Chapter I

.). And since the full [p269] development of their

monumental forms about 2000 years ago, the Roman Capitals have held the supreme place among letters for readableness and beauty. They are the best forms for the grandest and most important inscriptions, and, in regard to lettering generally, a very good rule to follow is: _When in doubt, use Roman Capitals_.

The penman may with advantage devote some study to a fine monumental type of Roman Capital (such as that of the Trajan Column Inscription: Plates I. and II.), and endeavour to embody its virtues in a _built-up pen form_ for use in MSS. (p. 294).

PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS: WIDTHS

The marked distinction between the “Square” and the “Round” forms, and the varying widths of the letters—as seen in the early inscriptions,[64] are _characteristic_ of the Roman Alphabet. We may broadly distinguish _Wide_ and _Narrow_ letters thus—

_WIDE_ O Q C G D “_Round._” _WIDE_ M W “_Square._” _WIDE_ H (U) A N V T (Z) “_Square._” _NARROW_ B E F R S Y (X) _NARROW_ I J _NARROW_ K L P

[p270]

_The “Round” Wide Letters—O, Q, C, G, D._—

O may be regarded as the Key letter of an alphabet. Given an O and an I of any alphabet, we can make a very good guess at the forms of the other letters.

In fine Inscriptions the external line of O is commonly an almost perfect circle (see Plate II.)—_i.e._ its height and width are equal. This may be regarded as the ideal shape, though a slight widening or narrowing of the letter (fig. 157) is quite permissible.[65]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 157.›]

Q, C, G, and D follow the proportions of O [p271] very nearly, and, though C, G, D are a little narrower, they have the same effect of roundness and width.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 158.›]

_The “Square” Wide Letters—M, W, and H, (U), A, N, V, T, (Z)_—

M & W Their mean width is properly _about_ equal to their height.

H Width equal to, or a little less than, height (fig. 158), but if made too narrow it would look heavy, being _double-stemmed_.

U (see pp. 287, 284) resembles H.

A, N, & V are _double-stemmed_, and have internal angles, moreover, which would become too sharp—and tend to close [p272] up—if they were made too narrow (fig. 158).

T The cross-bar—the _characteristic part_ of T—projects a fair way on either side of the stem.

Z Either _wide_ or (moderately) _narrow_ (fig. 158).

_The Narrow Letters, B, E, F, R, S, Y (X)_ (see fig. 159).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 159.›]

There is a point of division in these letters about the middle of the stem or a little above (see p. 273), and we may argue that each being composed, as it were, of two little letters—which are _half-height_, they are proportionately _half-width_: and this will be found approximately correct. B may be said to consist of one little D on the top of another, averaging respectively _half_ the height and width of a full-sized D.

E, F, & R follow the proportions of B (see also E, 4, p. 282). [p273]

S may be made of one little _tilted_ O on the top of another—joined together and having the superfluous parts removed.

Y is like a little V upon a little I.

X Either _narrow_ or _wide_ (fig. 159).

_The Narrow letters, K, L, and P_—

These forms are related to the B, E forms, but it is permissible to make them a little wider to give clearance to the angles of the K and force to the single _arm_ and _loop_—the characteristic parts (see fig. 149)—of L and P.

UPPER & LOWER PARTS

In the letters B, E, H, K, X (A), F, R, P (S), Y there is generally a tendency to enlarge the lower part, the cross-bar—or division—being set above mid-height. This tendency may reasonably be accounted for as follows:—

The natural division of B, E, H, K, & X, regarded as abstract forms, would be symmetrical—_i.e._ at the centre of the stem.[66] In order that its _apparent position_ may be central, however, it is necessary, for optical reasons, to make [p274] its actual position above the centre.[67] And further, by a reasonable enlargement of the lower part, these letters acquire a greater appearance of stability.

It would be well, I think, for the letter-craftsman to begin by making such divisions at the _apparent centre_ (_i.e._ very slightly above mid-height; see E, F, X, Plate II.), so keeping most nearly to the _essential forms_ (see p. 275). Later he might consider the question of stability (see B, Plate II.). The exaggerated raising (or lowering) of the division associated with “Art Lettering” is illegible and ridiculous.

«A» The lower part is essentially bigger, and the cross-bar is not raised, as that would make the top part disproportionately small.

«F» usually follows E, but being asymmetrical and open below it may, if desired, be made with the bar at—or even slightly below—the actual centre.

«R» In early forms the bow was frequently rather large (see Plate II.), but it is safer to make the tail—the characteristic part—more pronounced (see Plates III., XXIV.).

«P» The characteristic part of P is the bow, which may therefore be a little larger than the bow of R (see Plate III.).

«S» In the best types of this letter the upper and lower parts are approximately equal; there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the lower [p275] part. (In Uncial and early round-hands the _top_ part was larger: see Plates IV. to VII.)

Y varies: the upper part may be less than that of X, or somewhat larger.

ESSENTIAL OR STRUCTURAL FORMS

_The essential or structural forms_ (see p. 240) _are the simplest forms which preserve the characteristic structure, distinctiveness, and proportions of each individual letter_.

The letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of the _skeletons_ of his letters. While in every case the precise form which commends itself to him is matter for his individual choice, it is suggested in the following discussion of a typical form—the Roman B—that the rationale of his selection (whether conscious or unconscious) is in brief _to determine what is_ ‹ABSOLUTELY› _essential to a form, and then how far this may be amplified in the direction of the_ ‹PRACTICALLY› _essential_.

The letter B reduced to its simplest (_curved-bow_) form—_i.e._ to the bare necessity of its distinctive structure—comprises _a perpendicular stem spanned by two equal, circular bows_ (_a_, fig. 160).

In amplifying such a form for practical or æsthetic reasons, it is well as a rule not to exceed one’s object—in this case to determine a reasonable (though arbitrary) standard essential form of B, having a distinctive and proportionate (_f_) structure. We may increase the arcs of the bows till their width is nearly equal to their height (_b_), make their outer ends meet the ends of the stem (_c_), and their inner ends coincide (_d_). Raising the division till its apparent position is at or about the middle of the stem entails a _proportionate increase_ of width in the lower part, and a corresponding decrease in the upper part (_e_).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 160.›]

The very idea of an essential form excludes the _un_necessary, and its further amplification is apt to take from its _distinctiveness_ and legibility. Where no limits are set, modification is apt to become [p276] exaggeration. And, though special forms and _ornamental letters_ may be produced by “reasonable exaggeration” (_k_, _l_, _m_, fig. 161), if the tool be kept [p278] under proper control, yet, generally, such _structural_ changes do not improve the appearance of the plain letter forms.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 161.›]

We may test our “Standard” (_a_, fig. 161) by considering the effects of further amplification.

(1) _Raising the division_[68] slightly is permissible (_b_, fig 161)—too much makes the top part disproportionately small (_c_).

(2) _Widening both bows_, or _separating their junction from the stem_, tends to dissociate the bows from the stem, making the letter less distinctive (_g_ and _i_, fig. 161).

Widening and narrowing are both allowable and occasionally desirable, but assuming that a standard or ideal width can be approximately determined, it is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use.

CHARACTERISATION OF FORMS (_See also Built-Up Forms, pp. 291–6, and pp. 240, 253_)

That the tool[69] gives character and finish to the Essential Forms of letters, can easily be proved by a little practical experience of the natural action of a properly cut pen (see figs. 142 to 148, and 162). And the penman—or indeed any other letter-maker—is advised to allow the pen to train his hand to [p280] make the proper strokes automatically: then he may begin to master and control the pen, making it conform to his hand and so produce Letters which have every possible virtue of penmanship and are as much his own as his common handwriting.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 162.›]

Most of the letters in a good alphabet have specially interesting or _characteristic parts_ (p. 250), or they exhibit some general principles in letter making, which are worth noting, with a view to making good letters, and in order to understand better the manner in which the tool—whether pen, chisel, or brush—should be used.

_The characterisation of the Roman Capital Form._ ‹Note.›—_The large types below are_ indices—_not models_.

«A» 1. A pointed form of A, M, and N (see Plate II.) may be suitable for inscriptions in stone, &c., but in pen work the top is preferably _hooked_ (fig. 167), _beaked_ (fig. 147), or _broken_ (fig. 158), or specially marked in some way, as this part (both in Capital A and small a) has generally been (fig. 189).

2. The oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y, whether thick or thin, are naturally finished with a short point _inside_ the letter and a long, sharp point, or _beak_, _outside_ (see serifs of oblique strokes, p. 289).

3. The thin stem may be drawn out below for an occasional form (see F, 3).

«B» 1. B, D, R, and P are generally best made _round-shouldered_ (fig. 162 & _Addenda_, p. 26).

2. B, D, E, F, P, R (and T) have generally an _angle_ between the stem and the top horizontal, while [p281]

3. _below_ in B, D, E (and L) the stem curves or blends with the horizontal.

4. See O, 2.

«C» 1. C, G, and S; the top horizontals or ‘arms’ may be straighter than the lower arms, or _vice versâ_ (see figs. 167 and 206).

2. C, G, and S; the _inside_ curve is best continuous—from the ‘bow’ to the ends of the ‘arms’—not being broken by the serifs, and

3. it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve at the termination of all free arms and stems in built-up Roman Capitals. In C, G, S, E, F, L, T, and Z the upper and lower arms are curved on the _inside_, and squared or slightly pointed outside (the vertical stems curve on either side) (fig. 163).

4. ‘Arms’ are best shaped and curved rather gradually out to the terminal or serif, which then is an actual part of the letter, not an added lump (p. 289).

5. See O, 2.

«D» 1. See B, 1.

2. See B, 2 and 3.

3. The curve may be considered as springing from the foot of the stem, and may therefore for an occasional form be separated from the stem at the _top_ (_D_, fig. 177).

4. See O, 2.

«E» 1. See B, 2 and 3.

2. See C, 3 and 4.

3. The lower limb in E, L (and Z) is often drawn out: these, however, are properly to be regarded as _occasional_ or _special_ [p282] forms: the lower serif of this type commonly points out (see figs. 206, 188).

4. E’s _three arms_ (& F’s two) are approximately _equal in length_ in the best early forms (Plate II., &c.).

«F» 1. See B, 2.

2. See C, 3 and 4 (and E, 4 _above_).

3. One or more (the development of the letter and tradition may decide which) of the free stems of A, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, T, V, W, X, Y may be drawn out for occasional forms (see fig. 188).

4. The elongated stems of F, I, J, P, T, Y may hang below the line, or they may (occasionally) stand on the line and overtop the other letters.

«G» 1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

2. The stem may be drawn out below the line (F, 3).

3. The stem sometimes forms an angle with the lower ‘arm’ (this is safest: see fig. 148), sometimes they blend (fig. 147).

4. The point of the lower ‘arm’ may project a _very little_ beyond the stem to mark the _outer_ angle.

5. The wholly curved “gothic” @ (and also the other _round_ letters: see p. 119) may be introduced _occasionally_ among Roman Capitals.

6. See O, 2.

«H» 1. The _left-hand_ stem is occasionally drawn out above (F, 3 & _comp._ fig. 3), and

2. this form is sometimes associated with an ornamental cross-bar (fig. 189).

3. H and N may slightly widen out _above_. [p283]

«I» 1. The stem may be drawn out above or below (F, 3 and 4).

2. See J, 2.

«J» 1. The stem or tail may be drawn out (F, 3 and 4).

2. ‹Note.›—With regard to the use of I for J (and V for U): this is associated so much with the Latin usage, that it is perhaps permissible still in Latin.[70] But for modern English, in which these letters are strongly differentiated, the tailed J and the round U are to be preferred. Besides the suspicion of affectation attaching to the other mode, its strangeness gives an appearance of awkwardness—almost amounting to illegibility—to common words, such as “A QVAINT IVG” or “IAM IAR.” And, at the least, very careful [p284] discrimination is desirable: “IVBILATE” may pass, but “IVIVBE” is not really readable.

3. The tail of the J may be slight, provided it be distinct, and the second stem of the U may match the first (fig. 158); the ugly J and U in common use need not be copied.

4. See also _Tails_, pp. 289–291.

«K» 1. The stem is sometimes drawn out above (F, 3).

2. Both arms are occasionally lengthened, and the width of the letter increased, by joining the thin arm to the stem lower down; the thick arm, or tail, then springs from the side of the thin arm (_compare_ «R»). This tends away from the essential, and is therefore a less safe form.

3. The tail may be curved or drawn out occasionally (see _Tails_, pp. 289–291).

4. Serifs on _arms_. See A, 2.

«L» 1. See B, 3.

2. See C, 3 and 4.

3. See E, 3.

4. See F, 3.

«M» 1. The stems are commonly slightly spread out to give greater clearance for the inner angles. An occasional form is much spread out @.

2. ‹Note.›—There are inscriptional forms of M [p285] and N without the top serif (Plate II.). But the pen forms and others have top serifs, and these commonly extend _outward_—tending to _beaks_ (see A, 1 and 2)—rather than _in_. (V, W, X, Y (and N) show a similar tendency—see p. 289.)

3. The thin stem of M is occasionally drawn out (F, 3).

«N» 1. Sec C, 3 and 4.

2. See H, 3.

3. See M, 2, and A, 1 and 2.

4. The first stem is drawn out below the line for an occasional form (most suitable for an Initial Letter): the right-hand stem is very occasionally raised (when a final letter) (F, 3).

5. ‹Note.›—The stems of N (the only vertical _thins_—not counting M’s—in the Roman Capitals) tend sometimes to be thicker: see Plate II.

«O» 1. O is the key letter of the curved forms and, in a sense, of the whole alphabet (p. 270). The upright form—«O»—may be regarded as the ideal simple letter.

2. Very commonly, however, O is tilted—@—(see fig. 163), and when this is the case, all the curved letters—B, C, D, G, P, Q, R, S, U—_are correspondingly tilted_ (see Plate II.). The tilted form is more easily made, but both are good forms.

«P» 1. See B, 1 and 2.

2. See O, 2.

3. (P with stem below line (see Plate IV.) must not be allowed to confuse with D) (see F, 3 and 4). [p286]

4. The bow of P appears to be attached (to the stem) _above_: in certain forms it is slightly separated from the stem _below_: see Plate II.

«Q» 1. Q resembles O with a tail: see O.

2. There are many characteristic varieties of the tail: see _Tails_ (pp. 289–291).

3. ‹Note.›—Q being always followed by U, it is convenient often to deal with the two letters together. (See Plate II.)

«R» 1. See B, 1 and 2.

2. See O, 2.

3. In the form nearest the essential, the junction of the Bow and the Tail touches the stem. If the tail springs from the curve of the bow (Plate II.) greater care in construction is necessary (compare K). The treatment of the tail is very important. It may end in a serif (see A, 2), or it may be curved and pointed (see _Tails_, pp. 289–291). It may be drawn out (see fig. 50).

4. See F, 3 (& _comp._ fig. 169).

«S» 1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

2. See O, 2 (and p. 273).

3. S very often leans slightly forward.

«T» 1. See B, 2.

2. See C, 3 and 4.

3. Drawing out of stem: see F, 3 and 4.

4. ‹Note.›—The _right arm_ is occasionally extended—to fill a line—when T is a terminal letter (in this case it is generally made lighter, and the left arm heavier—somewhat as in the Uncial T, figs. 56 & 188). [p287]

«U» 1. ‹Note.›—The curve—if it be modelled on the common tilted O (see O, 2)—is thin where it meets the second stem.

2. (V for U). See J, 2, 3, and footnote.

3. The _foot_ of the second stem projects on the right only, and gives clearance to the angle of the curve on the left. Sometimes the second stem ends in a _hook_ or _beak_, which (very occasionally) is drawn out below.

«V» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. The _thick_ stem may be drawn up (F, 3), in which case the _thin_ commonly curves over for strength (see figs. 89, 95).

3. (See note on V for U, under J.)

«W» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. The best form is of two V’s crossed, @.

3. The first or both the _thick_ stems may be drawn up and the thins curved over (see V, 2).

«X» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. There is sometimes a slight curving in of the stems, especially the thin stem (see fig. 80).

3. The thin stem is sometimes drawn out below (F, 3), and commonly curved.

«Y» 1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. See F, 3 and 4. (Y with stem below line (see Plate V.) must not be allowed to confuse with V.)

3. An occasional rather interesting form [p288] of Y has the arms curving out and ending in points (see fig. 167).

«Z» 1. See C, 3 and 4.

2. The lower arm of Z is sometimes drawn out (see E, 3): it may be curved and pointed (or flourished).

* * * * *

_General Remarks on the characterisation of the Roman Capitals and related forms_ (see fig. 163).[71]

_VERTICAL STEMS._—(_a_, fig. 163) _Thick_ (excepting in the thin stemmed N (and M)).

(_b_) _Slightly curved_ in on either side (see fig. 116), or appearing so because of the outward curve of the serifs (see figs. 204, 206).

(_c_) A fine effect is obtained when the stem is made _wider above_ than below (see p. 119).

(_d_) Free stems occasionally are _drawn out_ (see above, F, 3 and 4, and pp. 251, 260, 332).

_OBLIQUE STROKES or STEMS._—_Thick_, to the left @, _thin_, to the right @ (see A, K, &c.), otherwise like _vertical stems_ (above)—(see also ‹_SERIFS_› (_e_) below).

_HORIZONTALS, ARMS, BRANCHES, or BARS._—_Thin_: free ends sometimes drawn out and flourished (see figs. 125, 188).

_BOWS and CURVES._—Gradated, and following the O (see pp. 44, 121, 270, 285).

_SERIFS or FINISHING STROKES._—(_a_) ‹Note.›—_Serifs_ of some sort are practically essential to the proper characterisation of an alphabet (see figs. 147, 148, 162), and should generally have a certain uniformity (p. 324). [p289]

(_b_) The serifs, &c., of simple-written forms are treated at p. 244 (see fig. 145).

(_c_) In _Versals_ and certain other forms the mode of making requires the serif to be a distinct addition to the letter (see figs. 116, 166).

(_d_, fig. 163) In the finest _built-up_ A B Cs serifs are treated as the actual finishing and shaping of the ends of the _stems and branches_, rather than as added parts (see C, 3 & 4, p. 281 and p. 240). This particularly affects the construction of the thin strokes (see figs. 165, 167).

(_e_) _The serifs of the oblique strokes_ in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y are commonly not placed centrally, but projecting in the direction of the stroke (_i.e._ away from the letter, thus: @), branching out from the parent stem (see _tails_, below), and avoiding an acute angle (as @). This has tended to produce _hooks_ and _beaks_ (see fig. 163), which are often used for the oblique strokes, particularly of A and N (see figs. 189, 158), and the tails of K and R (see below).

(_f_) There is a similar natural tendency to _hook_ or _flourish_ the terminals of _vertical stems_ on the left, particularly of B, D, I, J, K, L, P, R; less often of E, F, H. A very interesting and beautiful effect may be obtained by delicately curving down the upper serifs on _the left_ (like thin _beaks_). Such serifs are sometimes very slightly _turned up on the right_, and it may be noted that this tendency of the “horizontals” to _curve up and forward_ @ is natural and characteristic of freely made, vigorous lettering (see Uncial T, pen dashes, &c., figs. 169, 125, &c.).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 163.›]

_TAILS._—(_a_) The tails of K, Q, R [p291] (and J)—and the strokes in A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, &c., which may be drawn out tail-wise—play an important part in the right construction, and the occasional decoration, of plain lettering. They may end either in _serifs_ or in _curves_ (see _SERIFS_ (_e_), above, and fig. 188).

(_b_) ‹Note.›—It is a characteristic of vigorous forms that _branches, &c., stand out well from their stems_ (pp. 219, (_e_) 289, (N) 271), and a good tail should stand out well from the letter (K, Q, fig. 167).

(_c_) An excellent form of tail for ordinary use, combining strength and grace, consists of a (strong) _straight stroke_ ending more or less abruptly in a (graceful) _finishing curve_.

(_d_) An extraordinarily long tail requires a slight double curve to take off its stiffness.

(_e_) A good tail may be made by the addition of a double curved stroke on the under side of a straight tail (or of a single curve above).

(_f_) In treating the tail of J, or the drawn-out stems of A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, it is important to preserve the essential straightness of the stems. Therefore, if a _finishing curve_ be used, its size is related to the length of the straight stroke, and, unless this be extraordinarily long, the curve is usually made rather small and abrupt. A curve which is too large is apt to weaken the form and “pull it out of the straight” (_g_, fig. 163).

BUILT-UP FORMS

_Built-up Letters_ are composed of compound strokes (_c_, _d_, fig. 164); _Simple-written Letters_ of simple strokes (_a_, _b_).

The Pen being _an instrument which produces_ [p292] _definite thick and thin strokes on a smooth surface_, is perfectly adapted to the construction of either simple or compound forms; _other tools_, such as the stylus, needle, graver, &c., _produce various scratches, stitches, or cuts, generally of the nature of rather varying thin strokes_, and to produce thick strokes a _building-up_ process is required.

In making built-up forms the control exerted by the tool is less obvious, and more depends upon the craftsman, who must therefore use greater care and judgment. Not only is it possible, but, occasionally, it may be desirable to depart from the more obvious tool-forms; though generally the more simply and naturally _tool-made_ a form is, the better it is.

The fine early inscriptions are supposed to have been first _drawn_ or _painted_ (in outline) and then cut into the stone. The _chisel forms_ were doubtless affected in this way by _brush_ (and indirectly by _pen_) _forms_, but these were of the simplest—nothing was sketched in that was unfitted for the chisel to make into a natural and true _chisel-form_.

The action of the brush or “pencil” to a certain extent resembles that of the pen, but their effects are really distinct. In contrasting pen-made and brush-made letters, we may observe that _a pen form tends to abrupt changes from thin to thick: a brush form to gradation_ (fig. 164). The pen particularly affects curved strokes (_comp. a_ & _b_), generally making them more quick and abrupt (or even _broken_, see * * _c_), than brush curves. The brush will give more graceful and finished but less uniform letters (see p. 376).

The character of a pen-letter depends greatly on the _nib-width_ (p. 324), and _narrow_, _medium_, or _broad_ nibs are used according to the type of letter required. [p293]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 164.›]

A narrow nib may be used for special (built-up) Initials and Capitals, which are _drawn_ rather than _written_ (_a_, fig. 165). The horizontal arms (made by the pen held horizontally) are markedly affected, and if a very fine nib were used, the necessity of strengthening and thickening them would tend further to reduce the pen character.

A broad nib gives strong, uniform pen-letters (_b_).

For ordinary use letters are perhaps best made with a “medium” nib (_c_). The width of the ordinary writing-pen, or rather narrower, gives a good proportion for initials, &c. (see pp. 118, 218).

In MS. books the early built-up Capitals were [p294] commonly of a rather severe type—approaching the Roman Capital, but having the sharp contrast between the _thicks_ and the _thins_ characteristic of pen-letters (fig. 166). They make very simple and effective “Versals.”

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 165.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 166.›—Pen-capitals from a tenth-century MS. (_writing-lines dotted in fig. to show spacing method_).]

A more highly finished type of pen-made Roman Capital may be made by blending the serifs and stems (_d_, p. 289): it is nearer to the inscriptional form, but it exhibits a more curved and supple [p296] outline, which comes of natural pen-strokes (fig. 167).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 167.›]

The remarks in