Part 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hellenistic Period._--See the special articles ALEXANDRIA, &c., and especially PTOLEMIES; J. P. Mahaffy, _The Empire of the Ptolemies_ (London, 1895), _A History of Egypt under_ _the Ptolemaic Dynasty_ (London, 1899); A. Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire des Lagides_ (4 vols., Paris, 1903- ); E. A. W. Budge, _A History of Egypt_, vols. vii.-viii. (London, 1902); J. G. Milne, _A History of Egypt under Roman Rule_ (London, 1898); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (edited by J. B. Bury) (London, 1900). The administration and condition of Egypt under the Ptolemaic and Roman rules are abundantly illustrated in recently discovered papyri, see especially the English publications of B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (_Memoirs of the Graeco-Roman Branch of the Egypt Exploration Fund_) and F. G. Kenyon (British Museum Catalogues); also Mr Kenyon's annual summaries in the _Archaeological Report of the Egypt Exploration Fund_. An ample selection of the Greek inscriptions from Egypt is to be found in W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1903-1905). (R. S. P.; F. Ll. G.)

2. _Mahommedan Period._

(1) _Moslem Conquest of Egypt._--In accordance with the scheme of universal conquest conceived by the founder of Islam, an army of some 4000 men was towards the end of the year A.D. 639 sent against Egypt under the command of 'Amr (see 'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS), by the second caliph, Omar I., who had some doubt as to the expediency of the enterprise. The commander marched from Syria through El-'Arish, easily took Farama or Pelusium, and thence proceeded to Bilbeis, where he was delayed for a month; having captured this place, he proceeded to a point on the Nile called Umm Dunain, the siege of which also occasioned him some difficulty. After taking it, he crossed the Nile to the Fayum. On the 6th of June of the following year (640) a second army of 12,000 men, despatched by Omar, arrived at Heliopolis (On). 'Amr recrossed the river and joined it, but presently was confronted by a Roman army, which he defeated at the battle of Heliopolis (July 640); this victory was followed by the siege of Babylon, which after some futile attempts at negotiation was taken partly by storm and partly by capitulation on Good Friday, the 6th of April 641. 'Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on the 8th of November 641, under which it was to be occupied by the Moslems on the 29th of September of the following year. The interval was spent by him in founding the city Fostat (Fustat), near the modern Cairo, and called after the camp (_Fossatum_) occupied by him while besieging Babylon; and in reducing those coast towns that still offered resistance. The Thebaid seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Roman empire appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the generals of the Roman forces. The former, called by the Arabs Mukaukis (Muqauqis) from his Coptic name Pkauchios, had for ten years before the arrival of 'Amr maintained a fierce persecution of the Jacobite sect, to which the bulk of the Copts belonged. During the siege of Babylon he had been recalled and exiled, but after the death of Heraclius had been reinstated as patriarch by Heraclonas, and been welcomed back to Alexandria with general rejoicing in September 641. Since Alexandria could neither have been stormed nor starved out by the Arabs, his motives for surrendering it, and with it the whole of Egypt, have been variously interpreted, some supposing him to have been secretly a convert to Islam. The notion that the Arab invaders were welcomed and assisted by the Copts, driven to desperation by the persecution of Cyrus, appears to be refuted by the fact that the invaders treated both Copts and Romans with the same ruthlessness; but the dissensions which prevailed in the Christian communities, leading to riots and even civil war in Alexandria and elsewhere, probably weakened resistance to the common enemy. An attempt was made in the year 645 with a force under Manuel, commander of the Imperial forces, to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine empire; the city was surprised, and held till the summer of 646, when it was again stormed by 'Amr. In 654 a fleet was equipped by Constans with a view to an invasion, but it was repulsed, and partly destroyed by storm. From that time no serious effort was made by the Eastern Empire to regain possession of the country. And it would appear that at the time of the attempt by Manuel the Arabs were actually assisted by the Copts, who at the first had found the Moslem lighter than the Roman yoke.

Terms of capitulation.

A question often debated by Arabic authors is whether Egypt was taken by storm or capitulation, but, so far as the transference of the country was accomplished by the first taking of Alexandria, there seems no doubt that the latter view is correct. The terms were those on which conquered communities were ordinarily taken under Moslem protection. In return for a tribute of money (_jizyah_) and food for the troops of occupation (_daribat-al-ta'am_), the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were to be excused military service, and to be left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs.

From 639 to 968 Egypt was a province of the Eastern Caliphate, and was ruled by governors sent from the cities which at different times ranked as capitals. Like other provinces of the later Abbasid Caliphate its rulers were, during this period, able to establish quasi-independent dynasties, such being those of the Tulunids who ruled from 868 to 905, and the Ikshidis from 935-969. In 969 the country was conquered by Jauhar for the Fatimite caliph Mo'izz, who transferred his capital from Mahdia (q.v.) in the Maghrib to Cairo. This dynasty lasted till 1171, when Egypt was again embodied in the Abbasid empire by Saladin, who, however, was himself the founder of a quasi-independent dynasty called the Ayyubites or Ayyubids, which lasted till 1252. The Ayyubites were followed by the Mameluke dynasties, usually classified as Bahri from 1252-1382, and Burji from 1382-1517; these sovereigns were nominally under the suzerainty of Abbasid caliphs, who were in reality instruments of the Mameluke sultans, and resided at Cairo. In 1517 Egypt became part of the Ottoman empire and was governed by pashas sent from Constantinople, whose influence about 1707 gave way to that of officials chosen from the Mamelukes who bore the title Sheik al-balad. After the episode of the French occupation, government by pashas was restored; Mehemet Ali (appointed pasha in 1805) obtained from the Porte in 1841 the right to bequeath the sovereignty to his descendants, one of whom, Ismail Pasha, received the title Khedive, which is still held by Mehemet Ali's descendants.

(2) The following is a list of the governors of Egypt in these successive periods:--

(a) _During the undivided Caliphate._

'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, A.H. 18-24 (A.D. 639-645). 'Abdallah b. Sa'd b. Abi Sarh, 24-36 (645-656). Qais b. Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, 36 (657-658). Mahommed b. Abu Bekr, 37-38 (658). Ashtar Malik b. al-Harith (appointed, but never governed). 'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 38-43 (658-663). 'Utbah b. Abu Sofian, 43-44 (664-665). 'Utbah b. 'Amir, 44-45 (665). Maslama b. Mukhallad, 45-62 (665-682). Sa'id b. Yazid b. 'Alqamah, 62-64 (682-684). Abdarrahman b. 'Utbah b. Jahdam, 64-65 (684). Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) b. Merwan, 65-86 (685-705). 'Abdallah b. 'Abd al-Malik, 86-90 (705-708). Qurrah b. Sharik al-'Absi, 90-96 (709-714). 'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah al-Fahmi, 96-99 (715-717). Ayyub b. Shurahbil al-Asbahi, 99-101 (717-720). Bishr b. Safwan al-Kalbi, 101-102 (720-721). Hanzalah b. Safwan, 102-105 (721-724). Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Malik, 105 (724). Hurr b. Yusuf, 105-108 (724-727). Hafs b. al-Walid, 108 (727). 'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah, 109 (727). Walid b. Rifa'ah, 109-117 (727-735). 'Abd al-Rahman b. Khalid, 117-118 (735). Hanzalah b. Safwan, 118-124 (735-742). Hafs b. al-Walid, 124-127 (742-745). Hassan b. 'Atahiyah al-Tu'jibi, 127 (745). Hafs b. al-Walid, 127 (745). Hautharah b. Suhail al-Bahili, 128-131 (745-749). Mughirah b. 'Ubaidallah al-Fazari, 131-132 (749). 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan al-Lakhmi, 132 (750). Salih b. 'Ali, 133 (750-751). Abu 'Aun 'Abdalmalik b. Yazid, 133-136 (751-753). Salih b. 'Ali, 136-137 (753-755)--second time. Abu 'Aun, 137-141 (755-758)--second time. Musa b. Ka'b b. 'Uyainah al-Tamimi, 141 (758-759). Mahommed b. al-Ash'ath b. 'Uqbah al-Khuza i, 141-143 (759-760). Humaid b. Qahtabah b. Shabib al-Ta'i, 143-144 (760-762). Yazid b. Hatim b. Kabisah al-Muhallabi, 144-152 (762-769). 'Abdallah b. 'Abdarrahman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 152-155 (769-772). Mahommed b. Abdarrahman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 155 (772). Musa b. 'Ulayy b. Rabah al-Lakhmi, 155-161 (772-778). 'Isa b. Luqman b. Mahommed al-Jumahi, 161-162 (778). Wadih, 162 (779). Mansur b. Yazid b. Mansur al-Ru'aini, 162 (779). Abu Salih Yahya b. Dawud b. Mamdud, 162-164 (779-780). Salim b. Sawadah al-Tamimi, 164 (780-781). Ibrahim b. Salih b. 'Ali, 165-167 (781-784). Musa b. Mus'ab b. al-Rabi al-Khath'ami, 167-168 (784-785). Usamah b. 'Amr b. 'Alqamah al-Ma'afiri, 168 (785). al Fadl b. Salih b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 168-169 (785-786). 'Ali b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 169-171 (786-787). Musa b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 171-172 (787-789). Maslamah b. Yahya b. Qurrah al-Bajili, 172-173 (789-790). Mahommed b. Zuhair al-Azdi, 173 (790). Dawud b. Yazid b. Hatim al-Muhallabi, 174-175 (790). Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 175-176 (790-792). Ibrahim b. Salih, 176 (792). Salih b. Ibrahim, 176 (792). Abdallah b. al-Musayyib b. Zuhair al Dabbi, 176-177 (792-793). Ishaq b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 177-178 (793-794). Harthamah b. A'yan, 178 (794-795). 'Obaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 179 (795). Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 179-180 (795-796). 'Obaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 180-181 (796-797)--second time. Isma'il b. Salih b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 181-182 (797-798). Isma'il b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 182-183 (798). Laith b. al-Fadl al-Abiwardi, 183-187 (798-803). Ahmad b. Isma'il b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 187-189 (803-805). 'Obaidallah b. Mahommed b. Ibrahim al-'Abbasi, 189-190 (805-806). Husain b. Jamil, 190-192 (806-808). Malik b. Dalham b. 'Isa al-Kalbi, 192-193 (808). Hasan b. al-Tahtah, 193-194 (808-809). Hatim b. Harthamah b. A'yan, 194-195 (809-811). Jabir b. al-Ash'ath b. Yahya al-Ta'i, 195-196 (811-812). 'Abbad b. Mahommed b. Hayyan al-Balkhi, 196-198 (812-813). Mottalib b. 'Abdallah b. Malik al-Khuza'i, 198 (813-814). 'Abbas b. Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 198-199 (814). Mottalib b. 'Abdallah, 199-200 (814-816)--second time. Sari b. al-Hakam b. Yusuf, 200-201 (816). Sulaiman b. Ghalib b. Jibril al-Bajili, 201 (816-817). Sari b. al-Hakam, 201-205 (817-820). Abu Nasr Mahommed b. al-Sari, 205 (820-821). 'Obaidallah b. al-Sari, 205-211 (821-826). 'Abdallah b. Tahir, 211-213 (826-829). Mahommed b. Harun (al-Mo'tasim), 213-214 (829). 'Umair b. Al-Walid al-Tamimi al-Badhaghisi, 214 (829). 'Isa b. Yazid, 214 (829). 'Abduyah b. Jabalah, 215-216 (830-831). 'Isa b. Mansur b. Musa al-Rafi'i, 216-217 (831-832). Nasr b. Abdallah Kaidar al-Safadi, 217-219 (832-834). Muzaffar b. Kaidar, 219 (834). Musa b. Abi'l-'Abbas Thabit al-Hanafi, 219-224 (834-839). Malik b. Kaidar al Safadi, 224-226 (839-841). 'Ali b. Yahya abu l-Hasan al-Armani, 226-228 (841-842). 'Isa b. Mansur al-Rafi'i, 229-233 (843-847). Harthamah b. al-Nadir al-Jabali, 233-234 (848-849). Hatim b. Harthamah, 234 (849). 'Ali b. Yahya, 234-235 (849-850). Ishaq b. Yahya al-Khatlani, 235-236 (850-851). 'Abd al-Wahid b. Yahya b. Mansur, 236-238 (851-852). 'Anbasa b. Ishaq b. Shamir, 238-242 (852-856). Yazid b. 'Abdallah b. Dinar, 242-253 (856-867). Muzahim b. Khaqan al-Turki, 253-254 (867-868). Ahmad b. Muzahim b. Khaqan, 254 (868). Urjuz b. Ulugh Tarkhan al-Turki, 254 (868).

_Tulunid house._

Ahmad b. Tulun, 254-270 (868-884). Khomaruya b. Ahmad, 270-282 (884-896). Jaish b. Khomaruya, 282 (896). Harun b. Khomaruya, 283-292 (896-904). Shaiban b. Ahmad, 292 (905). 'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari, 292 (905). Mahommed b. 'Ali al-Khalanji, 292-293 (905-906). 'Isa al-Naushari, 293-297 (906-910)--second time. Takin b. Abdallah al-Khazari, 297-302 (910-915). Dhuka al-Rumi, 303-307 (915-919). Takin b. 'Abdallah, 307-309 (919-921)--second time. Abu Qabus Mahmud b. Hamal, 309 (921). Hilal b. Badr, 309-311 (921-923). Ahmad b. Kaighlagh, 311 (923). Takin b. Abdallah, 311-321 (923-933)--third time. Mahommed b. Takin, 321 (933).

_Ikshidi house._

Mahommed b. Tughj al-Ikshid, 321 (933). [Ahmad b. Kaighlagh, 321-322 (933-934)]. Mahommed b. Tughj, 323-334 (934-946)--second time. Unjur b. al-Ikshid, 334-349 (946-961). 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 349-355 (961-966). Kafur b. Abdallah al-Ikshidi, 355-357 (966-968). Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad b. 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 357 (968).

_(b) Fatimite Caliphs_, 357-567 (969-1171).

Mo'izz Abu Tamim Ma'add (or li-din allah), 357-365 (969-975). 'Aziz Abu Mansur Nizar (al-'Aziz billah), 365-386 (975-996). Hakim [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 386-411 (996-1020). Zahir [Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali], 411-427 (1020-1035). Mostansir [Abu Tamim Ma'add], 427-487 (1035-1094). Mosta'li [Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad], 487-495 (1094-1101). Amir [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 495-524 (1101-1130). Hafiz [Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid], 524-544 (1130-1149). Zafir [Abu'l-Mansur Isma'il], 544-549 (1149-1154). Fa'iz [Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa], 549-555 (1154-1160). 'Adid [Abu Mahommed 'Abdallah], 555-567 (1160-1171).

_(c) Ayyubite Sultans_, 564-648 (1169-1250).

Malik al-Nasir Salah al-din Yusuf b. Ayyub (SALADIN), 564-589 (1169-1193). Malik al-'Aziz 'Imad al-din Othman, 589-595 (1193-1198). Malik al-Mansur Mahommed, 595-596 (1198-1199). Malik al-'Adil Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 596-615 (1199-1218). Malik AL-KAMIL Mahommed, 615-635 (1218-1238). Malik al-'Adil II. Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 635-637 (1238-1240). Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, 637-647 (1240-1249). Malik al-Mo'azzam Turanshah, 647-648 (1249-1250). Malik al-Ashraf Musa, 648-650 (1250-1252).

_(d) Bahri Mamelukes_, 648-792 (1250-1390).

Shajar al-durr, 648 (1250). Malik al-Mo'izz 'Izz al-din Aibek, 648-655 (1250-1257). Malik al-Mansur Nureddin 'Ali, 655-657 (1257-1259). Malik al-Mozaffar Saif al-din KOTUZ, 657-658 (1259-1260). Malik al-Zahir [Rukn al-din (Rukneddin) BIBARS Bundukdari], 658-676 (1260-1277). Malik al-Sa'id Nasir al-din Barakah Khan, 676-678 (1277-1279). Malik al-'Adil Badr al-din Salamish, 678 (1279). Malik al-Mansur Saif al-din QALA'UN, 678-689 (1279-1290). Malik al-Ashraf [Salah al-din KHALIL], 689-693 (1290-1293). Malik al-Nasir [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 693-694 (1293-1294). Malik al-'Adil [Zain al-din KITBOGA], 694-696 (1294-1296). Mansur [Husam al-din LAJIN], 696-698 (1296-1298). NASIR MAHOMMED (again), 698-708 (1298-1308). Mozaffar [Rukn al-din Bibars Jashengir], 708-709 (1308-1310). Nasir Mahommed (third time), 709-741 (1310-1341). Mansur [Saif al-din ABU BAKR], 741-742 (1341). Ashraf [Ala'u 'l-din KUCHUK], 742 (1341-1342). Nasir [Shihab al-din Ahmad], 742-743 (1342). Salih 'Imad al-din Isma'il], 743-746 (1342-1345). Kamil [Saif al-din SHA'BAN], 746-747 (1345-1346). Mozaffar [Saif al-din HAJJI], 747-748 (1346-1347). Nasir [Nasir al-din Hasan], 748-752 (1347-1351). Salih [Salah al-din Salih], 752-755 (1351-1354). Nasir [Hasan] (again), 755-762 (1354-1361). Mansur [Salah al-din Mahommed], 762-764 (1361-1363). Ashraf [Nasir al-din Sha'ban], 764-778 (1363-1377). Mansur ['Ala'u 'l-din 'Ali], 778-783 (1377-1381). Salih [Salah al-din Hajji, 783-784 (1381-1382). Barkuk or Barquq (see below), 784-791 (1382-1389). Hajji again, with title of Mozaffar, 791-792 (1389-1390).

_(e) Burji Mamelukes_, 784-922 (1382-1517).

Zahir [Saif al-din Barquq], 784-801 (1382-1398) [interrupted by Hajji, 791-792]. Nasir [Nasir al-din FARAJ], 801-808 (1398-1405). Mansur ['Izz al-din Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz)], 808-809 (1405-1406). Nasir Faraj (again), 809-815 (1406-1412). 'Adil Mosta'in (Abbasid caliph), 815 (1412). Mu'ayyad [Sheikh], 815-824 (1412-1421). Mozaffar [Ahmad], 824 (1421). Zahir [Saif al-din Tatar], 824 (1421). Salih [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 824-825 (1421-1422). Ashraf [Saif al-din Barsbai], 825-842 (1422-1438). 'Aziz [Jamal al-din Yusuf], 842 (1438). Zahir [Saif al-din Jakmak], 842-857 (1438-1453). Mansur [Fakhr al-din Othman], 857 (1453). Ashraf [Saif al-din Inal], 857-865 (1453-1461). Mu'ayyad [Shihab al-din Ahmad], 865 (1461). Zahir [Saif al-din Khoshkadam], 865-872 (1461-1467). Zahir [Saif al-din Yelbai or Bilbai], 872 (1467). Zahir [Timurbogha], 872-873 (1467-1468). Ashraf [Saif al-din (KAIT BEY)], 873-901 (1468-1495). Nasir [Mahommed], 901-904 (1495-1498). Zahir [Kansuh], 904-905 (1498-1499). Ashraf [Janbalat or Jan Belat], 905-906 (1499-1501). 'Adil Tumanbey, 906 (1501). Ashraf [Kansuh Ghuri], 906-922 (1501-1516). Ashraf [Tumanbey], 922 (1516-1517).

_(f) Turkish Governors after the Ottoman Conquest._

Khair Bey, 923 (1517). Mustafa Pasha, 926 (1520). Ahmad, 929 (1523). Qasim, 930 (1524). Ibrahim, 931 (1525). Suleiman, 933 (1527). Dawud, 945 (1538). 'Ali, 956 (1549). Mahommed, 961 (1554). Iskandar, 963 (1556). 'Ali al-Khadim, 968 (1561). Mustafa, 969 (1561). 'Ali al-Sufi, 971 (1563). Mahmud, 973 (1566). Sinan, 975 (1567). Hosain, 980 (1573). Masih, 982 (1575). Hasan al-Khadim, 988 (1580). Ibrahim, 991 (1583). Sinan, 992 (1584). Uwais, 994 (1585). Hafiz Ahmad, 999 (1591). Kurt, 1003 (1595). Sayyid Mahommed, 1004 (1596). Khidr, 1006 (1598). 'Ali al-Silahdar, 1009 (1601). Ibrahim, 1012 (1604). Mahommed al-Kurji, 1013 (1605). Hasan, 1014 (1605). Mahommed al-Sufi, 1016 (1607). Ahmad al-Daftardar, 1022 (1613). Mustafa Lafakli, 1026 (1617). Ja'far, 1027 (1618). Mustafa, 1028 (1619). Hosain, 1028 (1619). Mahommed, 1031 (1622). Ibrahim, 1031 (1622). Mustafa, 1032 (1623). 'Ali, 1032 (1623). Mustafa, 1032 (1624). Bairam, 1036 (1626). Mahommed, 1037 (1627). Musa, 1040 (1631). Khalil al-Bustanji, 1041 (1631). Ahmad al-Kurji, 1042 (1633). Hosain, 1045 (1636). Mahommed b. Ahmad, 1047 (1638). Mustafa al-Bustanji, 1049 (1639). Maqsud, 1050 (1641). Suyan Bey, 1054 (1644). Ayyub, 1055 (1645). Mahommed b. Haidar, 1057 (1647). Ahmad, 1058 (1648). 'Abd al-Rahman, 1061 (1651). Mahommed al-Silahdar, 1062 (1652). Ghazi, 1066 (1655). Omar, 1067 (1652). Ahmad, 1077 (1666). Ibrahim, 1078 (1667). Hosain, 1085 (1674). Hasan al-Janbalat, 1087 (1676). Othman, 1091 (1680). Hasan al-Silahdar, 1099 (1688). Ahmad, 1101 (1690). 'Ali Qilij, 1102 (1691). Isma'il, 1107 (1696). Hosain, 1109 (1697). Qara Mahommed or Ahmad, 1111 (1699). Mahommed Rami, 1116 (1704). 'Ali Muslim, 1118 (1706). Hosain Ketkhuda, 1119 (1707). Ibrahim Qabudan, 1121 (1709). Khalil, 1122 (1710). Wali, 1123 (1711). 'Abidin, 1127 (1715). 'Ali Izmirli, 1129 (1717). Rajab, 1130 (1718). Mahommed al-Bashimi, 1132 (1720). 'Ali, 1138 (1728). Bakir, 1141 (1729). 'Abdallah Kuburlu, 1142 (1729). Mahommed Silahdar, 1144 (1732). Othman Halabi, 1146 (1733). Bakir, 1148 (1735). Mustafa, 1149 (1736). Sulaiman b. al-'Azim, 1152 (1739). 'Ali Hakim Oghlu, 1153 (1740). Yahya, 1154 (1741). Mahommed Yedkeshi, 1156 (1743). Mahommed Raghib, 1158 (1745). Ahmad Kuruzir, 1161 (1748). Sharif 'Abdallah, 1163 (1750). Mahommed Amin, 1166 (1753). Mustafa, 1166 (1753). 'Ali Hakim Oghlu, 1169 (1756). Mahommed Sa'id, 1171 (1758). Mustafa, 1173 (1759). Ahmad Kamil, 1174 (1761). Bakir, 1175 (1761). Hasan, 1176 (1761). Hamzah, 1179 (1765). Mahommed Raqim, 1181 (1767). Mahommed Urflu, 1182 (1768). Ahmad, 1183 (1770). Qara Khalil, 1184 (1770). Mustafa Nabulsi, 1188 (1774). Ibrahim 'Arabgirli, 1189 (1775). Mahommed 'Izzet, 1190 (1776). Isma'il, 1193 (1779). Mahommed Malik, 1195 (1781). Sharif 'Ali Qassab, 1196 (1782). Mahommed Silahdar, 1198 (1783). Mahommed Yeyen, 1200 (1785). 'Abidin Sharif, 1201 (1787). Isma'il Tunisi, 1203 (1788). Salih Qaisarli, 1209 (1794). Abu Bakr Tarabulsi, 1211 (1796).

_French Occupation._

Khosrev, 1216 (1802). Tahir, 1218 (1803). Ali Jaza'irli' or Tarabulsi, 1218 (1803). Khorshid, 1219 (1804).

_(g) Hereditary Pashas (later Khedives), from 1220 (from 1805)._

Mehemet 'Ali, 1220-1264 (1805-1848). Ibrahim, 1264 (1848). 'Abbas I., 1264-1270 (1848-1854). Sa'id, 1270-1280 (1854-1863). Isma'il 1280-1300 (1863-1882). Tewfik, 1300-1309 (1882-1892). Abbas II., 1309 (1892).

(3) _Period under Governors sent from the Metropolis of the eastern Caliphate._--The first governor of the newly acquired province was the conqueror 'Amr, whose jurisdiction was presently restricted to Lower Egypt; Upper Egypt, which was divided into three provinces, being assigned to Abdallah b. Sa'd, on whom the third caliph conferred the government of Lower Egypt also, 'Amr being recalled, owing to his unwillingness to extort from his subjects as much money as would satisfy the caliph. In the troubles which overtook the Islamic empire with the accession of Othman, Egypt was greatly involved, and it had to be reconquered from the adherents of Ali for Moawiya (Mo'awiyah) by 'Amr, who in A.H. 38 was rewarded for his services by being reinstated as governor, with the right to appropriate the surplus revenue instead of sending it as tribute to the metropolis. In the confusion which followed on the death of the Omayyad caliph Yazid the Egyptian Moslems declared themselves for Abdallah b. Zobair, but their leader was defeated in a battle near Ain Shams (December 684) by Merwan b. Hakam (Merwan I.), who had assumed the Caliphate, and the conqueror's son Abd al-'Aziz was appointed governor. They also declared themselves against the usurper Merwan II. in 745, whose lieutenant al-Hautharah had to enter Fostat at the head of an army. In 750 Merwan II. himself came to Egypt as a fugitive from the Abbasids, but found that the bulk of the Moslem population had already joined with his enemies, and was defeated and slain in the neighbourhood of Giza in July of the same year. The Abbasid general, Salih b. Ali, who had won the victory, was then appointed governor.

Coptic revolt.