CHAPTER XIII

“DESIGN” IN ILLUMINATION

“Design” — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale & Scope of Decoration — Of “Designing” Manuscripts, Generally.

“DESIGN”

Perhaps the nearest right definition of “design” is “_contrivance_”—applied to the actual doing of the work, rather than to the work when done: “_decoration_” (when that is the sense intended) is a safer word,[47] because it implies “_of something_.” And generally that “something” lies at the root of the matter. For example: “illuminated initials” and “illuminated borders,” so called, are really illuminat_ing_: they are properly _a decoration of manuscript or print_.

To consider a “piece-of-decoration” as a thing existing apart from that which it decorates, as something drawn or copied, and, so to speak, _stuck on_ to the finished work, is as _un_natural as it would be to contemplate the flame-of-a-candle as a thing apart from the candle. [p215]

The finest decoration is really part of the work itself, and may be described as _the finishing touches given directly to the work by the tools which are properly employed on it_.

The illuminator has, as a rule, to decorate a given manuscript with pen or brush work—it may be with the simplest pen flourishes, or with the most elaborate figure “design.” _How_ to make that illumination part of the work, he can learn only by patient practice and by careful handling of his tools.

ELEMENTARY PATTERNS IN DECORATION

Nearly all simple Decoration consists of a comparatively limited number of _elements_—simple forms and pure colours—which are built up into more complex forms to occupy an allotted space. A primitive type of such built-up decoration is seen in the dotted patterns, which are found in every age—in the remains of the most ancient art, and in the shell decorations which children make on the sands at the present day. Examples of dotted “backgrounds” in the “Durham Book” are shown in fig. 130 (_a_ and _b_). Chequers and Diapers—in which two or more elements are employed—are related patterns.[48] (_See also Addenda, p. 25 & fig. 191a._)

A simple way of filling a band (or long narrow [p216] space) is to run a zigzag line along it (_c_). This may be treated either as a line or wavy stem, which may send out buds, leaves, or flowers into the spaces (_g_), or as two series of triangles which may be “_countercharged_” (_f_).[49] A second zigzag, cutting the first, would produce two series of triangles and a central row of lozenges (_d_). And it is not a very great step from this to the “twist” where the two lines pass over and under, the lines being made “solid” in white or gold on a coloured background (_e_, fig. 130). The main difference appears to be that while the one is of the nature of an abstract form, the other suggests a concrete form, such as might be made with twisted cords or rods.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 130.›]

These primitive patterns never become antiquated; they are still the root forms of “design,” and the pleasant even covering of a given space by simple elements—which is their _métier_—accounts for much of the unconscious pleasure which we take in good _bricklaying_ or _sewing_ or _writing_, and in a thousand things, where “_many littles make a mickle_.”

For their decorative possibilities in Illumination we can experiment in the most delightful way—framing our writing with bands of countercharged triangles in burnished gold, and blue and white, or with golden zigzags on a blue ground, or chequering backgrounds with scarlet and blue, and trying a hundred and one other ways (p. 197). Such patterns have been made the most of in Heraldry, [p218] an art which in itself would form a foundation for a splendid and complete scheme of Illumination.

SCALE & SCOPE OF DECORATION

_Penmanship._—Many of the most beautiful MSS. were made in pen-work throughout.[50] And it is well that the penman should stick to his pen as much as is possible. Not only does it train his hand to make pen ornaments, the forms of which are in keeping with the writing, but it helps to keep the decoration proportionate in every way. It is an excellent plan for the beginner to use the writing-pen for plain black capitals or flourishes, and to make _all_ other decoration with similar or slightly finer pens than the one used for the writing.

Again, the direct use of the pen will prevent much mischievous “sketching.” Sketching is right in its proper place, and, _where you know exactly what you wish to do_, it is useful to sketch in lightly the main parts of a complex “design” so that each part may receive a fair portion of the available space. But do not spoil your MS. by experimental pencilling in trying to find out what you want to do. Experiments are best made roughly with a pen or brush on a piece of paper laid on the available space in the MS., or by colouring a piece of paper and cutting it out to the pattern desired and laying it on. Such means are also used to settle small doubts which may arise in the actual [p219] illuminating—as to whether—and where—some form or some colour should be placed on the page.

_Filigree, Floral, & other Decoration._—The acquired skill of the penman leads very naturally to a pen flourishing and decoration of his work, and this again to many different types of filigree decoration more or less resembling floral growths (see figs. 125, 126; pp. 197–202; Plates XI., XVII.).

Now all right decoration in a sense _arranges itself_, and we may compare the right action of the “designer’s” mind to that necessary vibration or “directive” motion which permeates the universe and, being communicated to the elements, enables the various particles to fall into their right places: as when iron filings are shaken near a magnet they arrange themselves in the natural curves of the magnetic field, or as a cello bow, drawn over the edge of a sand-sprinkled plate, gathers the sand into beautiful “musical patterns.”

And to most natural growths, whether of plants or ornament, this principle of self-arrangement seems common, that they _spread out evenly and occupy to the greatest extent possible their allotted space_. Branches and leaves most naturally _grow away from the stem and from each other_, and oppose elbows and points in every direction. In this way the growth fits its place, looking secure and at rest—while in disconnected parallels, or branches following their stem, there is often insecurity and unrest.[51] (_See also Addenda, p. 25._)

For example: a circular space is filled more [p220] decoratively by a cross (_a_, fig. 131) than by a contained circle; a square is better filled by a “lozenge” or a circle (_b_ and _c_) than by a smaller square set square and parallel (compare the diapering of the chequers in fig. 191 _a_). A circular or square space might be filled on this principle with a filigree arrangement such as is suggested by (_d_, fig. 131). _Note._—In the case of two curves in the ornament touching (either internally or externally) they may be linked at this point by a (gold) band or circle or lozenge (_e_, fig. 131, _see also_ Plate XVII.).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 131.›]

_Miniatures and Drawing._—In drawing and painting, the difficulty which is apt to beset the illuminator is how to strike a balance between “Naturalism” and “Conventionalism,” so called. While the only criterion is good taste, we may be guided by certain general principles.

To limit the number of elements in a “design”—whether of form or colour—is nearly always an [p221] advantage (pp. 177, 181, 198). And the miniaturist, while depicting the nature of a plant, usually _limits the number of its branches and leaves and shades of colour_. Every part of a “design” should be drawn clearly and distinctly, and in proportion to the whole. The miniaturist, therefore, usually _draws in careful outline every branch and leaf, making the whole proportional with the MS. which it decorates_.

In fact, the qualities of good illumination are the same as _the qualities of good writing—Simplicity, Distinctiveness, Proportion, &c._ (see p. 239). And the “convention” (here literally a _coming together_) required is only such as will make the drawing and colouring of the illumination and the form and colour of the writing _go well together_.

‹Note.›—Figs. 135 to 141 (woodcuts—with part of the text—from a Herbal printed at Venice in 1571 [p. 369]) and figs. 132, 133, and 134_a_ (wood engravings by T. Bewick, printed 1791) are suggested as examples of drawing—of plants and animals—suitable for book-decoration (see also figs. 134_b_, _c_, _d_; Plates XV., XVI., XXIII., and notes on “limner’s illumination,” p. 203).

OF “DESIGNING” MANUSCRIPTS GENERALLY

Cultivate the simplest and most direct methods, and make “rules of thumb”[52] for work-a-day use, to carry you successfully through all routine or ordinary difficulties, so that your hand will be trained and your mind free and ready to deal with the harder problems when they arise. [p222]

Use a limited number of pure, bright colours, and keep your work clean, neat, and definite.

Go straight ahead, trusting to workman-like methods, and not calculating overmuch. Do the work in a regular order, settling, first, the general scheme, the size of the book, the writing, and the margins; then when you are ready—

1. Prepare the sheets (see pp. 99, 110, 167).

2. Write the text—leaving spaces for decoration.

3. Write in— (_a_) The coloured writing. (_b_) The coloured capitals. (_c_) The line-finishings.

4. Illuminate— (_a_) The Initials. Following a regular (_b_) Line-finishings. order in the various (_c_) The Borders. processes involved.

5. Bind the book (p. 346), or have it bound, in order to make a real and finished piece of work.

Practise an artistic economy of time and space: usually the quicker you write the MS. the better it is. Allow sufficient margins to make the book readable and handsome, but not so wide as to make it appear fanciful. Allow sufficient ornament, not overloading the book with it. Let the ornament be of a type suited to the book and to the subject—not _too painstaking_ or elaborate in an ordinary MS.; not too hasty and slight in an important work.

Endeavour to strike a balance between what may be called “practical” and “ornamental” considerations: an illuminated MS. is not meant to be entirely “practical,” but it is a greater failure if made entirely “ornamental.” Let the text be _readable_ in every sense, and let the ornament _beautify_ it: there should be give and take, as it were, and that most desirable quality—“sweet reasonableness.” [p223]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 132.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 133.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134.› _Part of Fig. 133. Enlarged twice linear._]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_a_.]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_b_.]

[p227]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_c_.

(_This and fig. 134 d are copies from a thirteenth century MS. in the possession of Mr. Yates-Thompson._)]

“The intricacies of a natural scene (fig. 134 _a_—after Bewick) may be simplified when rendered in such a simple medium as the pen drawings of a MS. (comp. fig. 134 _b_). Figs. 134 _c_ & _d_ are old examples of strong, simple drawing. Students should practise themselves by translating figs. 132, 133 into fine, Quill-pen drawings.”—(N. R.)

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 134›_d_.]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 135.—The Reed.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 136.—Asparagus.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 137.—The Lentil.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 138.—The Vine.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 139.—The Carnation.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 140.—The Peony.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 141.—The Peach.›]

―――――――――――――――――――― FOOTNOTES TO PART I:

[5] “The alphabet which we use at the present day has been traced back, in all its essential forms, to the ancient hieratic writing of Egypt of about the twenty-fifth century before Christ. It is directly derived from the Roman alphabet; the Roman, from a local form of the Greek; the Greek, from the Phœnician; the Phœnician, from the Egyptian hieratic. . . . We may without exaggeration . . . carry back the invention of Egyptian writing to six or seven thousand years before Christ.”—_Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, “Greek and Latin Palæography,”_ pp. 1–2.

[6] Ibid., p. 196.

[7] “G. & L. Palæography,” p. 204. (Minuscules = “small letters.” _Half-Uncials are sometimes distinguished, as “round minuscules”_—p. 302.)

[8] It is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of the brush in painting up public notices and the like. The introduction of the use of vellum—a perfect writing material—in the making of books, led to such a great advance in the formality and finish of the book-hands (especially of the Uncial character) that, practically, it may be said to mark the beginning of _penmanship_ as a “fine” art. This change may be assigned to any time between the first and the third centuries (palæographical dates before the fifth century must generally be regarded as approximate).

[9] “Greek and Latin Palæography,” p. 233.

[10] Some Eastern scribes use a “pad” of _fur_. This, or a piece of springy cloth, or other elastic substance, would probably be helpful, and experiments should be made in this direction.

[11] The ordinary “Reed pen” of the artists’ colourman is rather soft and weak for formal writing. The reeds used by the native scribes in India and Egypt, and some of the harder English reeds, are excellent. A fine, hollow cane also makes a very good pen.

[12] The width of the cut nib corresponds exactly with the width of the thickest stroke which the pen will make in writing.

[13] If the edge of the nib were cut at right angles to the shaft, obviously the horizontal stroke would not be thin, and the true thick and thin strokes would be oblique (see “_slanted pen_” _writing_—figs. 9 & 11).

[14] For example, a _framed_ sheet does not require such wide margins as a similar sheet _un_framed.

[15] Really about 6 inches, because the top line of writing will not occupy its full 7/8 inch, the unused part of which adds to the top margin (see fig. 65).

[16] MS. Books are further considered in Chap. XVI.

[17] The _direct_ use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to inaccuracy.

[18] The two, four, eight (or more) pages are printed on both sides of the sheet before it is folded. Two or more sheets are generally folded and put together to form a folio “_section_.”

[19] Such as _Foolscap_ (17″ x 13-1/2″), _Crown_ (20″ x 15″), _Demy_ (22-1/2″ x 17-1/2″), _Royal_ (25″ x 20″), &c.

[20] In Oriental books, which are sometimes held by their top margins, the _top_ is deepest.

[21] If the average number of words be previously fixed—as in a poem (see p. 95)—that will practically determine the size of the writing.

[22] They are often ruled double (see p. 343), and sometimes the top and foot lines are ruled from edge to edge of the sheet.

[23] Though Versals may generally be regarded as _paragraph marking letters_, it is convenient to apply the term to the Versal type of letter—_e.g._ “a heading in Versal letters” (see fig. 91).

[24] In “Roman” letters the thicks and thins are not necessarily strongly marked, though their pen-forms have often a natural “Gothic” tendency.

[25] The mediæval scribes often made the first line of a chapter or book in uniform capitals (excepting the initial letter). The succeeding line generally was smaller, and of a different colour and type—even when a divided word was carried over into it.

[26] _Minium_ = red-lead, used in early times for “rubrics” and drawings, hence is derived the word “_Miniature_.”

[27] An illuminated _Page_ will allow of a few lines of black text at the foot (an arrangement very common in the elaborate Initial Pages of the fifteenth century), but these should be quite subordinate to the “Illumination.”

[28] The surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly roughened with a pen-knife till little hairs are raised which will hold the size, care being taken that this roughening does not extend beyond the actual parts which are to be covered with size. (Oxgall: see _footnote_, p. 175.)

[29] As this is usually allowed to dry for twenty-four hours, make sure, before laying the size, that you will be able to lay the gold-leaf on it _at or near the same time on the next day_.

[30] Should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly with the knife, but it is safer to allow it to dry and then to pick it off carefully. Size which has flowed beyond the bounds of the form may be trimmed away when it has set.

[31] A finer metal or ivory point may also be used.

[32] _Vide_ D. Cockerell, “Bookbinding and the Care of Books,” p. 81.

[33] The very costly, specially prepared calf-skin is too highly “finished,” and has much the appearance of superior cardboard. It is stiff and shiny, and its surface is objectionable to work on.

[34] _OXGALL_ may be used for a greasy surface; painted on it, or mixed with the colour.

[35] And the nib is cleaned out now and then (with the filling brush), or wiped, to prevent the colour clogging it (see p. 70).

[36] “_French Ultramarine_” is an artificial compound, and a poor colour.

[37] For white lining, &c.—if in constant use—the Chinese White in bottle is said to be the best; a little Spirits of Wine should be poured into it, to keep it moist and make it work better. It should be stirred well, and a sufficient quantity for immediate use is taken out and mixed in a small saucer. The bottle is kept tightly corked.

[38] And single forms were often parti-coloured, as III., IV., _Blue_, with _red_ serifs, or _vice versâ_ (see also pp. 208, 216).

[39] In “white light” three rays (known as the “_Primary Colour-Sensations_”) have been distinguished—Red, Green, and Blue; any two of these are complementary to the remaining colour, and appear to be induced optically in its neighbourhood.

(Yellow light is combined of Red and Green rays, and this may partly explain the particular fitness of Blue and Gold Illumination.)

[40] In the case of a burnished gold letter, the _gilding_ may be deferred until the adjacent coloured parts are finished (see p. 170).

[41] It has even been supposed that we might make the inhabitants of _Mars_ aware of the existence of rational _Terrestrials_, by exhibiting a vast illumination—in lamp-light—consisting of a somewhat similar form—_the first Proposition in Euclid_.

[42] ‹Note.›—_Limning_ strictly means _Illuminating_, but has come to imply drawing and painting, especially of portraits and miniatures. Here, _all_ its senses are intended.

[43] The modern illuminator, having no tradition for making such scroll-work, would find that natural or organic forms—as of trees or plants (see p. 221)—would serve the same end and have more “sweet reasonableness” in modern eyes. Excellent scroll-work, moreover, might be formed out of ornamental Capitals—if sufficient excuse could be found for introducing them: a large flourished «L», for example, could be made exactly on the same lines as the pendant and scroll in Plate XV. Narrow gold rods also may be used in a border to support a floral growth, or as frames if necessary (compare _rules_, p. 364).

[44] The _steps in the development_ sketched very briefly in this chapter, refer both to the past history of the art of illumination and to its possible revival (see Author’s preface, p. 16).

[45] Where it is possible it is desirable to mark the top left-hand corner of the “page” (and also the lower corner) by a branch, flourish, bud, or flower (see Plates XIX., XXII.). A top left-hand corner appearing vacant or rounded off is apt to weaken the whole effect (see p. 134).

[46] _Framing borders_, or borders which surround the text, may be allowed nearly to fill the entire marginal space.

[47] “Design” has been associated so much with bad cleverness in the artist, or clever badness in the natural man, that if we use the word in a good sense it is apt to be misunderstood.

Decoration is derived from _decus_, _decor_ = comeliness or grace.

[48] Chequers in colours and gold were largely used in the fourteenth-century MSS. for backgrounds in miniatures. There is an example of very beautiful heraldic diapering (in enamel) on the shield of William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, in Westminster Abbey (‹A.D.› 1296). On p. 336 of this book there is a diagram of a very fine shield bearing a diapered chequer.

[49] If the triangles were countercharged in colour and colour—_e.g._ red and blue—the zigzag would be made _white_, _black_, or _gold_, to separate and harmonise the colours (see pp. 182–83).

[50] A most beautiful twelfth-century MS., known as the “Golden Psalter,” has many gold (decorated) Initials, Red, Blue, and Green (plain) Versals and Line-Finishings, every part being pen-made throughout the book.

[51] In a _spiral_ the stem, following _itself_, may be tied by an interlacing spiral, or the turns of the spiral may be held at rest by the interlocking of the leaves (see G, Plate XXII.).

[52] As an example of a good “rule of thumb,” _use the ruled lines of a manuscript as a scale for other measurements and proportions_, leaving one, two, three, or more of the line-spaces for capitals, ornaments, &c.: you have this scale—as it were, a “ready reckoner”—present on every page, and following it enables you more easily to make the decoration agree and harmonise with the written text and with the book as a whole (see p. 128 & figs. 89, 91, 71).

[p237]

## PART II

LETTERING

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