arms (see “_Heraldry_,” below; and for general, [p361] simple Illumination, see Chapters VII. to XIII.). A symbolical mark, such as a crest, badge, monogram, cypher, or other device (p. 362), boldly and decoratively treated, may be used in place of a coat-of-arms.

There is too much “Illumination” in the conventional “Address,” which looks like a “_piece of decoration_” _with a little writing_. A really reasonable and effective Illuminated Address is _a piece of writing suitably decorated_.

* * * * *

_Heraldry._—A reliable handbook must be consulted, for accurate “_blazoning_” is essential. Early examples should be studied (see p. 387). The diagram, fig. 199, is given as an example of how a charge was evenly arranged on the shield (see _balanced_ background, p. 419). Another example—showing a diapered chequer—is given on p. 336.

Shields in _Illuminated_ borders may be coloured before the border, lest the brilliant mass of colour of the shield clash with the border. The shield, if large, may with advantage set the tone of the whole colour scheme.

MONOGRAMS & DEVICES

A _Monogram_ consists of two or more letters combined in one form, as the diphthong «Æ», and the amperzand[109] @ for @@: its legibility may be helped by compound colouring. A _Cypher_ consists of linked or interlaced letters, as @, [p362] and may be repeated and reversed if desired (see fig. 200).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 200.›]

Monograms and cyphers may be very decoratively employed as ornaments, and may be used to mark a man’s goods, or as a _signature_ on his work: something easily recognized—either very legible or characteristic—is therefore desirable. The two modes may be combined, and there is no limit to [p363] the effective devices and ornaments which may be composed of letters. Simple and straightforward devices, however, are generally preferable to very ornate or intricate designs.

_Chronograms._—A chronogram consists of a word or words in which the numerical letters indicate a date. The following is from a very fine memorial inscription at Rye (see fig. 207):—

I_oannes Three_L_e_ M_e_DI_o_ L_ætæ ætat_I_s f_L_ore ob_II_t_.

It expresses the date I + L + M + D + I + L + I + L + I + I (or 1 + 50 + 1000 + 500 + 1 + 50 + 1 + 50 + 1 + 1) = 1655. As every letter having a numerical value (_i.e._ C, D, I, (J), L, M, (U), V, (W), X) may be counted, a proper chronogram is not easily composed.

The letter-craftsman will discover many ways of “playing” with letters, and of expressing—or concealing—names and numbers in other words, and he may take every liberty he chooses in his private pleasure, provided it does not clash with public convenience.

TITLE PAGES

If large capitals be used, the _Name of the Book_, _the Author_, _&c._, above; the _Name of the Publisher_, _the Date_, _&c._, below,[110] may together fill the page. Ordinary capitals (as used in the text) leave a space in the centre (see Title Page of this book): often pleasantly filled by a small woodcut—a symbolical device, monogram, or printer’s mark.

Generally, the fewer and simpler the types, the better: though contrasts of size, form, or colour [p364] (see p. 327)—such as printing one or two words in large «CAPITALS», or in <f>Black Letter</f> (p. 331), or part in red—may sometimes be used with good effect. When the types are rather varied, single or double _framing lines_ (called “_rules_”) placed round the page have the effect of binding the whole together. The page may also be divided into parts by transverse “rules”—these further solidify it. Black rules are preferable to red (p. 144): if they are double, the outer line may be thicker than the inner.[111]

_Relation of Title Pages, &c., to the Text._—Generally the practical part of the book is to be considered and settled before the ornamental and the decorated Title page conforms to the treatment of the text pages, and should be clearly related to them by the character of its letters or its ornaments. Its margins (especially the top margin) should be approximately the same as those of the text pages, though framing borders may occupy part of, or nearly all, the marginal space. Without doubt the artless, ordinarily printed title page is preferable to those specially designed “title pages” that have little or no relation to the rest of the book.

_Wood Engraving_ (see pp. 365, 371).—Of all the “processes,” wood engraving agrees best with printing. The splendid effect of Title and Initial pages engraved in wood may be seen in the books of the Kelmscott Press. In early printing, woodcut ornaments or borders were commonly used to [p365] decorate the printed title page. An example of this combined method—of which unfortunately the greater part of the borders have to be left out—is shown in fig. 201 (from a 16th century book).[112]

_Initial Pages and Openings._—The claim of these to decorative treatment should be considered (p. 128). We generally look at the outside of a book for the _title_—which should be clearly stamped on the cover. But inside the book we look rather for its _actual beginning_ than for its name, and, while something in the nature of the “sub-title” might be used, it would be quite reasonable to revive the ancient fashion—especially in the case of MS. Books—of making the actual beginning the most decorative part of the book. Or a very fine effect may be obtained by the decoration of the entire _initial opening_—the title on the _verso_ (left page), the beginning of the first chapter on the _recto_ (right page).

LETTERING FOR REPRODUCTION

Where it is possible, it is generally best to make use of ordinary typography. A good fount of type and a natural _setting-up_ or arrangement of it, are more effective than many special designs (see pp. 364, 267).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 201› (_see footnote_, p. 365)]

_Wood and Metal Engraving._—If special forms or arrangements of letters are required, for which type is lacking or unsuited, they are best cut in wood or [p367] metal. The engraver leaves the mark of his tool and hand upon, and so gives character to, such lettering; while, if he has some knowledge of letters, he may give fresh beauty to their forms.

_The Zincotype Process_ reproduces, either in _facsimile_ or on a reduced scale, the “design” made by the craftsman in “black and white.” This it does more or less exactly according to the pains taken by the zincographer, the quality of the paper employed, &c. The literalness and facility of this process, however, seem to have had a prejudicial effect on the work of the designer. Unless he conscientiously determines that his design shall stand without “touching-up,” the knowledge that he may blot out or trim a faulty line with white, that he may fill out or finish a deficient stroke with black, that he may work _large_ and zincograph _small_, is apt to result in carelessness combined with over-finishing—or a sort of _perfection without character_.

If zincography be used, a strong, rather type-like letter, or a built-up letter—arranged to give a general effect of richness of mass, would appear more natural than the doubtful “reproduction” of delicate writing or fine pen-lettering.[113]

_Etching._—Calligraphy might be reproduced with very fine effect, retaining its natural delicacy and on a plane surface, if a process of etching writing in facsimile were possible.

PRINTING

The general question of fine printing and its relation to calligraphy can only be briefly referred [p368] to here. A proper study of the art of typography necessitates practice with a printing press, and probably the help of a trained assistant.

To would-be printers, printers, and all interested in typography, the easily acquired art of writing may be commended as a practical introduction to a better knowledge of letter forms and their decorative possibilities.

In this connection I have quoted in the preface (p. 13) some remarks on _Calligraphy_ by Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, who, again, referring to typography, says—[114]

“The passage from the Written Book to the Printed Book was sudden and complete. Nor is it wonderful that the earliest productions of the printing press are the most beautiful, and that the history of its subsequent career is but the history of its decadence. The Printer carried on into Type the tradition of the Calligrapher and of the Calligrapher at his best. As this tradition died out in the distance, the craft of the Printer declined. It is the function of the Calligrapher to revive and restore the craft of the Printer to its original purity of intention and accomplishment. The Printer must at the same time be a Calligrapher, or in touch with him, and there must be in association with the Printing Press a Scriptorium where beautiful writing may be practised and the art of letter-designing kept alive. And there is this further evidence of the dependence of printing upon writing: the great revival in printing which is taking place under our own eyes, is the work of a Printer who before he was a Printer was a Calligrapher and an Illuminator, WILLIAM MORRIS.

“The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy, is to communicate to the imagination, without loss by the [p369] way, the thought or image intended to be communicated by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typography is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol, a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to win access for that communication by the clearness and beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take advantage of every pause or stage in that communication to interpose some characteristic and restful beauty in its own art.”

_Early Printing_ was in some points inferior in technical excellence to the best modern typography. But the best early printers used finer founts of type and better proportions in the arrangement and spacing of their printed pages; and it is now generally agreed that early printed books are the most beautiful. It would repay a modern printer to endeavour to find out the real grounds for this opinion, _the underlying principles_ of the early work, and, where possible, to put them into practice.

_Freedom._—The treatment or “planning” of early printing—and generally of all pieces of lettering which are most pleasing—is strongly marked by _freedom_. This freedom of former times is frequently referred to now as “spontaneity”—sometimes it would seem to be implied that there was a lawless irresponsibility in the early craftsman, incompatible with modern conditions. True spontaneity, however, seems to come from _working by rule, but not being bound by it_.

For example, the old Herbal from which figs. 135 to 141 are taken contains many woodcuts of plants, &c., devoting a complete page to each. When a long explanation of a cut is required, _a smaller type is used_ (comp. figs. 135 & 138); when [p370] the explanation is very short, _it does not fill the page_. This is a free and natural treatment of the greatest convenience to the reader, for illustration and text are always in juxtaposition. And though the size of the type and the amount of the text are varied, yet the uniform top margins, and the uniform treatment and arrangement of the woodcuts, harmonise the pages, and give to the whole book an agreeable effect of freedom combined with method.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 202.›

_Diagram shewing arrangement of pages (about 1/7 size). Note: Inner columns of Commentary narrow (Text cols equal)_]

An old way of treating a text and its commentary is indicated by the diagram (fig. 202). The text is printed in large type, the commentary, in smaller type, surrounds it; such portion of the text being printed on each page as will allow sufficient surrounding space for the accompanying [p371] commentary on that portion. The proportions and treatment of every page are uniform (note,

## particularly, the uniformity of the upper parts of the pages, five

lines of commentary being allowed to enclose the text, or bound it above, on every page) with the exception that the height of the text-column varies—one page having as few as three lines of text to the column, another having fifty-nine lines. This free treatment of the text gives a charming variety to the pages.

_Poetry._—A broader and freer treatment is desirable in the printing of poetry. The original lines and the arrangement of the verses should be more generally preserved. And though the opening lines of a poem may sometimes be magnified by printing them in capitals—which necessitate their division—to sacrifice the naturally varying line to the “even page” is questionable, and to destroy the form of a poem _in order to compress it_ is a “typographical impertinence” (see p. 95).

<f>DECORATION OF PRINT @ MUCH MAY BE DONE BY ARRANGING IMPORTANT TEXT IN “ITS OWN” CAPITALS; OR BY THE OCCASIONAL USE OF EXTRA LARGE CAPITALS.</f>

For special letters or ornaments, woodcuts are best (see p. 364). The early printers generally had little, simple blocks of ornamental devices which might be used separately, or be built up into a frame border for a whole page—a simple method and effective, if used reasonably. [p372]

The judicious use of colour, especially of _red_ (see pp. 127, 144), is very effective. The extra printings required for additional colours may make it worth while (in the case of limited editions) to put in simple initials, paragraph marks, notes, &c., _by hand_ (see pp. 194, 113). The earliest printed books, being modelled on the MS. books, employed such rubrication freely, in spaces specially left in the text or in the margins. There are still great possibilities in the hand decoration of printed books.

* * * * *

The following note on printing, reproduced here by the permission of Mr. Emery Walker, appeared in the _Introductory Notes_ of the Catalogue of the first exhibition of _The Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society_, in 1888.

“PRINTING

“Printing, in the only sense with which we are at present concerned, differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts represented in the Exhibition in being comparatively modern. For although the Chinese took impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for centuries before the wood-cutters of the Netherlands, by a similar process, produced the block books, which were the immediate predecessors of the true printed book, the invention of movable metal letters in the middle of the fifteenth century may justly be considered as the invention of the art of printing. And it is worth mention in passing that, as an example of fine typography, the earliest dated[115] book, the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, has never [p373] been surpassed. Printing, then, for our purpose, may be considered as the art of making books by means of movable types. Now, as all books not primarily intended as picture-books consist principally of types composed to form letterpress, it is of the first importance that the letter used should be fine in form; especially, as no more time is occupied, or cost incurred, in casting, setting, or printing beautiful letters, than in the same operations with ugly ones. So we find the fifteenth and early sixteenth century printers, who were generally their own type-founders, gave great attention to the forms of their types. The designers of the letters used in the earliest books were probably the scribes whose manuscripts the fifteenth-century printed books so much resemble. Aldus of Venice employed Francesco Francia of Bologna, goldsmith and painter, to cut the punches for his celebrated italic letter. Froben, the great Basle printer, got Holbein to design ornaments for his press, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the painter may have drawn the models for the noble Roman types we find in Froben’s books. With the decadence in handwriting which became marked in the sixteenth century, a corresponding change took place in the types; the designers, no longer having beautiful writing as a model and reference, introduced variations arbitrarily. The types of the Elzevirs are regular and neat, and in this respect modern, but they altogether lack the spirit and originality that distinguish the early Roman founts of Italy and Germany: Gothic characteristics inherited from their mediæval predecessors. In the seventeenth century type-founding began to be carried on as a craft apart from that of the printer, and although in this and the succeeding century many attempts were made to improve the “face” (as the printing surface of type is called), such examples as a rule reflect only too clearly the growing debasement of the crafts of design. Notable among these attempts were the founts cut by William Caslon, who started in business in London as a letter-founder in 1720, taking for his models the Elzevir [p374] types. From this time until the end of the century he and his successors turned out many founts relatively admirable. But at the end of the eighteenth century a revolution was made, and the founders entirely abandoned the traditional forms of their predecessors, and evolved the tasteless letters with which nearly all the books published during the first sixty years of the present century are printed, and which are still almost universally used for newspapers and for Government publications. Particularly objectionable forms are in everyday use in all continental countries requiring Roman letter. (The last two sentences are set in a type of this character.)

“In 1844 the Chiswick Press printed for Messrs. Longmans ‘The Diary of Lady Willoughby,’ and revived for this purpose one of Caslon’s founts. This was an important step in the right direction, and its success induced Messrs. Miller & Richard of Edinburgh to engrave a series of ‘old style’ founts, with one of which this catalogue is printed. Most other type-founders now cast similar type, and without doubt if their customers, the printers, demanded it, they would expend some of the energy and talent which now goes in cutting Japanese-American and sham seventeenth-century monstrosities in endeavouring to produce once more the restrained and beautiful forms of the early printers, until the day when the current handwriting may be elegant enough to be again used as a model for the type-punch engraver.

“Next in importance to the type are the ornaments, initial letters, and other decorations which can be printed along with it. These, it is obvious, should always be designed and engraved so as to harmonise with the printed page regarded as a whole. Hence, illustrations drawn only with reference to purely pictorial effects are entirely out of place in a book, that is, if we desire seriously to make it beautiful.

EMERY WALKER.”

[p375]

INSCRIPTIONS ON METAL, STONE, WOOD, &C.

As the material naturally modifies the shapes of the letters cut or formed on its surface, and as the object bearing the inscription affects their arrangement, it is essential that the inscription cutter make himself familiar with various stones, metals, woods, &c., with the various chisels and gravers which are properly employed on them, and with fine inscriptions or examples of good pieces of lettering (see pp. 388, 237).

A knowledge of penmanship will be found useful, and the pen may be appealed to to decide questions of abstract form in regard to letters which have come from pen forms (_e.g._ Roman Small-Letters, Italics, &c.). And in this connection it may be noted again that the “slanted-pen forms” (pp. 305, 43) are generally the most practical.

_Engraving on Metal._—Letters incised in metal may most nearly approach pen forms, as the fine grain of the metal and the comparatively small scale of the work allow of fine “thin strokes.” The engraver, however, while following generally the “thicks” and “thins” of the penman, allows the metal and the tool and, to a large extent, his own hand, to decide and characterise the precise forms and their proportions.

_Inscriptions in Stone_ (see Chap. XVII., Plates I., II., and XXIV., and pp. 292, 36).—The grain of stone does not generally allow of very fine thin strokes, and the “thicks” and “thins” therefore tend to differ much less than in pen-work. Their origin, moreover, is much less easily traced to the _tool_—_i.e._ the chisel—and the difference was less in the [p376] early inscriptions (see Plate II.) than we are now accustomed to (see Plate XXIV.): perhaps it may be explained as a fashion set by penmanship (see p. 241).

_Inscriptions on Wood_ are frequently in relief (see raised letters, p. 377), matching the carved ornament. Incised letters may be painted or gilded to make them show more clearly.

_Sign-Writing and Brush-Work._—Inscriptions, such as shop signs, notices, &c., painted on wood or stone, require—besides a practical knowledge of materials—a considerable facility with the brush or “pencil.” Directness and freedom of workmanship are most desirable.[116]

A suitable brush will make letters closely resembling pen letters. But the pen _automatically_ makes letters with a uniform precision, which it is neither desirable nor possible for the brush to _imitate:_ and greater skill is required to control the brush, which in the hand of a good “Writer” will be permitted to give its own distinct character to the lettering (see also p. 292, and fig. 164).

The brush is properly used for temporary inscriptions, especially on the surface of painted wood or stone, but, for more important work, _incising_ or _carving_ (painted if desired) are to be preferred as [p377] being more permanent[117] and preserving the original form[118] of the lettering.

OF INSCRIPTIONS GENERALLY (_See also