Part 29

LAZARUS, EMMA (1849-1887), American Jewish poetess, was born in New York. When the Civil War broke out she was soon inspired to lyric expression. Her first book (1867) included poems and translations which she wrote between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. As yet her models were classic and romantic. At the age of twenty-one she published _Admetus and other Poems_ (1871). _Admetus_ is inscribed to Emerson, who greatly influenced her, and with whom she maintained a regular correspondence for several years. She led a retired life, and had a modest conception of her own powers. Much of her next work appeared in _Lippincott's Magazine_, but in 1874 she published a prose romance (_Alide_) based on Goethe's autobiography, and received a generous letter of admiration from Turgeniev. Two years later she visited Concord and made the acquaintance of the Emerson circle, and while there read the proof-sheets of her tragedy _The Spagnoletto_. In 1881 she published her excellent translations of Heine's poems. Meanwhile events were occurring which appealed to her Jewish sympathies and gave a new turn to her feeling. The Russian massacres of 1880-1881 were a trumpet-call to her. So far her Judaism had been latent. She belonged to the oldest Jewish congregation of New York, but she had not for some years taken a personal part in the observances of the synagogue. But from this time she took up the cause of her race, and "her verse rang out as it had never rung before, a clarion note, calling a people to heroic action and unity; to the consciousness and fulfilment of a grand destiny." Her poems, "The Crowing of the Red Cock" and "The Banner of the Jew" (1882) stirred the Jewish consciousness and helped to produce the new Zionism (q.v.). She now wrote another drama, the _Dance to Death_, the scene of which is laid in Nordhausen in the 14th century; it is based on the accusation brought against the Jews of poisoning the wells and thus causing the Black Death. The _Dance to Death_ was included (with some translations of medieval Hebrew poems) in _Songs of a Semite_ (1882), which she dedicated to George Eliot. In 1885 she visited Europe. She devoted much of the short remainder of her life to the cause of Jewish nationalism. In 1887 appeared _By the waters of Babylon_, which consists of a series of "prose poems," full of prophetic fire. She died in New York on the 19th of November 1887. A sonnet by Emma Lazarus is engraved on a memorial tablet on the colossal Bartholdi statue of Liberty, New York.

See article in the _Century Magazine_, New Series, xiv. 875 (portrait p. 803), afterwards prefixed as a _Memoir_ to the collected edition of _The poems of Emma Lazarus_ (2 vols., 1889). (I. A.)

LAZARUS, HENRY (1815-1895), British clarinettist, was born in London on the 1st of January 1815, and was a pupil of Blizard, bandmaster of the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, and subsequently of Charles Godfrey, senior, bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards. He made his first appearance as a soloist at a concert of Mme Dulcken's, in April 1838, and in that year he was appointed as second clarinet to the Sacred Harmonic Society. From Willman's death in 1840 Lazarus was principal clarinet at the opera, and all the chief festivals and orchestral concerts. His beautiful tone, excellent phrasing and accurate execution were greatly admired. He was professor of the clarinet at the Royal Academy of Music from 1854 until within a short time of his death, and was appointed to teach his instrument at the Military School of Music, Kneller Hall, in 1858. His last public appearance was at a concert for his benefit in St James's Hall, in June 1892, and he died on the 6th of March 1895.

LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824-1903), German philosopher, was born on the 15th of September 1824 at Filehne, Posen. The son of a rabbinical scholar, he was educated in Hebrew literature and history, and subsequently in law and philosophy at the university of Berlin. From 1860 to 1866 he was professor in the university of Berne, and subsequently returned to Berlin as professor of philosophy in the kriegsakademie (1868) and later in the university of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his seventieth birthday he was honoured with the title of _Geheimrath_. The fundamental principle of his philosophy was that truth must be sought not in metaphysical or a priori abstractions but in psychological investigation, and further that this investigation cannot confine itself successfully to the individual consciousness, but must be devoted primarily to society as a whole. The psychologist must study mankind from the historical or comparative standpoint, analysing the elements which constitute the fabric of society, with its customs, its conventions and the main tendencies of its evolution. This _Völkerpsychologie_ (folk- or comparative psychology) is one of the chief developments of the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a protest not only against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural philosophers, but also against the individualism of the positivists. In support of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal, the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft_ (1859). His own contributions to this periodical were numerous and important. His chief work was _Das Leben der Seele_ (Berlin, 1855-1857; 3rd edition, 1883). Other philosophical works were:--_Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten_ (1860 and 1867), _Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte_ (1865 and 1872); _Zur Lehre von den Sinnestäuschungen_ (1867); _Ideale Fragen_ (1875 and 1885), _Erziehung und Geschichte_ (1881); _Unser Standpunkt_ (1881); _Ueber die Reize des Spiels_ (1883). Apart from the great interest of his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the Jews of the so-called Semitic domination in Germany. Like Heine, Auerbach and Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower ideals of the German Jews, and took a leading place in German literature and thought. He protested against the violent anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the moderate tone of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified censure. He wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in 1887 under the title _Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorträge über Juden und Judenthum_. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the first and second Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg.

See R. Flint, _The Philosophy of History in Europe_; M. Brasch, _Gesammelte Essays und Characterköpfe zur neuen Philos. und Literatur_; E. Berliner, _Lazarus und die öffentliche Meinung_; M. Brasch, "Der Begründer de Völkerpsychologie," in _Nord et Sud_, (September 1894).

LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF, a religious and military order founded in Jerusalem about the middle of the 12th century. Its primary object was the tending of the sick, especially lepers, of whom Lazarus (see LAZAR) was regarded as the patron. From the 13th century, the order made its way into various countries of Europe--Sicily, Lower Italy and Germany (Thuringia); but its chief centre of activity was France, where Louis IX. (1253) gave the members the lands of Boigny near Orleans and a building at the gates of Paris, which they turned into a lazar-house for the use of the lepers of the city. A papal confirmation was obtained from Alexander IV. in 1255. The knights were one hundred in number, and possessed the right of marrying and receiving pensions charged on ecclesiastical benefices. An eight-pointed cross was the insignia of both the French and Italian orders. The gradual disappearance of leprosy combined with other causes to secularize the order more and more. In Savoy in 1572 it was merged by Gregory XIII. (at the instance of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy) in the order of St Maurice (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: _Orders of Knighthood, Italy_). The chief task of this branch was the defence of the Catholic faith, especially against the Protestantism of Geneva. It continued to exist till the second half of the 19th century. In 1608 it was in France united by Henry IV. with the order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. It was treated with especial favour by Louis XIV., and the most brilliant period of its existence was from 1673 to 1691, under the marquis de Louvois. From that time it began to decay. It was abolished at the Revolution, reintroduced during the Restoration, and formally abolished by a state decree of 1830.

See L. Mainbourg, _Hist. des croisades_ (1682; Eng. trans. by Nalson, 1686); P. Hélyot, _Hist. des ordres monastiques_ (1714), pp. 257, 386; J. G. Uhlhorn, _Die christliche Liebesthätigkeit im Mittelalter_ (Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and Welte's (Catholic) _Kirchenlexikon_, vii. (1891).

LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825-1909), American historian, was born at Philadelphia on the 19th of September 1825. His father was a publisher, whom in 1843 he joined in business, and he retained his connexion with the firm till 1880. Weak health, however, caused him from early days to devote himself to research, mainly on church history in the later middle ages, and his literary reputation rests on the important books he produced on this subject. These are: _Superstition and Force_ (Philadelphia, 1866, new ed. 1892); _Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy_ (Philadelphia, 1867); _History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages_ (New York, 1888); _Chapters from the religious history of Spain connected with the Inquisition_ (Philadelphia, 1890); _History of auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (3 vols., London, 1896); _The Moriscos of Spain_ (Philadelphia, 1901), and _History of the Inquisition of Spain_ (4 vols., New York and London, 1906-1907). He also edited a _Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the 13th century_ (Philadelphia, 1892), and in 1908 was published his _Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies_. As an authority on the Inquisition he stood in the highest rank of modern historians, and distinctions were conferred on him by the universities of Harvard, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Giessen and Moscow. He died at Philadelphia on the 24th of October 1909.

LEAD (pronounced _leed_), a city of Lawrence county, South Dakota, U.S.A., situated in the Black Hills, at an altitude of about 5300 ft., 3 m. S.W. of Deadwood. Pop. (1890) 2581, (1900) 6210, of whom 2145 were foreign-born, (1905) 8217, (1910) 8392. In 1905 it was second in population among the cities of the state. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. Lead has a hospital, the Hearst Free Library and the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and is the see of a Roman Catholic bishopric. It is the centre of the mining interests of the Black Hills, and the Homestake Gold Mine here contains perhaps the largest and most easily worked mass of low-grade ore and one of the largest mining plants (1000 stamps) in the world; it has also three cyanide mills. From 1878 to 1906 the value of the gold taken from this mine amounted to about $58,000,000, and the net value of the product of 1906 alone was approximately $5,313,516. For two months in the spring of 1907 the mine was rendered idle by a fire (March 25), which was so severe that it was necessary to flood the entire mine. Mining tools and gold jewelry are manufactured. The first settlement was made here by mining prospectors in July 1876. Lead was chartered as a city in 1890 and became a city of the first class in 1904.

LEAD, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Pb (from the Lat. _plumbum_), and atomic weight 207.10 (O = 16). This metal was known to the ancients, and is mentioned in the Old Testament. The Romans used it largely, as it is still used, for the making of water pipes, and soldered these with an alloy of lead and tin. Pliny treats of these two metals as _plumbum nigrum_ and _plumbum album_ respectively, which seems to show that at his time they were looked upon as being only two varieties of the same species. In regard to the ancients' knowledge of lead compounds, we may state that the substance described by Dioscorides as [Greek: molybdaina] was undoubtedly litharge, that Pliny uses the word minium in its present sense of red lead, and that white lead was well known to Geber in the 8th century. The alchemists designated it by the sign of Saturn [symbol].

_Occurrence._--Metallic lead occurs in nature but very rarely and then only in minute amount. The chief lead ores are galena and cerussite; of minor importance are anglesite, pyromorphite and mimetesite (qq.v.). Galena (q.v.), the principal lead ore, has a world-wide distribution, and is always contaminated with silver sulphide, the proportion of noble metal varying from about 0.01 or less to 0.3%, and in rare cases coming up to ½ or 1%. Fine-grained galena is usually richer in silver than the coarse-grained. Galena occurs in veins in the Cambrian clay-slate, accompanied by copper and iron pyrites, zinc-blende, quartz, calc-spar, iron-spar, &c.; also in beds or nests within sandstones and rudimentary limestones, and in a great many other geological formations. It is pretty widely diffused throughout the earth's crust. The principal English lead mines are in Derbyshire; but there are also mines at Allandale and other parts of western Northumberland, at Alston Moor and other parts of Cumberland, in the western parts of Durham, in Swaledale and Arkendale and other parts of Yorkshire, in Salop, in Cornwall, in the Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, and in the Isle of Man. The Welsh mines are chiefly in Flint, Cardigan and Montgomery shires; the Scottish in Dumfries, Lanark and Argyll; and the Irish in Wicklow, Waterford and Down. Of continental mines we may mention those in Saxony and in the Harz, Germany; those of Carinthia, Austria; and especially those of the southern provinces of Spain. It is widely distributed in the United States, and occurs in Mexico and Brazil; it is found in Tunisia and Algeria, in the Altai Mountains and India, and in New South Wales, Queensland, and in Tasmania.

The native carbonate or cerussite (q.v.) occasionally occurs in the pure form, but more frequently in a state of intimate intermixture with clay ("lead earth," _Bleierde_), limestone, iron oxides, &c. (as in the ores of Nevada and Colorado), and some times also with coal ("black lead ore"). All native carbonate of lead seems to be derived from what was originally galena, which is always present in it as an admixture. This ore, metallurgically, was not reckoned of much value, until immense quantities of it were discovered in Nevada and in Colorado (U.S.). The Nevada mines are mostly grouped around the city of Eureka, where the ore occurs in "pockets" disseminated at random through limestone. The crude ore contains about 30% lead and 0.2 to 0.3% silver. The Colorado lead district is in the Rocky Mountains, a few miles from the source of the Arkansas river. It forms gigantic deposits of almost constant thickness, embedded between a floor of limestone and a roof of porphyry. Stephens's discovery of the ore in 1877 was the making of the city of Leadville, which, in 1878, within a year of its foundation, had over 10,000 inhabitants. The Leadville ore contains from 24 to 42% lead and 0.1 to 2% silver. In Nevada and Colorado the ore is worked chiefly for the sake of the silver. Deposits are also worked at Broken Hill, New South Wales.

Anglesite, or lead sulphate, PbSO4, is poor in silver, and is only exceptionally mined by itself; it occurs in quantity in France, Spain, Sardinia and Australia. Of other lead minerals we may mention the basic sulphate lanarkite, PbO·PbSO4; leadhillite, PbSO4·3PbCO3; the basic chlorides matlockite, PbO·PbCl2, and mendipite, PbCl2·2PbO; the chloro-phosphate pyromorphite, PbCl2·3Pb3(PO4)2, the chloro-arsenate mimetesite, PbCl2·3Pb3(AsO4)2; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO4; the chromate crocoite or crocoisite, PbCrO4; the tungstate stolzite, PbWO4.

_Production._--At the beginning of the 19th century the bulk of the world's supply of lead was obtained from England and Spain, the former contributing about 17,000 tons and the latter 10,000 tons annually. Germany, Austria, Hungary, France, Russia and the United States began to rank as producers during the second and third decades; Belgium entered in about 1840; Italy in the 'sixties; Mexico, Canada, Japan and Greece in the 'eighties; while Australia assumed importance in 1888 with a production of about 18,000 tons, although it had contributed small and varying amounts for many preceding decades. In 1850 England headed the list of producers with about 66,000 tons; this amount had declined in 1872 to 61,000 tons. Since this date, it has, on the whole, diminished, although large outputs occurred in isolated years, for instance, a production of 40,000 tons in 1893 was followed by 60,000 tons in 1896 and 40,000 in 1897. The output in 1900 was 35,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons. Spain ranked second in 1850 with about 47,000 tons; this was increased in 1863, 1876 and in 1888 to 84,000, 127,000 and 187,000 tons respectively; but the maximum outputs mentioned were preceded and succeeded by periods of depression. In 1900 the production was 176,000 tons, and in 1905, 179,000 tons. The United States, which ranked third with a production of 20,000 tons in 1850, maintained this annual yield, until 1870, when it began to increase; the United States now ranks as the chief producer; in 1900 the output was 253,000 tons, and in 1905, 319,744 tons. Germany has likewise made headway; an output of 12,000 tons in 1850 being increased to 120,000 tons in 1900 and to 152,590 in 1905. This country now ranks third, having passed England in 1873. Mexico increased its production from 18,000 tons in 1883 to 83,000 tons in 1900 and about 88,000 tons in 1905. The Australian production of 18,000 tons in 1888 was increased to 58,000 tons in 1891, a value maintained until 1893, when a depression set in, only 21,000 tons being produced in 1897; prosperity then returned, and in 1898 the yield was 68,000 tons, and in 1905, 120,000 tons. Canada became important in 1895 with a production of 10,000 tons; this increased to 28,654 tons in 1900; and in 1905 the yield was 25,391 tons. Italy has been a fairly steady producer; the output in 1896 was 20,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons.

_Metallurgy._

The extraction of the metal from pure (or nearly pure) galena is the simplest of all metallurgical operations. The ore is roasted (i.e. heated in the presence of atmospheric oxygen) until all the sulphur is burned away and the lead left. This simple statement, however, correctly formulates only the final result. The first effect of the roasting is the elimination of sulphur as sulphur-dioxide, with formation of oxide and sulphate of lead. In practice this oxidation process is continued until the whole of the oxygen is as nearly as possible equal in weight to the sulphur present as sulphide or as sulphate, i.e. in the ratio S : O2. The heat is then raised in (relative) absence of air, when the two elements named unite into sulphur-dioxide, while a regulus of molten lead remains. Lead ores are smelted in the reverberatory furnace, the ore-hearth, and the blast-furnace. The use of the first two is restricted, as they are suited only for galena ores or mixtures of galena and carbonate, which contain not less than 58% lead and not more than 4% silica; further, ores to be treated in the ore-hearth should run low in or be free from silver, as the loss in the fumes is excessive. In the blast-furnace all lead ores are successfully smelted. Blast-furnace treatment has therefore become more general than any other.

Three types of reverberatory practice are in vogue--the English, Carinthian and Silesian. In Wales and the south of England the process is conducted in a reverberatory furnace, the sole of which is paved with slags from previous operations, and has a depression in the middle where the metal formed collects to be let off by a tap-hole. The dressed ore is introduced through a "hopper" at the top, and exposed to a moderate oxidizing flame until a certain proportion of ore is oxidized, openings at the side enabling the workmen to stir up the ore so as to constantly renew the surface exposed to the air. At this stage as a rule some rich slags of a former operation are added and a quantity of quicklime is incorporated, the chief object of which is to diminish the fluidity of the mass in the next stage, which consists in this, that, with closed air-holes, the heat is raised so as to cause the oxide and sulphate on the one hand and the sulphide on the other to reduce each other to metal. The lead produced runs into the hollow and is tapped off. The roasting process is then resumed, to be followed by another reduction, and so on.

A similar process is used in Carinthia; only the furnaces are smaller and of a somewhat different form. They are long and narrow; the sole is plane, but slopes from the fire-bridge towards the flue, so that the metal runs to the latter end to collect in pots placed _outside_ the furnace. In Carinthia the oxidizing process from the first is pushed on so far that metallic lead begins to show, and the oxygen introduced predominates over the sulphur left. The mass is then stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as _Rührblei_. Charcoal is now added, and the heat urged on to obtain _Pressblei_, an inferior metal formed partly by the action of the charcoal on the oxide of lead. The fuel used is fir-wood.

The Silesian furnace has an oblong hearth sloping from the fire-bridge to the flue-bridge. This causes the lead to collect at the coolest part of the hearth, whence it is tapped, &c., as in the English furnace. While by the English and Carinthian processes as much lead as possible is extracted in the furnace, with the Silesian method a very low temperature is used, thus taking out about one-half of the lead and leaving very rich slags (50% lead) to be smelted in the blast-furnace, the ultimate result being a very much higher yield than by either of the other processes. The loss in lead by the combined reverberatory and blast-furnace treatment is only 3.2%.

In Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham and latterly the United States, the reverberatory furnace is used only for roasting the ore, and the oxidized ore is then reduced by fusion in a low, square blast-furnace (a "Scottish hearth furnace") lined with cast iron, as is also the inclined sole-plate which is made to project beyond the furnace, the outside portion (the "work-stone") being provided with grooves guiding any molten metal that may be placed on the "stone" into a cast iron pot; the "tuyère" for the introduction of the wind was, in the earlier types, about half way down the furnace.

As a preliminary to the melting process, the "browse" left in the preceding operation (half-fused and imperfectly reduced ore) is introduced with some peat and coal, and heated with the help of the blast. It is then raked out on the work-stone and divided into a very poor "grey" slag which is put aside, and a richer portion, which goes back into the furnace. Some of the roasted ore is strewed upon it, and, after a quarter of an hour's working, the whole is taken out on the work-stone, where the lead produced runs off. The "browse," after removal of the "grey" slag, is reintroduced, ore added, and, after a quarter of an hour's heating, the mass again placed on the work-stone, &c.