Chapter VII

. on the treatment of the more elastic “Gothic” Versal (a free variety [p297] of the Roman) may be taken as applying generally to (Coloured) Built-up Capitals—due allowance being made for the characteristic differences of the various types.

SIMPLE-WRITTEN CAPITALS

“_Rustic Capitals_” (fig. 4) may be referred to here as typical, simple-written capitals. Though not a very practical form,[72] they are full of suggestions for a semi-ornamental lettering in which the pronounced treatment of the _heads and feet_ might be a feature (_comp._ fig. 203). They were used as ornamental letters for titles and the like (see Plates VIII., IX., &c.) for centuries after they had gone out of ordinary use.

_Simple-written Roman Capitals._—(Examples: Plates III., XVIII., XIX., XXI., figs. 147, 148, 168, 175, 179. See also pp. 247, 429.)

_Uncials._—(Examples: see p. 300.)

_Simple-written Capitals_ ordinarily conform to the writing line—as set by the small text (p. 82). This applies even where several _words_ in capitals have to be inserted in the small text, though in special cases where these might look too crowded such capitals might be written on alternate lines.

Used for _Initial Words_, _headings_, _whole pages_, or _books_, in black or colour, they are written with greater freedom and accorded more special treatment (see pp. 298, 299).

Simple-written Capitals are best composed of sharp, clean, pen-strokes: they may be quite plain [p298] or more or less decorative (fig. 168), subject to the general rule that _the fewer the number of letters or the more ornamental their office, the more elaborate and fanciful may be the forms employed_ (see p. 294).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 168.›]

A freely used pen naturally produces occasional varieties for special or ornamental purposes: these tend to elegance and drawn out flourished strokes (p. 331); they vary chiefly in being extra large.[73] [p299] Several of these may be used with fine effect in a page of plain Capitals, their “_weight_” (and generally their colour) being the same as that of the text (see Plate V., and p. 328).

_Whole Books or Pages written in Capitals._—A very grand effect may be produced by these at the expense of a little more time and material than a Small-letter MS. entails. The lines of writing are commonly made one-letter-height apart: this requires ordinary simple ruling—the capitals being written between every alternate pair of lines (see p. 412).

Such writing may conveniently be treated as “_Fine_ Writing” (p. 262). It justifies the use of wider margins. It is generally more difficult (and less necessary) to keep the right-hand edge as straight as a small text permits. The irregularities of this edge may be balanced by setting out in the _left_ margin the first letters of sentences, verses, and the like (see p. 264). Such initials may be written larger or more ornamentally as suggested above; or, if built-up Letters are required, plain, rather slender Roman Capitals are the most suitable: these look best in burnished gold.

Perhaps the finest and most beautiful work which the penman can produce, is a book written entirely in _gold_[74] _capitals_[75] _on purple vellum_ (see pp. 164, 175). This is only possible in special cases, but a book rightly so made being illuminated from within, has an incomparable simplicity and grandeur, surpassing that of the finest post-decorated and illuminated manuscripts. [p300]

UNCIALS

Examples: Plates IV., V.; figs. 5, 169 (enlarged); (modified, fig. 56).

Uncials are typical pen-capitals.[76] Though not of such practical use as the simple-written Roman Capitals, their great possibilities and their beauty make them worth practising. (See _Round_, _Upright_, _Formal Hands_, p. 304.)

Their use is limited by two considerations—

_First_: that while the round @, @, @, @, @ are essentially legible (p. 239), people generally are not accustomed to them, and may find them hard to read; and

_Secondly_: that @, @, @, @, @, @, @, @, @, @ have ascending and descending strokes which are apt to become too pronounced and give an unpleasant appearance of “_tailiness_” to a page of Uncial Writing (in _English_, see _footnote_, p. 326).

The first difficulty may be met by keeping Uncials for special MSS.—for private use—and introducing them sparingly or not at all in Service Books, Placards, &c., where ease and quickness of reading are essential.

The appearance of “_tailiness_” (not so obvious in Latin) may be avoided by making the tails shorter and keeping the lines of writing well apart. Or freely made Roman Capitals without _tails_ (see D, _tail-less_, fig. 57) may be substituted for one or more of the chief offenders. [p302]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 169.›—_Part of Plate V._ (_q.v._), _enlarged three times linear_.]

Uncials may be “round” (see Plate IV., fig. 5, and p. 304), or “pointed” (see fig. 169, and p. 413).

CAPITALS & SMALL-LETTERS

During the development of Small-Letters from Capitals but little distinction was made in their use, and such capital forms as ‹N› and ‹R› were freely and promiscuously used in the _round minuscule_ writings, together with the small-letters «n» and «r» (see Plates VI., VII.). On the other hand, Small-Letter forms were frequently written larger and used as initials. In Irish and Anglo-Irish MSS. these were filled inside with green, yellow, or red, and surrounded outside with red dots, or otherwise decorated with colour (see fig. 7, and Plate VI.).

In early MSS., therefore, one does not find an alphabet of Simple-Written Capitals, which is peculiar to a given small text. But we may employ a kindred capital—such as the round _Uncial_ for the round _Half-Uncial_. And a fitting alphabet may always be constructed, from the “Roman” or “Uncial” types of Capitals (_footnote_, p. 300), by taking the same pen with which the small-letters have been made and using it in a similar manner: “straight” for “straight-pen” writing, and “slanted” for “slanted-pen” writing (see figs. 147, 148).

When in doubt as to the type of Capital—for any purpose—use Roman Capitals.

EARLY, ROUND, UPRIGHT, FORMAL HANDS

Examples: _Half-Uncials_—fig. 6 (Roman); Plate VI. (Irish), Plate VII. (English) fig. 170 _later_; see also pp. 40, 44, 413–415. _Uncials_ (Plate IV. and p. 38). [p304]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 170.›—_Part of an English eight-century MS._ (_British Museum, Case C, No. 68), enlarged three times linear._]

The main types are the “round” Uncial and Half-Uncial, commonly written with an approximately “_straight pen_.”[77] They are generally treated as _fine writing_ (p. 262), and _written between ruled lines_: this has a marked effect in preserving their roundness (see p. 414).

They are very useful as _copy-book_ hands (see p. 70), for though the smooth gradation of their curves, their thin strokes, and their general elegance unfit them for many practical purposes, yet their essential _roundness_, _uprightness_, and _formality_ afford the finest training to the penman, and prevent him from falling into an angular, slanting, or lax hand. Their very great beauty, moreover, makes them well worth practising, and even justifies their use (in a modernised form) for special MSS., for the more romantic books—such as poetry and “fairy tales”—and generally where speed in writing _or reading_ is not essential.

With an eye trained and a hand disciplined by the practice of an Irish or English Half-Uncial, or a modified type, such as is given in fig. 50, the penman may easily acquire some of the more practical later “slanted-pen” types.

“SLANTED-PEN” SMALL-LETTERS

_Typical Examples_:—

_Carlovingian ninth-century MS._—_Fig. 8_ (_enlarged, fig. 171_): [p305]

_English tenth-century MS.—Plate VIII._ (_enlarged, fig. 172_):

_English eleventh-century MS.—Plate IX._ (_enlarged, fig. 173_):

_Italian twelfth-century MS.—Plate X._ (_enlarged, fig. 174_).

The use of the “slanted pen” generally produced _stronger_, _narrower_, and _stiffer_ letters. Its effects are detailed in pp. 43–47, and fig. 11, and may best be studied in the tenth-century example (fig. 172—the letter forms are described on p. 416).

In the Carlovingian MS.—which does not show these effects in any marked degree—we may note the wide letter forms, the wide spacing, the long stems (thickened above by additional strokes), the slight slope of the letters, and the general effect of gracefulness and freedom (see fig. 171). Carlovingian MSS. may be said to represent a sort of mediæval _copy-books_, and their far-reaching influence on writing makes them of great interest to the modern penman, who would, moreover, find one of these hands an excellent model for a free “formal hand.”

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 171.›—_Part of fig. 8, enlarged three times linear (see p. 305)._]

For practical purposes the “slanted-pen” letter is generally superior to the “straight-pen” letter. The “slanted-pen” letters have greater strength and legibility, due mainly to the presence of the _thick horizontals_—often equal in width to the verticals. Their use saves both space and time, as they are narrower, and more easily and freely written[78] than the straight-pen forms.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 172.›—_Fig. 12, enlarged twice linear (see p. 305 & Plate VIII.). Note: top line is cut down._]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 173.›—_Part of Plate IX. (Charter of CNUT), enlarged three times linear (see p. 416)._]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 174.›—_Part of Plate X., enlarged three times linear_ (_see pp. 417–419_).]

The real importance to us of these early types [p310] lies, I think, in their relation to the Roman Small-Letter (pp. 418–19 & 429–83), and their great possibilities of development into modern formal hands approaching the “Roman” type.

ROMAN SMALL-LETTERS

Ex.: (Italian) Plates XIX., XX. (15th century); figs. 175, 176 (16th century): figs. 147, 148 (_modern MS._).

The _Roman Small-Letter_ is the universally recognised type in which the majority of books and papers are printed. Its form has been in use for over 400 years (without essential alteration) and as far as we are concerned it may be regarded as permanent.

And it is the object of the scribe or letter-maker gradually to attain a fine, personal formal hand, assimilating to the Roman Small-Letter; a hand against the familiar and present form of which no allegations of unreadableness can be raised, and a hand having a beauty and character now absent or _un_familiar. The related _Italic_ will be mastered for formal MS. work (p. 315), and the ordinary handwriting improved (p. 323). These three hands point the advance of the practical, modern scribe.

The Roman Small-Letter is essentially a pen form (and preferably a “slanted-pen” form; p. 305), and we would do well to follow its natural development _from the Roman Capital_—_through Round Letters and Slanted-Pen forms_—so that we may arrive at a truly developed and characteristic type, suitable for any formal manuscript work and full of suggestions for printers and letter-craftsmen generally.

A finished form, such as that in Plate XX.—or even that of fig. 175—would present many [p311] difficulties to the unpractised scribe, and one who so began would be apt to remain a mere copyist, more or less unconscious of the vitality and character of the letter. An earlier type of letter—such as that in Plate VIII.—enables the scribe to combine speed with accuracy, and fits him at length to deal with the letters that represent the latest and most formal development of penmanship.

And in this connection, beware of practising with a fine nib, which tends to inaccuracy and the substitution of prettiness for character. Stick to definite pen strokes, and preserve the definite shapes and the uniformity of the serifs (p. 324): if these be made clumsily, they become clumsy lumps. It may be impossible always to ascertain the exact forms—especially of terminals and finishing strokes—for the practised scribe has attained a great uniformity and some _sleight of hand_ which cannot be deliberately copied. But—whatever the exact forms—we may be sure that in the best hands they are produced by uniform and proper pen strokes.

ITALICS

Ex.: Plate XXI., and figs. 94, 177, 178 (enlarged).

_Italics_[79] closely resemble the Roman Small-Letters, but are slightly narrowed, slightly sloped to the [p314] right, and very freely written (commonly with a “_slanted pen_”). The serifs generally consist of slight natural terminal hooks, &c.—though in _p_ and _q_ a finishing stroke is sometimes _added_. _Ascending_ and _descending_ strokes (in _b_, _d_, _f_, _h_, _k_, _l_, _g_, _j_, _p_, _q_, _y_) are commonly rather long, and often end in curves, sometimes in flourishes (fig. 177).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 175.›—_Italian Prayer Book_: 16_th century_ (_see opp. p. & p. 345_).]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 176.›—(_From same MS. as fig. 175, enlarged three times linear._)]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 177.›]

The lines of writing are generally widely spaced—allowing for the long stems: the _bodies_ of the letters being narrow are generally rather closely packed, and frequently the lines of writing appear [p315] as almost continuous light but compact writing, while the _ascenders_ and _descenders_ and parts of the Capitals may be flourished freely in the spaces between the lines—sometimes filling them with ornamental pen work, which contrasts strongly with the extreme plainness and regularity of the _bodies_.

_Italic Capitals_ are a variety of the Roman Capitals, slightly sloped (frequently less sloped than the accompanying small-letters), and sometimes much flourished (fig. 177). The types modelled on the latter were called by printers in the seventeenth century, “Swash Letters.”

_Use of Italics._—In printing they served at first to mark such portions of the text as—

_Introductions_, _Prefaces_, _Indexes_, _Notes_,

and subsequently were used for

_Quotations_, _Emphasising_, _Words not part of the Text_ (_e.g._ Chapter headings in the Bible, &c.).

In MSS. when it is not desirable to alter the character, Red Writing (see p. 130) may be substituted for italics. Italics—either in black or red—go best with “Roman” characters.

Like the Roman Small-Letter, the Italic is a generally recognised and accepted form: this and other considerations, such as the peculiar elegance and charm of the letters, their formal relation to modern handwriting, their compactness and economy of space in the line, and the fact that they may be written easily and with extreme regularity—_being indeed the most rapid of formal hands_—are practical reasons for a careful study of the type, and justify the writing of certain MS. books entirely in Italics. [p317]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 178.›—_Part of Plate XXI._, enlarged, (_approx._) _four times linear_ (_see p. 483_).]

SEMI-FORMAL WRITING

Figs. 179, 180, and 181 are taken from a sixteenth-century Italian MS.[80] written in a semi-formal cursive hand in dark brown and red-brown inks (probably originally nearer _black_ and _red_), on 150 leaves of fine paper.

_The proportions of the Book_,[81] together with the good writing, have a very agreeable effect, and are interesting as being used by a writer over 300 years ago. The extra width of the side margins may have been allowed for annotations—some notes were written in by the scribe himself.

_Page_ = 11-1/8 inches high, 8 inches wide.

_Margins_ _Inner_ (7/8 inch + 3/8 inch allowed for Small Capitals) = 1-1/4 inch (approximate). _Top_ = 1-3/8 inch (constant). _Side_ = 2-3/4 inch (approximate). _Foot_ = 3 inch (approximate).

_Writing-Line Space_ nearly 5/16 inch high: length (varies), average 4 inches.

_Text Column_ nearly 6-3/4 inches high, consisting of 22 lines of MS.

_Character of the Writing._—The good shapes of the letters, their great uniformity, and their easy yet formal arrangement, mark this MS. as the work of a skilful penman. But, while pen character of a sort is very evident, the writing approaches the _stylographic_ (apparently a rather narrow blunt nib was used), and the absence of definite _thicks_ and thins distinguishes it from all the formal hands hitherto discussed: it may conveniently be termed _Semi-formal_.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 179.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 180.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 181.›]

[p321]

_Construction._—The rapidity and uniformity of this writing are largely due to an extremely easy zigzag movement of the pen, such as is natural in writing _m_, _n_, and _u_—the final upstroke usually running on into the next letter. Note particularly that the round letters _c_, _d_, _e_, _g_, _o_, _q_ generally begin with a nearly straight down stroke—like the first part of _u_—to which tops are _added_ (see fig. 182). In the case of _a_, the first stroke curves forward to meet the second. [p322]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 182.›]

In the straight-stemmed capitals B, D, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, P, R, and T, the first stroke is made rather like an @ (showing the tendency to a zigzag) the foot of which is generally crossed horizontally by a second stroke making a form resembling @—on this as a base, the rest of the letter is formed (see fig. 182). This tends to preserve the uniformity of the letters: and gives a fine constructive effect, as, for example, in the letter @.

_General Remarks._—The semi-formal nature of such a MS. would seem to permit of a good quill—not necessarily sharp—being used with the utmost freedom and all reasonable personal _sleight of hand_; of soft tinted inks—such as browns and brown-reds; of an _un_-ruled page (_a pattern page ruled dark, being laid under the writing paper, will, by showing through, keep the writing sufficiently straight_), and of a minimum of precision in the arrangement of the text. And in this freedom and informality lie the reasons for and against the use of such a hand. There is a danger of its becoming more informal and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the true pen in preserving form.[82] But, on the other hand, it combines great rapidity and freedom with beauty and legibility: few printed books could compete in charm with this old “catalogue,” which took the scribe but little longer to write than we might take in _scribbling_ it.

Many uses for such a hand will suggest themselves. Semi-formal documents which require to [p323] be neatly written out, and Books and Records of which only one or two copies are required, and even Books which are worthy to be—but never are—printed, might, at a comparatively low cost, be preserved in this legible and beautiful form.

It suggests possibilities for an improvement in the ordinary present-day handwriting—a thing much to be desired, and one of the most practical benefits of the study of calligraphy. The practical scribe, at any rate, will prove the advantages of being a good all-round penman.

OF FORMAL WRITING GENERALLY

_On Copying a Hand._—Our intentions being right (viz. to make our work essentially readable) and our actions being expedient (viz. to select and copy the simple forms which have remained essentially the same, leaving the complex forms which have passed out of use—see pp. 195–6), we need not vex ourselves with the question of “lawfulness.”[83]

Where beautiful character is the natural product of a tool, any person may at any time give such character to a useful form, and as at this time a properly cut and handled pen will produce letters resembling those of the early MSS., we may take as models _such early, simple pen-forms as have remained essentially the same_,[84] and copy them as closely as we _can_ while keeping them exact and formal.

Finally, _personal quality_ is essential to perfect workmanship, but that is the natural and gradual—sometimes [p324] scarcely visible—departure from a model, that comes of practice and time.

_Forms of Letters: component pen-strokes._—In a good hand the chief component strokes—stems, bows, and serifs—are repeated again and again (see pp. 244, 254)—this is essential to the uniform character and the quickness of the writing. When substituting a _new_ for an _old_ letter a naturally used pen will produce such common pen-strokes, giving the desired “family likeness” to the new letter[85] (_b_, fig. 183).

_Proportion[86] of Thick Strokes._—The broader the thick stroke is in proportion to the height of a letter, the more the form of the letter is controlled and affected by the pen (_c_, fig. 183). For training and practice, therefore, the wide nib is the most useful. A narrower nib (_d_ or _e_) allows of more freedom and variety, and there is a great charm in slender lettering—this the trained scribe may essay (see Plate XX., and p. 482).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 183.›]

_Proportion[86] of Stem Height._—The character of a writing depends very much on whether the stems are _short_, _medium_, or _long_. The stems of «b» and «p» may be as short as half the height of the bodies (_f_, fig. 183); a _medium_ stem for ordinary use might be two-thirds of, or equal to, the height of the body (_g_). Stems may be drawn out to almost any [p326] length, and may constitute a decorative feature of the writing, as in the Anglo-Saxon[87] MS., Plate IX. (See p. 331, and fig. 188.)

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 184.›]

_Distinct Lines of Writing._—The line—especially in MS. books—is really a more important unit than [p327] the page; and the whole question of the arrangement of Lettering hinges on the right treatment of the lines. One is particularly struck by the distinctness of the lines of writing in the old MSS., due mainly to—

(a) _The binding together of the letters in the line_—_commonly by strong serifs or heavy “shoulders” and “feet”_ (see figs. 11, 184, and p. 414).

(b) _Packing the letters well together_ (see pp. 77, 262).

(c) _Spacing the lines sufficiently apart_ (see pp. 262–265).

It is a good rule (especially when practising) to space the lines fairly widely. Really fine writing shows generally to greater advantage if not too much crowded, and there is more danger of making reading hard by crowding the lines, than by crowding the words (see fig. 156).

Whatever mode of treatment be followed, each line should be written with as much freedom as possible, the simplest straightforward writing being preferable to that which is over-arranged.

DECORATIVE CONTRASTS

The decorative treatment of lettering generally involves contrasts of _size_, _weight_, _colour_, or _form_—that is, of large and small, heavy and light, variously coloured, or variously shaped letters. As a general rule, marked contrasts are best; a slight contrast may fail of its effect and yet be sufficiently noticeable to give an unpleasant appearance of irregularity.

_Contrasts of Colour_ (see pp. 144, 180).—Note that, while it is convenient to distinguish “colour”—as _red_, _blue_, _green_, &c.—weight strictly involves [p328] _colour_: built-up or heavy letters in black show extra _black_ beside lighter writing, while the latter appears _grey_ in comparison (see figs. 197, 186); in red writing the heavy letters appear _red_, the lighter letters, _pink_ (see fig. 90).

_Contrast of Size._—The simplest decorative contrast is that of LARGE[88] letters with ‹smaller› letters (fig. 185); the strokes being of equal, or nearly equal, weight, there is an harmonious evenness of tone throughout. Where the large letters are very much larger, their parts are made somewhat heavier to keep their _apparent_ “weight” approximately equal (see p. 486). This is one of the most effective treatments for inscriptions generally (see p. 299, and Plates V. and XXIV.).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 185.›]

_Contrasts of “weight” and size._—In simple writing these are obtained by using two sizes of pen—the small, light letters being used for the bulk of the [p329] text, the larger heavier letters being used for occasional words or lines (or _vice versâ_). This is a very effective simple treatment for MSS. (fig. 186).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 186.›—(_See also fig. 191._)]

The occasional letters may be more decoratively treated (see _Responses and Rubrics_, p. 345) by introducing the further contrasts of _colour_ (p. 144) or form (p. 336). [p330]

_Contrasts of form, “weight,” and size._—These are generally obtained by the use of large built-up Capitals, together with a simple-written (or ordinarily printed) text (fig. 187).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 187.›]

A marked contrast usually being desirable, the built-up capitals (especially if black) are kept quite distinct from the rest of the text (see fig. 197): if they are scattered among the other letters they are apt to show like _blots_ and give an appearance of irregularity to the whole. As a rule, the effect is improved by the use of red or another colour (see figs. 91, 93).

_Contrast of form_—for decorative purposes—is usually combined with contrast of weight (_e.g._ “Gothic,” _heavier_, p. 336) or size (_e.g._ Capitals, _larger_, p. 371).

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS

(_See Chaps. VII._, _VIII._, _X._, _XII._, _& pp._ 34, 251, 26)

To give ornament its true value we must _distinguish between ordinary occasions when simplicity and directness are required, and special occasions when elaboration is desirable or necessary._

The best way to make ornamental letters is to [p331] develop them from the simpler forms. Any plain type may be decoratively treated for special purposes—some part or parts of the letters usually being rationally “exaggerated” (p. 252). Free _stems_, “_branches_,” _tails_, &c., may be drawn out, and terminals or serifs may be decorated or flourished (fig. 203).

_Built-Up Forms._—Even greater license (see fig. 161) is allowed in Built-Up Letters—as they are less under the control of the tool (p. 292)—and their natural decorative development tends to produce a subordinate simple line decoration beside or _upon_ their thicker parts (fig. 189 & p. 26). In MSS. the typical built-up, ornamental form is the “Versal” (see Chap. VII.), which developed—or degenerated—into the “Lombardic” (fig. 1). Here again it is preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop a natural decorative treatment of it for ourselves.

“_Black Letter_” _or_ “_Gothic_,” still in use as an ornamental letter (fig. 190), is descended from the fifteenth-century writing of Northern Europe (Plate XVII.). A better model may be found in the earlier and more lively forms of twelfth and thirteenth century writing (fig. 191).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 188.›—(_See also figs._ 125 _and_ 150.)]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 189.›—(_See also Plates VI._, _XI._, _XXII._, _figs. 79 and 84_, _and p. 420_.)]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 190.›—_Ordinary Modern “Black Letter” Type_ (_see p. 331_).]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 191.›—_MS. written by an English Scribe, in 1269, at Mons, in Hainault_—_Part of Colophon in large text._ (_B. M. Egerton, MS. 2569. Reduced five-sixths Scale._)]

Rightly made, and used, it is one of the most picturesque forms of lettering—and therefore of ornament—and besides its ornamental value, there is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about “black letter,” which may fairly be taken into account. Its comparative illegibility, however,—due mainly to the substitution of straight for curved strokes—debars it from ordinary use.[89] Though its [p336] distinction in form and _colour_ (p. 327) from ordinary small lettering, make it useful in arresting attention; as in a legal document, where the clauses are marked by

<f>whereas</f> &c.

Its most effective use, however, is as pure ornament—when it does not matter whether the words are easily read or not. For mottoes, &c., painted or carved on walls or furniture, and for ornamental borders round tapestry hangings, tombs, book-covers, bowls, flagons, plates, &c., bands of such ornamental lettering are extremely decorative (see _footnote_ (2), p. 255, & also p. 364).

[Illustration: ‹Fig.› 191_a._—_Shield of Arms of Earl de Warrenne, Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk_ (_Gold and blue chequers, diapered_—_see p. 215_): _reproduced, by permission, from Boutell’s “English Heraldry,” No. 68._]

―――――――――――――――――――― FOOTNOTES TO PART II:

[53] In fact, our “small-letters” are the formalised result of the rapidly scratched _Square Capitals_ of the Roman era (p. 37 & fig. 3).

[54] Their _greater strength_ may not at first be apparent in fig. 148, as the nib used therefor is narrower, in proportion to the height of letter, than that used for fig. 147 (see also fig. 151).

[55] The exaggeration of one part may be said _relatively_ to dwarf the other parts of a letter; but it is seldom advantageous, and often not permissible, to dwarf part of a letter absolutely.

[56] As when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar (all the «y» or «g» _tails_, for example, catching the eye, and standing out on the page), or, as when promiscuous types are used, giving the impression of a confused crowd of letters.

[57] _Variety._—There is a variety both readable and beautiful (see pp. 210, 369), but it is founded on uniformity (and sincerity).

[58] “_Bands_” and symmetrical or asymmetrical _groups_ of lettering adapted to the available space are used—usually as ornament—upon friezes, furniture, chests, book covers, flagons, dishes, and the like (see fig. 156 & p. 336). The special treatment of such things is a matter for the craftsman who makes them.

[59] By closing up the letters and the words one may generally avoid “_rivers_,” or accidental spaces straggling through the text. The presence of “rivers” is at once made evident by slanting the page and looking along its surface, across the lines. Note, that whether the _lines_ be close or wide, the interspacing of the _Small-Letters_ does not vary very much.

[60] The gaps on the right may be filled with line-finishings to preserve a “Massed” effect, but for many purposes this would be apt to look too ornamental (see pp. 205, 423).

[61] In (_b_) fig. 155, the letters have been unintentionally narrowed. The natural tendency to do this forms another objection to such undue crowding.

[62] In (_c_) the letters have been unintentionally widened.

[63] _Experiment._—Cut out a piece of dark brown paper the exact size of the body of the text in an entire page of this Handbook, viz. 5-1/16 inches by 3 inches, and lay it on the text: the tone of the brown paper being much darker than that of the print makes the margins appear wider.

[64] Such inscriptions contrast favourably with that Nineteenth Century style in which it was customary to make every letter occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour as possible.

[65] ‹Note.›—There is less danger of spoiling letters by narrowing them than by widening, because the limits to the _possible_ narrowing of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its _possible_ widening. Further, when letters are widened there is a tendency to thicken their parts and make them heavy and vulgar.

[66] The primitive forms of these letters were vertically symmetrical, I believe.

[67] It is interesting to note in this connection that the eye seems to prefer looking upon the _tops_ of things, and in reading, is accustomed to run along the _tops_ of the letters—not down one stroke and up the next. This may suggest a further reason for smaller upper parts, viz. the _concentration_ of as much of the letter as possible in the upper half.

[68] The extremely beautiful and finished B in the “Trajan Alphabet” (Plate II.) has the division a little higher, and a marked enlargement of the lower part; until the letter-craftsman can approach the perfection of its execution he will find a simpler form more suitable for his “standard.” A curious form, in which the top lobe has nearly or quite disappeared (_comp. c_, fig. 161), is found in early Roman inscriptions. This form (which may have helped to give us the useful small b) is not suitable for a modern Capital, and would lack the _distinctiveness_ of B.

[69] _Chisel-made_ Roman Capitals (possibly influenced by _brush_, &c., pp. 292, 391), Plates I., II.: (modern), XXIV. _Pen-made_, Plates III., XVIII.: (modern), figs. 147, 148, 167, 168, &c.

[70] J. C. Egbert in an “Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions” says, “_J was not specialised as a letter until the 15th Century_.” It would seem that in early inscriptions a tall I was frequently used for J _between_ vowels, and for I at the _beginnings_ of words: later, while the medial I remained straight, the initial form was curved to the left and used for both I and J; this _curved initial form_, J, at length became identified with the letter J.

Similarly, it appears that V was used for an initial, and U for a medial; and later, the V form became identified with the consonant.

In the words <f>In vigi, natiu</f> in fig. 95, the _initial_ I is curved like a J, while the medial i’s are straight; the _initial_ V has a v form, while the medial V in _nativ(itatis)_ has a u form.

[71] The more _ornamental_ treatment of _Stems_, _Bows_, _Serifs_, _Tails_, &c., is referred to at p. 331, and in figs. 188, 189.

[72] Their thin _stems_ and heavy _branches_ may tend to weakness and illegibility—_e.g._ such letters as E, F, I, L, and T (see fig. 4) are not always easily distinguishable.

[73] _Increasing the size of letter_ affects the form as though the _nib were narrowed_ (see p. 324).

[74] Some may be in “silver” (p. 165).

[75] In a very short book these might even be _built-up_ capitals.

[76] Palæographers call them “majuscules” (= “large letters”), but distinguish them from “Capitals.” For the purposes of the modern penman, however, they may be regarded as _Round Capitals_. (For their treatment, see pp. 297–299, and 304.)

[77] The writing in fig. 170 shows a slightly _slanted pen_. To make _quite_ horizontal _thins_ is difficult, and was probably never done, but it is worth attempting them _nearly_ horizontal for the sake of training the hand.

[78] ‹Note.›—_Single_-line ruling is commonly used—the writing being on, or a little _above_ or _below_, the line: this allows of greater freedom than the double line (see p. 304).

[79] It is convenient to use the term “_Italics_” for both the cursive formal writing and the printing resembling it. _Italic type_ was first used in a “Virgil” printed by Aldus Manutius of Venice in 1500. The type was then called “Venetian” or “Aldine.” It was counterfeited almost immediately (in Germany and Holland it was called “cursive”); Wynkin de Worde used it in 1524. It seems to have been originally intended for printing entire Classics, but was afterwards used to _distinguish_ portions of the text (_see also_ p. 373).

[80] The Book is a catalogue of early Roman inscriptions: apparently a written copy of a printed book.

[81] With a sheet of paper 11-1/8 inches by 16 inches the student might reconstruct these.

[82] Practising a more formal hand as a _corrective_ would prevent this.

[83] The Law fulfils itself: that which we must not copy is that which we _cannot_ copy.

[84] _E.g._ the letters in the tenth-century English hand—Plate VIII.: excepting the archaic long @ and round @ (_b_, fig. 183).

[85] The propriety of the actual form of the new letter will largely depend on the scribe’s knowledge of the development of that

## particular letter and its component parts (_comp._ the interesting

development of «g», sketched in figs. 3 & 183, but note correction of Ex. 173 in _Addenda_, p. 26).

[86] The proportions of the _thick strokes_, _stem heights_, _&c._, in a given hand need not be exactly followed, but it should be recognised that any alteration in these _will inevitably alter the forms and the character of the letters_ (fig. 183, and pp. 84 & 26).

[87] In English so many _ascending_ and _descending_ letters are used, that it might be the best and most natural treatment of these to make them a marked feature of the writing (see also “Fine Writing,” pp. 261–63). Note, in this connection, that our «a b c» has been developed as a Latin alphabet, and that the evenness of Latin MS. is largely due to the infrequence of tailed letters.

[88] Where there is only a slight difference in size, the effect is improved by using a different _form_ or _colour_ (see pp. 130, 345).

[89] Compare <f>monotone</f> and monotone. For general purposes, therefore, and particularly for forming a good hand, the earlier scripts are to be preferred (or the late _Italian_): even twelfth-century “Gothic” writing is hardly readable enough for “practical” purposes.

[p337]

APPENDIX A

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