Chapter IX

. (pp. 145–6).

_IVORY TRACING POINT._—This is useful for various purposes, and for indenting patterns in burnished gold (see p. 191).

_BRUSHES._—Red Sables are very good. A separate brush should be kept for each colour—or at least one brush each for _Reds_, _Blues_, _Greens_, _White_, and _gold “paint”_—and it is convenient to have a medium and a fine brush for each.

_PENS FOR COLOUR._—Quill pens are used: “Turkey” or “Goose.” The latter is softer, and is sometimes preferred for colour work. For very fine work (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A separate pen should be used for each colour.

_COLOURED INKS._—Brown ink (tempered with black if desired) may be used for fine outlines: if the outlined forms are to be coloured afterwards, it is convenient if the ink be _waterproof_. [p173] Coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the best paint colours (see _Colours for Penwork_, p. 176).

_COLOURS._—(p. 175). ‹MATT GOLD› (see p. 183).

_PAINT-BOX._—The little chests of drawers, sold by stationers for 2s. 6d., make very convenient “paint-boxes”: pens, &c., may be kept in one drawer; gilding, tools, &c., in another; and colours and brushes in another.

_PAPER_ (see pp. 51, 98, 103).—_PARCHMENT_, _VELLUM_, _& POUNCE_ (see below).

PARCHMENT, “VELLUM,” & POUNCE (_See also Appendix on Gilding, p. 167 and pp. 98, 356_)

The name “Vellum” (strictly applicable only to calf-skin) is generally given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing or printing on. All the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and _horny_: chemical action (substituted for patient handling), followed by liberal sizing and “dressing,” is perhaps responsible. The old skins have much more life and character, and are commonly much softer. Their surface is generally very smooth—not necessarily _glazed_—often with a delicate velvety _nap_, which forms a perfect writing surface.

_Parchment_ (sheep-skin), as supplied by law-stationers, though rather hard, still retains the character of a skin, and is in every way preferable to the Vellum[33] which is specially prepared for illuminators. A piece of parchment about 26 inches by 22 inches costs about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is still better.

“_Roman Vellum_” is a fine quality of sheep or [p174] _“lamb” skin_, made in imitation of the Vellum used in the Vatican.

The surface of a modern skin may be greatly improved by “_pouncing_” but there seems to be a danger of its becoming rough or porous.

_Pounce._—Fine _powdered pumice_ (as supplied by drysalters) is very good. It is rubbed on with the hand (p. 167), or with a pad or a piece of rag. Law-stationers use a pounce in which the main constituents are chalk (or “whiting”) and powdered resin. The latter, when used before gilding, is apt to make the gold-leaf stick to the surrounding parchment. (_Before Writing_, see Note 7, p. 359.)

_Chalk_, “_Whiting_” “_French Chalk_,” and _Powdered Cuttlefish Bone_ might be used as substitutes for pumice, or as ingredients in preparing a pounce. _Sandarach_ (a resin) rubbed on an erasure appears to prevent ink spreading when the surface is written over.

A skin of parchment has a smooth (whiter) side—the original flesh side—and a rougher, yellower side—the original hair side. The penman will find the _smooth_ side preferable for writing on (though, of course, both sides must be used in a book: see p. 110). This side is more easily damaged, and erasures have to be very carefully made with a _sharp_ knife, or by gentle rubbing with indiarubber. On the rough side, erasures cause little or no damage to the surface. A piece of rubber—or a paper stump—dipped in pounce may be used. It is better—as it is more straightforward—to avoid erasures if possible, and to correct mistakes frankly, as in ordinary writing (see p. 344).

For ordinary purposes parchment should be cut to the size desired, and be held on the desk by the [p175] tape, guard, &c. (see p. 50). It is generally a mistake to pin it down, or to damp and stretch it on the drawing-board (see p. 356).

_Parchment is stained a fine purple_ with “Brazil-wood”: this may be obtained from a “store chemist.” Three teacups full of Brazil-wood are stewed in about two pints of water, with two teaspoonsful of alum (which acts as a mordant). The colour of this liquid is brownish-red, and to make it purple, carbonate of potash is added (_very carefully_, or it will become too blue). The liquid is poured into a tray, and the parchment skin is placed in it for half a day or a couple of days. The colour dries lighter, so it should be prepared rather dark, and diluted if necessary: strips of parchment should be used to test it; they are taken out and dried at the fire.

The parchment skin is stretched on a frame, the edges being caught up over little buttons or pegs, and tied at these points with string. It is allowed to dry slowly.

COLOURS

_POWDER COLOURS_ are the purest: they may be mixed with gum arabic and water. Yolk of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium (or white of egg) (see pp. 166, 179). It is more convenient for the beginner to use prepared colours, which are ready and dependable.

_CAKE COLOURS_ rank next to powder colours for purity: they seem to need tempering with a little gum or honey or glycerine (or egg—see above) for use on ordinary parchment.[34] Used [p176] plain with water, they are apt to flake off when dry.

_PAN COLOURS_ are very safe for ordinary use.

_TUBE COLOURS_ sometimes seem to have too much glycerine; they are, however, very convenient for preparing mixed colours in any quantity, because of their semi-fluid condition, and because the amount of each colour in the mixture may be judged with considerable accuracy by the _length_ which is squeezed out of the tube (p. 178).

_COLOURS FOR PENWORK, &c._—For simple letters or decoration it is well to use a pure

_RED_—_neither crimson nor orange tinged_:

_BLUE_—_neither greenish nor purplish_:

_GREEN_—_neither bluish nor “mossy._”

A little “body colour” is generally used with _blues_ and _greens_ to keep them “flat” (p. 118). These colours should be mixed as required, and be diluted to the right consistency with water (see p. 118). Colour which has been mixed and in use for some time—especially if it has been allowed to dry—is best thrown away (see _mixing size_, p. 148).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 112.›]

If there is much rubricating to be done, a quantity of each colour sufficient to last several days may be mixed, and kept in a _covered_ pot. A little pomatum pot is convenient—the smaller the better, as it keeps the colour together, and does not allow it to dry so quickly.

The filling-brush (a rough brush kept for filling the pen) may rest in the pot (see fig. 112), being given a stir round every time it is [p177] used to prevent the settling of the heavy parts of the colour. A drop of water is added occasionally as the liquid evaporates and becomes too thick.[35]

_TINTS FEW AND CONSTANT._—_Red_, _Blue_, and _Green_ (and perhaps _purple_) with _Gold_, _White_, and _Black_, are sufficient for everything but the most advanced type of Illumination. And it is in every way desirable that, until he has become a _Master_ Limner, the Writer and Illuminator should strictly limit the number of his colours (see p. 215).

It is one of the “secrets” of good “design” to use a limited number of _elements_—forms or colours or materials—and to produce _variety_ by skilful and charming manipulation of these.

It is well to follow the early Illuminators in this also: that these few colours be kept constant. When you have chosen a _Red_, a _Blue_, and a _Green_—as pure and bright as you can make them—keep those

## particular tints as _fixed_ colours to be used for ordinary purposes.

For _special purposes_ (pp. 182, 202) paler tints may be made by adding white, and varied tints may be mixed, but even when your work has advanced so that you require a more complex “palette,” you should stick to the principle of _constant tints and modes of treatment for regular occasions_: this is the secret of method.

_RED._—Vermilion is prepared in three forms: “_Vermilion_,” “_Scarlet Vermilion_,” and “_Orange Vermilion_.” For ordinary use “_Scarlet Vermilion_” is the best (it may be tempered with a minute quantity of white). “_Vermilion_” is not quite so bright, and tends more to crimson, but, mixed with [p178] “_Orange Vermilion_” it gives the “scarlet” form. The _pan_ colour is generally most convenient.

Where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold, their effect may be harmonised by having a large proportion of blue in the neighbourhood: sometimes a more crimson colour than vermilion may be used.

_Chinese Vermilion_ is a fine colour, but difficult to obtain; it is even said that the genuine pigment is reserved exclusively for the Chinese Emperor (whose edicts are written with “The Vermilion Pencil”).

_GREEN._—Verdigris is a very fine colour, closely resembling, and possibly the same pigment as, the green in early MSS., but I believe that it has not been rendered permanent in modern use.

_Green Oxide of Chromium_ (_transparent_) (or “Veridian”) is a very good permanent green. It is rather a thin colour, and requires body, which may be given with _lemon yellow_, or with _white and yellow ochre_; being a rather bluish green, it is the better for a little yellow. This (mixed) green is most conveniently prepared from tube colours.

_BLUE._—_Ultramarine Ash_ (whole tube about 4s.) is a very beautiful colour. It is rather pale and transparent (and a little “slimy” to work) when used alone. A mixture (preferably made with tube colours) consisting of _Ultramarine Ash and Chinese White and (a very little) Prussian Blue_ makes an extremely fine, pure blue. A similar mixture with _cobalt_ as a base makes a very good blue.

_Ultramarine or Powdered Lapis Lazuli_ (unfortunately known as “Genuine Ultramarine”[36]) is a fine colour; it may have a slightly purplish tint and need [p179] tempering with green to make a pure blue (whole cake about 18s.).

The Blue in common use in early MSS. (before Ultramarine came into use) has a fine, pure colour, and considerable _body_: it is more raised than any other colour; it is often seen to be full of little sparkles, as though there were powdered glass in it. It is supposed to have been prepared from a copper ore.

The following note on this blue has been given to me by Mr. C. M. Firth:—

“The blue is Native Carbonate of Copper finely powdered and tempered with white of egg (Vermilion is tempered with the Yolk).”

“The ore is of two kinds, a crystalline of a medium hardness found in France at Chessy, and hence called Chessylite, and a soft earthy kind which is obtained in Hungary, and largely now from Australia. The latter is from its ease of manipulation the best for paint making. It should be ground dry till it is no longer gritty and is of a sky blue (pale) colour.”

“The Blue in MSS. was liable to wash off, but the oil in the Yolk prevented a similar result with the Vermilion. The Blue is identical with the Azzuro della magna (for d’allemaigne) of the Middle Ages. The frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to a glass is based on the accounts of (I.) The Vestorian blue copper ‘frit’ for enamels probably; (II.) on the accounts in sixteenth century of the Manufacture of Smalt, which owes its colour to a glass tinted with Cobalt. This Azzuro is the oldest known Western blue, and was probably employed on Egyptian walls, where it has gone green, as also in Italian Frescoes.”

“The Green tint of the chemical change in the Copper is seen in initials in books too much exposed to the damp. These exhibit a bright green tint in places where the colour was thinly applied.” [p180]

It appears that Yolk, besides being unsuited in colour for tempering this blue, changes it to a greenish colour (the effect of the oil, which forms about 30 per cent. of Yolk of Egg).

_WHITE._—The tube _Chinese White_[37] is the most convenient to use when tempering colours.

“_White Line or Hair Finishing_” (see p. 183). Various tools have been recommended for this. A sable pencil with the outer hairs cut away, “the smallest brush” made, and even a fine steel pen. I am inclined to believe that some of the early Illuminators used a fine quill—such as a crow quill, or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply pointed.

_PURPLE_ is seldom used in simple pen-work, lettering, &c., but largely and with very fine effect in complex illumination. A _reddish-purple_ is to be preferred. A good colour can be made from the purple _stain_ described on p. 175, or from Ruby madder and a little Rose madder, with a very little Ultramarine.

SIMPLE COLOUR EFFECTS

_Simple “Rubrication”_ (see p. 127).—Red letters were most commonly contrasted with _blue_ (the “warmest” and “coldest” colours),[38] in some MSS. with _green_ alone, but more commonly the three [p181] colours were used together, the alterations being generally—

┐ ┐ «R»_ed cap._ │ in columns «RED» │ in lines of Caps. «B»_lue cap._ │ of Versal «BLUE» │ «R»_ed cap._ │ letters «RED» │ «G»_reen cap._ │ (see fig. 93) «GREEN» │ (see fig. 89). &c. │ &c. │ ┘ ┘

_Repetition and Limitation of Simple Colours (and Forms)._—The uniform treatment of a MS. necessitates that no colour (or form) in it should be quite singular, or even isolated if it can possibly be repeated. If, for example, there be a Red capital on the “Verso” page, the “_opening_” is improved by some Red—a capital, a rubric, or even a line-finishing—on the “Recto” page. Very often the one piece of colour is very small, and, as it were, an echo of the other (compare Line-finishings and Initials, pp. 205, 193). While it is not always possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an opening, yet, in the book taken as a whole, _every colour used should be repeated as often as there is a reasonable opportunity_. And, therefore, where the opportunities for colour in a book are few and far between, it is well to limit the “colours” used to two, or even one.

This necessity for repetition applies to _simple_ rather than to complex “Illuminated” Forms—_e.g._ a book need not have more than one Illuminated Initial—but within such complex forms themselves [p182] _repetition_ is recognised as one of the first principles of “decorative design” (see p. 215).

_Proportions of Colours._—In Harmonious Illumination, Blue very commonly is the predominating colour; but no exact proportions can be laid down, for the combined colour effect depends so much on the arrangement of the colours.

_Effects of Neighbouring Colours._[39]—When blue and red are in juxtaposition, the blue appears bluër and greener; the red appears brighter and more scarlet. With Red and Green, the Red appears more crimson, and the green, greener and bluër. A greenish blue will appear _plain blue_ beside a pure green; a blue with a purplish tinge will appear more purple. Experiments might profitably be made with simple arrangements of Red, Blue, Green, Black, White, and Gold in combinations of two or more.

_Tempering Colours with White._—Forms such as flower petals, &c., may be painted in Blue or Red, paled with White, and then be shaded with the pure colour; this gives considerable richness, and the effect may be heightened by very careful white line work (_q.v._). Green leaves, &c., may be made very pale and then touched with _Yellow_—this gives a brilliant effect.

_Black Outlines._—The effect of these is to make a bright colour appear brighter and richer, to define, and, to a certain extent, _harmonise_, neighbouring colours and shapes, and to keep the design flat [p183] (see p. 186). For one or more of these reasons, all coloured forms—patterns, charges, &c.—in a compound colour scheme have an outline—strong or delicate, according to the strength or delicacy of the work (see pp. 188, 187, 202, 221, 165).

_White Lining._—A black outline is often separated from the colour by a fine white line (see fig. 129). White lines also are used to harmonise colours, one or more commonly being painted (or “penned”) upon the colours. This tends to make the colours appear paler and lighter—brightening them if they are dark. Care must be taken not to overdo the white lining, or it will make the colours chalky and cold. White is also used in groups of dots, and in fine patterns on backgrounds (see pp. 213, 430).

_Gold_ is even more effective than white or black for harmonising colours. It is commonly _Burnished_ in bars or frames (see p. 481), and in spots (pp. 481, 187), or in large masses (p. 191). _Matt Gold_ (see below).

MATT GOLD

Matt gold, or gold “paint”—the pure gold powder with white of egg is best—is generally _painted upon colour_. It was much used in old miniatures for “hatching” and lighting landscapes, houses, costumes, &c.; and stars, rays of light, and outlines of clouds were painted in delicate gold lines upon the blue of the skies. Such gold lining has a very mellowing and pleasant effect upon colour, but it can easily be _overdone_. Matt gold may be used besides, for letters, ornament, and patterns _painted upon colour_. Such forms have either no outline, or a very faint one: their effect depends upon their lightness, and they are not made to appear _solid_. [p184]

A very pretty effect may be obtained in a small and not very formal manuscript by painting into the spaces left for the capitals little squares of red and blue, and painting upon these the letters and ornament—all in gold powder—very freely and quickly. The kind of treatment is rather crudely suggested by fig. 113. The pleasant appearance of the pages—as though they were scattered over with tiny squares of cloth of gold and red and blue—is produced with comparative ease, while the use of leaf gold might entail an expenditure of more time and pains than the book was worth. In the finest class of manuscripts, however, these matt gold letters would be somewhat informal and out of place.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 113.›]

BURNISHED GOLD

Gold is always raised and burnished as bright as possible, unless there is a special reason for using matt gold.

The height to which it is raised varies, according to the effect desired, from a considerable thickness to the thinnest possible coat of “size.” Extremely thin and extremely thick raising are both objectionable (see p. 150): roughly speaking, a suitable height for any ordinary purpose is between 1/100 and 1/32 of an inch.

The surface, in the case of large forms, is generally made as smooth and perfect as possible, so that, as Cennino Cennini says, the burnished gold “_will appear almost dark from its own brightness_”; and its [p185] brightness is only seen when the light falls on it at a particular angle. The gilding of a manuscript, however, is slightly flexible, and a large gilded surface is likely to be bent, so that some part of it is sure to catch the light.

Small surfaces highly burnished very often do not show the effect of, or “tell” as, gold, unless they catch the light by accident. It is well, therefore, where the forms are small to have several on the page, so that one or another will always shine out and explain the rest. And while the proper craftsman tries always to get the best finish which he reasonably can, the natural, slight unevennesses or varying planes of small gilded forms may be of advantage to the whole effect. The pleasant effect of such natural variations may be seen in thirteenth-century Initials, where numbers of little gold pieces are fitted into the backgrounds, and their changing surfaces cause the whole to be lit up with little sparkles of light. A parallel to this may be found in the hand-tooling of a book-cover, which sparkles with gold, because the binder could not press in each piece of gold-leaf absolutely level. On the other hand, the “deadness” of a machine-stamped cover is largely due to the _dead level_ of its gilding.

_Black and Gold._—One of the finest effects in calligraphy can be obtained by the simple contrast of gold capitals with black writing (see p. 299).

While, as in the case of _black and red_, the strongest effects are obtained by a marked contrast, gold may yet be very effectively used for small capitals throughout the black text. It does not lose or blend its brilliance with the black of the writing as colour is apt to do, but lights up and illuminates the page. For this reason gold will [p186] “help out” and make agreeable a black and colour effect which, by itself, would have been a failure (see p. 134).

BURNISHED GOLD FORMS & OUTLINES

_Plain gold letters, symbols, and other detached forms, not having backgrounds, are usually not outlined._ An outline cheapens their effect, making them darker and heavier, and, if the line be at all thick, concealing the true form of the letter, and giving it a clumsy appearance.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 114.›]

It is an instructive experiment to make a gold (or plain white) letter with a thick outline (_a_, fig. 114), and then paint a background round it. The effect is quite altered, and greatly improved (_b_, fig. 114). The outline no longer tells as the outer line of the form, but partakes more of the nature of the background, in which it cuts out, as one might say, a little _niche_ for the letter to rest in.

_Gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds_ are [p187] outlined—generally in black—in order that letter and background may together form a flat design, stable and at rest in the page.

The distinction between the use of gold “_paint_” and the treatment of a leaf gold form should be carefully observed: the _matt gold powder_ lies upon colour, and may appear to blend with it (p. 183); the _bright gold-leaf_ constitutes a distinct form, which either lies upon the surface of _a page_, or is, as it were, _set in_ a background.

_Gold (leaf) Floral Ornament, &c._—If the stalk and leaves are both gold: they are commonly not outlined, unless on a background.

If there be a thin stalk in black or colour with gold leaves: the leaves are outlined with the stalk-colour (they were commonly _furred_: _c_, fig. 115).

If there be a _thick_ coloured stalk with gold leaves: both stalk and leaves commonly have a black outline, the “leaves” often being treated as spots of gold (below).

_Gold Spots or Dots_ are usually outlined and furred with black (fig. 115). The effect produced is of a bright gold form on a _grey_ background.

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 115.›]

A simple “leaf” or detached spot of gold has a formless look, much as a small _blot_ of colour or ink would have. The black outline and the grey background-effect seem in this case to give form and interest to the spot; at least they give it a place to _rest_ in—a nest to hold the small golden egg. [p188]

Even a stalk and tendril (_d_, fig. 115) has the same effect of giving intention and meaning to what might otherwise be a mere blot.

When several spots of gold (or colour) are arranged in a simple design, together they constitute a simple form which does not require a background. Thus the _line-finishing_ @ (a, fig. 126) has a formal and intentional arrangement in itself, and therefore need not be outlined.

BACKGROUND CAPITALS

_Background Capitals or Initials_ frequently employ burnished gold, either for the letters or the ground. All the parts (including “solid” patterns) are generally outlined in black, or dark colour.

The commonest colours for grounds are Reds and Blues. The grounds are frequently countercharged, or made one colour _inside_ and another _outside_ the initial (p. 190). Sometimes little or no gold is used, and many fine white lines are employed to separate and harmonise the colours of the Initial and the ground. It is well, however, for the beginner to keep the letter and the ground distinct, by observing the Herald’s maxim, and using “Metal on colour, _or_ colour on metal.”

_The forms of the letters_ vary from those of ordinary capitals in being thicker in proportion to their height, and frequently in having no serifs. A very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the background.

A very good form of background initial may be [p189] made out of the ROMAN CAPITAL (_a_, fig. 116) by thickening all its parts; in place of the serifs, curving out and shaping the ends of the stems (_b_, _d_) to a sort of “_blunderbuss_” pattern (_g_).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 116.›]

APPLYING THE BACKGROUND

It is well first to make the letter,[40] and then to _apply_ the background to it (as though it were a sort of mosaic). The background is packed tightly round the letter, and the letter occupies the background, [p190] so that they appear to be in the same plane (_a_, fig. 117).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 117.›]

Such “flatness” is secured even more certainly and effectively by using two colours (_e.g._ red and blue) in the background—one inside and one outside the letter (see Plate XII.).

The curves of the gold letter may with advantage slightly project, and so break the hard, square outline of the background.

The letter should not have the appearance of being “stuck on,” as it is apt to if the background is large and empty, or if the ornament passes behind the letter (_b_, fig. 117).

In the case of letters with projecting stems or tails: the tail may be outside the background (_a_, [p191] fig. 118), or the background may be prolonged on one or both sides of the tail (_b_ and _c_), or the whole “field” may be enlarged to take in the complete letter (_d_).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 118.›]

There is no limit to the variety of shapes which backgrounds may take—symmetrical or asymmetrical, regular or irregular—provided they fit the initial or the ornament (which may _itself_ partially, or entirely, bound them), are properly balanced (see Plate XII., and p. 419), and take their right place on the page.

ORNAMENT OF BACKGROUNDS

The ornament, as a rule, covers the background evenly, and is closely packed or fitted into its place.

_Gold grounds_ are generally plain, sometimes bearing patterns in dots. These are indented in the surface by means of a point (p. 172) which is not too sharp. It presses the gold-leaf into tiny pits, but does not pierce it. Gold grounds may be broken up into small parts by coloured chequers (p. 215) or floral patterns. [p192]

_Coloured grounds_ are, as a rule, more or less evenly covered with some form of decoration in thin white or matt gold lines, or in “solid” patterns in various colours (see pp. 202, 212). A simple and pretty diaper pattern may be made by diagonal lines of matt gold, cutting up the colour into small “lozenges,” each alternate lozenge having a fleur-de-lis or little cross, or other simple ornament (fig. 119).

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 119.›]

[Illustration: ‹Fig. 120.›]

A bolder design, in a broad white or coloured line, may be, as it were, woven through _counterfeited slits_ in the letter (fig. 120). This helps to preserve the general flatness of the letter, [p193] background, and ornament, and gives additional interest.

The mimic slits are made by black lines drawn on the burnished gold of the letter. Where the stem of the ornament comes over the gold, the size is cut away with a pen-knife; the part hollowed out is painted with white to cover any blemishes, and then painted with the stem colour, and outlined.

A plain or pale stem may have a faint or brown outline, and be “shaded” at the sides (with _greys_, _browns_, or _yellows_) to give an effect of solidity; a stem that is painted in strong colour (_e.g._ red or blue) may have a central white line painted upon it.

Note that where the initials have backgrounds, the line-finishings are commonly made with backgrounds to match, though their treatment is naturally much simpler (see Plates XV., XVII.).

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