Part 47

LECTOR, or READER, a minor office-bearer in the Christian Church. From an early period men have been set apart, under the title of _anagnostae_, _lectores_, or readers, for the purpose of reading Holy Scripture in church. We do not know what the custom of the Church was in the first two centuries, the earliest reference to readers, as an order, occurring in the writings of Tertullian (_De praescript. haeret._ cap. 41); there are frequent allusions to them in the writings of St Cyprian and afterwards. Cornelius, bishop of Rome in A.D. 251-252, in a well-known letter mentions readers among the various church orders then existing at Rome. In the _Apostolic Church Order_ (canon 19), mention is made of the qualifications and duties of a reader, but no reference is made to their method of ordination. In the _Apostolic Didascalia_ there is recognition of three minor orders of men, subdeacons, readers and singers, in addition to two orders of women, deaconesses and widows. A century later, in the _Apostolic Constitutions_, we find not only a recognition of readers, but also a form of admission provided for them, consisting of the imposition of hands and prayer (lib. viii. cap. 22). In Africa the imposition of hands was not in use, but a Bible was handed to the newly appointed reader with words of commission to read it, followed by a prayer and a benediction (Fourth Council of Carthage, can. 8). This is the ritual of the Roman Church of to-day. With regard to age, the novels of Justinian (No. 123) forbade any one to be admitted to the office of reader under the age of eighteen. (F. E. W.)

LECTOURE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gers, 21 m. N. of Auch on the Southern railway between that city and Agen. Pop. (1906), town, 2426; commune, 4310. It stands on the right bank of the Gers, overlooking the river from the summit of a steep plateau. The church of St Gervais and St Protais was once a cathedral. The massive tower which flanks it on the north belongs to the 15th century; the rest of the church dates from the 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The hôtel de ville, the sous-préfecture and the museum occupy the palace of the former bishops, which was once the property of Marshal Jean Lannes, a native of the town. A recess in the wall of an old house contains the Fontaine de Houndélie, a spring sheltered by a double archway of the 13th century. At the bottom of the hill a church of the 16th century marks the site of the monastery of St Gény. Lectoure has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Its industries include distilling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and biscuits, and market gardening; it has trade in grain, cattle, wine and brandy.

Lectoure, capital of the Iberian tribe of the _Lactorates_ and for a short time of Novempopulania, became the seat of a bishopric in the 4th century. In the 11th century the counts of Lomagne made it their capital, and on the union of Lomagne with Armagnac, in 1325, it became the capital of the counts of Armagnac. In 1473 Cardinal Jean de Jouffroy besieged the town on behalf of Louis XI. and after its fall put the whole population to the sword. In 1562 it again suffered severely at the hands of the Catholics under Blaise de Montluc.

LEDA, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, and Eurythemis (her parentage is variously given). She was the wife of Tyndareus and mother of Castor and Pollux, Clytaemnestra and Helen (see CASTOR AND POLLUX). In another account Nemesis was the mother of Helen (q.v.) whom Leda adopted as her daughter. This led to the identification of Leda and Nemesis. In the usual later form of the story, Leda herself, having been visited by Zeus in the form of a swan, produced two eggs, from one of which came Helen, from the other Castor and Pollux.

See Apollodorus iii. 10; Hyginus, _Fab._ 77; Homer, _Iliad_, iii. 426, _Od._ xi. 298; Euripides, _Helena_, 17; Isocrates, _Helena_, 59; Ovid, _Heroides_, xvii. 55; Horace, _Ars poetica_, 147; Stasinus in Athenaeus viii. 334 c.; for the representations of Leda and the swan in art, J. A. Overbeck, _Kunstmythologie_, i., and Atlas to the same; also article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_.

LE DAIM (or LE DAIN), OLIVIER (d. 1484), favourite of Louis XI. of France, was born of humble parentage at Thielt near Courtrai in Flanders. Seeking his fortune at Paris, he became court barber and valet to Louis XI., and so ingratiated himself with the king that in 1474 he was ennobled under the title Le Daim and in 1477 made comte de Meulant. In the latter year he was sent to Burgundy to influence the young heiress of Charles the Bold, but he was ridiculed and compelled to leave Ghent. He thereupon seized and held Tournai for the French. Le Daim had considerable talent for intrigue, and, according to his enemies, could always be depended upon to execute the baser designs of the king. He amassed a large fortune, largely by oppression and violence, and was named gentleman-in-waiting, captain of Loches, and governor of Saint-Quentin. He remained in favour until the death of Louis XI., when the rebellious lords were able to avenge the slights and insults they had suffered at the hands of the royal barber. He was arrested on charges, the nature of which is uncertain, tried before the parlement of Paris, and on the 21st of May 1484 hanged at Montfaucon without the knowledge of Charles VIII., who might have heeded his father's request and spared the favourite. Le Daim's property was given to the duke of Orleans.

See the memoirs of the time, especially those of Ph. de Commines (ed. Mandrot, 1901-1903, Eng. trans. in Bohn Library); Robt. Gaguin, _Compendium de origine et gestis Francorum_ (Paris, 1586)--it was Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le Daim: "Eras judex, lector, et exitium"; De Reiffenberg, _Olivier le Dain_ (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, _Le Barbier de Louis XI._ (Paris, 1832): G. Picot, "Procès d'Olivier le Dain," in the _Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences morales et politiques_, viii. (1877), 485-537. The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim.

LEDBURY, a market town in the Ross parliamentary division of Herefordshire, England, 14½ m. E. of Hereford by the Great Western railway, pleasantly situated on the south-western slope of the Malvern Hills. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3259. Cider and agricultural produce are the chief articles of trade, and there are limestone quarries in the neighbouring hills. The town contains many picturesque examples of timbered houses, characteristic of the district, the principal being the Market House (1633) elevated on massive pillars of oak. The fine church of St Michael exhibits all the Gothic styles, the most noteworthy features being the Norman chancel and west door, and the remarkable series of ornate Decorated windows on the north side. Among several charities is the hospital of St Catherine, founded by Foliot, bishop of Hereford, in 1232. Hope End, 2 m. N.E. of Ledbury, was the residence of Elizabeth Barrett Browning during her early life. A clock-tower in the town commemorates her.

Wall Hills Camp, supposed to be of British origin, is the earliest evidence of a settlement near Ledbury (Liedeburge, Lidebury). The manor was given to the see of Hereford in the 11th century; but in 1561-1562 became crown property. As early as 1170-1171 an episcopal castle existed in Ledbury. The town was not incorporated, but was early called a borough; and in 1295 and 1304-1305 returned two members to parliament. A fair on the day of the decollation of John the Baptist was granted to the bishop in 1249. Of fairs which survived in 1792 those of the days of St Philip and St James and St Barnabas were granted in 1584-1585; those held on the Monday before Easter and St Thomas's day were reputed ancient, but not those of the 12th of May, the 22nd of June, the 2nd of October and the 21st of December. Existing fairs are on the second Tuesday in every month and in October. A weekly market, granted to the bishop by Stephen, John and Henry III., was obsolete in 1584-1585, when the present market of Tuesday was authorized. The wool trade was considerable in the 14th century; later Ledbury was inhabited by glovers and clothiers. The town was deeply involved in the operations of the Civil Wars, being occupied both by the royalist leader Prince Rupert and by the Parliamentarian Colonel Birch.

LEDGER (from the English dialect forms _liggen_ or _leggen_, to lie or lay; in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive _legger_), properly a book remaining regularly in one place, and so used of the copies of the Scriptures and service books kept in a church. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes from Charles Wriothesley's _Chronicle_, 1538 (ed. _Camden Soc._, 1875, by W. D. Hamilton), "the curates should provide a booke of the bible in Englishe, of the largest volume, to be a lidger in the same church for the parishioners to read on." It is an application of this original meaning that is found in the commercial usage of the term for the principal book of account in a business house (see BOOK-KEEPING). Apart from these applications to various forms of books, the word is used of the horizontal timbers in a scaffold (q.v.) lying parallel to the face of a building, which support the "put logs"; of a flat stone to cover a grave; and of a stationary form of tackle and bait in angling. In the form "lieger" the term was formerly frequently applied to a "resident," as distinguished from an "extraordinary" ambassador.

LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN, COUNT (1822-1902), Polish cardinal, was born on the 29th of October 1822 in Gorki (Russian Poland), and received his early education at the gymnasium and seminary of Warsaw. After finishing his studies at the Jesuit Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici in Rome, which strongly influenced his religious development and his attitude towards church affairs, he was ordained in 1845. From 1856 to 1858 he represented the Roman See in Columbia, but on the outbreak of the Columbian revolution had to return to Rome. In 1861 Pope Pius IX. made him his nuncio at Brussels, and in 1865 he was made archbishop of Gnesen-Posen. His preconization followed on the 8th of January 1866. This date marks the beginning of the second period in Ledochowski's life; for during the Prussian and German _Kulturkampf_ he was one of the most declared enemies of the state. It was only during the earliest years of his appointment as archbishop that he entertained a different view, invoking, for instance, an intervention of Prussia in favour of the Roman Church, when it was oppressed by the house of Savoy. On the 12th of December 1870 he presented an effective memorandum on the subject at the headquarters at Versailles. In 1872 the archbishop protested against the demand of the government that religious teaching should be given only in the German language, and in 1873 he addressed a circular letter on this subject to the clergy of his diocese. The government thereupon demanded a statement from the teachers of religion as to whether they intended to obey it or the archbishop, and on their declaring for the archbishop, dismissed them. The count himself was called upon at the end of 1873 to lay aside his office. On his refusing to do so, he was arrested between 3 and 4 o'clock in the morning on the 3rd of February 1874 by Standi the director of police, and taken to the military prison of Ostrowo. The pope made him a cardinal on the 13th of March, but it was not till the 3rd of February 1876 that he was released from prison. Having been expelled from the eastern provinces of Prussia, he betook himself to Cracow, where his presence was made the pretext for anti-Prussian demonstrations. Upon this he was also expelled from Austria, and went to Rome, whence, in spite of his removal from office, which was decreed on the 15th of April 1874, he continued to direct the affairs of his diocese, for which he was on several occasions from 1877 to 1879 condemned _in absentia_ by the Prussian government for "usurpation of episcopal rights." It was not till 1885 that Ledochowski resolved to resign his archbishopric, in which he was succeeded by Dinder at the end of the year. Ledochowski's return in 1884 was forbidden by the Prussian government (although the _Kulturkampf_ had now abated), on account of his having stirred up anew the Polish nationalist agitation. He passed the closing years of his life in Rome. In 1892 he became prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda, and he died in Rome on the 22nd of July 1902.

See Ograbiszewski, _Deutschlands Episkopat in Lebensbildern_ (1876 and following years); Holtzmann-Zöppfel, _Lexikon für Theologie und Kirchenwesen_ (2nd ed., 1888); Vapereau, _Dictionnaire universel des contemporains_ (6th ed., 1893); Brück, _Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Deutschland im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ vol. 4 (1901 and 1908); Lauchert, _Biographisches Jahrbuch_, vol. 7 (1905). (J. Hn.)

LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE (1807-1874), French politician, was the grandson of Nicolas Philippe Ledru, the celebrated quack doctor known as "Comus" under Louis XIV., and was born in a house that was once Scarron's, at Fontenay-aux-Roses (Seine), on the 2nd of February 1807. He had just begun to practise at the Parisian bar before the revolution of July, and was retained for the Republican defence in most of the great political trials of the next ten years. In 1838 he bought for 330,000 francs Desiré Dalloz's place in the Court of Cassation. He was elected deputy for Le Mans in 1841 with hardly a dissentient voice; but for the violence of his electoral speeches he was tried at Angers and sentenced to four months' imprisonment and a fine, against which he appealed successfully on a technical point. He made a rich and romantic marriage in 1843, and in 1846 disposed of his charge at the Court of Cassation to give his time entirely to politics. He was now the recognized leader of the working-men of France. He had more authority in the country than in the Chamber, where the violence of his oratory diminished its effect. He asserted that the fortifications of Paris were directed against liberty, not against foreign invasion, and he stigmatized the law of regency (1842) as an audacious usurpation. Neither from official Liberalism nor from the press did he receive support; even the Republican _National_ was opposed to him because of his championship of labour. He therefore founded _La Réforme_ in which to advance his propaganda. Between Ledru-Rollin and Odilon Barrot with the other chiefs of the "dynastic Left" there were acute differences, hardly dissimulated even during the temporary alliance which produced the campaign of the banquets. It was the speeches of Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc at working-men's banquets in Lille, Dijon and Châlons that really heralded the revolution. Ledru-Rollin prevented the appointment of the duchess of Orleans as regent in 1848. He and Lamartine held the tribune in the Chamber of Deputies until the Parisian populace stopped serious discussion by invading the Chamber. He was minister of the interior in the provisional government, and was also a member of the executive committee[1] appointed by the Constituent Assembly, from which Louis Blanc and the extremists were excluded. At the crisis of the 15th of May he definitely sided with Lamartine and the party of order against the proletariat. Henceforward his position was a difficult one. He never regained his influence with the working classes, who considered they had been betrayed; but to his short ministry belongs the credit of the establishment of a working system of universal suffrage. At the presidential election in December he was put forward as the Socialist candidate, but secured only 370,000 votes. His opposition to the policy of President Louis Napoleon, especially his Roman policy, led to his moving the impeachment of the president and his ministers. The motion was defeated, and next day (June 13, 1849) he headed what he called a peaceful demonstration, and his enemies armed insurrection. He himself escaped to London where he joined the executive of the revolutionary committee of Europe, with Kossuth and Mazzini among his colleagues. He was accused of complicity in an obscure attempt (1857) against the life of Napoleon III., and condemned in his absence to deportation. Émile Ollivier removed the exceptions from the general amnesty in 1870, and Ledru-Rollin returned to France after twenty years of exile. Though elected in 1871 in three departments he refused to sit in the National Assembly, and took no serious part in politics until 1874 when he was returned to the Assembly as member for Vaucluse. He died on the 31st of December of that year.

Under Louis Philippe he made large contributions to French jurisprudence, editing the _Journal du palais, 1791-1837_ (27 vols., 1837), and _1837-1847_ (17 vols.), with a commentary _Répertoire général de la jurisprudence française_ (8 vols., 1843-1848), the introduction to which was written by himself. His later writings were political in character. See _Ledru-Rollin, ses discours et ses écrits politiques_ (2 vols., Paris, 1879), edited by his widow.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Arago, Garnier-Pagès, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin.

LEDYARD, JOHN (1751-1789), American traveller, was born in Groton, Connecticut, U.S.A. After vainly trying law and theology, Ledyard adopted a seaman's life, and, coming to London, was engaged as corporal of marines by Captain Cook for his third voyage (1776). On his return (1778) Ledyard had to give up to the Admiralty his copious journals, but afterwards published, from memory, a meagre narrative of his experiences--herein giving the only account of Cook's death by an eye-witness (Hartford, U.S.A., 1783). He continued in the British service till 1782, when he escaped, off Long Island. In 1784 he revisited Europe, to organize an expedition to the American North-West. Having failed in his attempts, he decided to reach his goal by travelling across Europe and Asia. Baffled in his hopes of crossing the Baltic on the ice (Stockholm to Abo), he walked right round from Stockholm to St Petersburg, where he arrived barefoot and penniless (March 1787). Here he made friends with Pallas and others, and accompanied Dr Brown, a Scotch physician in the Russian service, to Siberia. Ledyard left Dr Brown at Barnaul, went on to Tomsk and Irkutsk, visited Lake Baikal, and descended the Lena to Yakutsk (18th of September 1787). With Captain Joseph Billings, whom he had known on Cook's "Resolution," he returned to Irkutsk, where he was arrested, deported to the Polish frontier, and banished from Russia for ever. Reaching London, he was engaged by Sir Joseph Banks and the African Association to explore overland routes from Alexandria to the Niger, but in Cairo he succumbed to a dose of vitriol (17th of January 1789). Though a born explorer, little resulted from his immense but ill-directed activities.

See _Memoirs of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard_, by Jared Sparks (1828).

LEE, ANN (1736-1784), English religious visionary, was born in Manchester, where she was first a factory hand and afterwards a cook. She is remembered by her connexion with the sect known as Shakers (q.v.). She died at Watervliet, near Albany, New York.

LEE, ARTHUR (1740-1792), American diplomatist, brother of Richard Henry Lee, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 20th of December 1740. He was educated at Eton, studied medicine at Edinburgh, practised as a physician in Williamsburg, Virginia, read law at the Temple, London, in 1766-1770, and practised law in London in 1770-1776. He was an intimate of John Wilkes, whom he aided in one of his London campaigns. In 1770-1775 he served as London agent for Massachusetts, second to Benjamin Franklin, whom he succeeded in 1775. At that time he had shown great ability as a pamphleteer, having published in London _The Monitor_ (1768), seven essays previously printed in Virginia; _The Political Detection: or the Treachery and Tyranny of Administration, both at Home and Abroad_ (1770), signed "Junius Americanus"; and _An Appeal to the Justice and Interests of the People of Great Britain in the Present Disputes with America_ (1774), signed "An Old Member of Parliament." In December 1775 the Committee of Secret Correspondence of Congress chose him its European agent principally for the purpose of ascertaining the views of France, Spain, and other European countries regarding the war between the colonies and Great Britain. In October 1776 he was appointed, upon the refusal of Jefferson, on the commission with Franklin and Silas Deane to negotiate a treaty of alliance, amity and commerce with France, and also to negotiate with other European governments. His letters to Congress, in which he expressed his suspicion of Deane's business integrity and criticized his accounts, resulted in Deane's recall; and other letters impaired the confidence of Congress in Franklin, of whom he was especially jealous. Early in 1777 he went to Spain as American commissioner, but received no official recognition, was not permitted to proceed farther than Burgos, and accomplished nothing; until the appointment of Jay, however, he continued to act as commissioner to Spain, held various conferences with the Spanish minister in Paris, and in January 1778 secured a promise of a loan of 3,000,000 livres, only a small part of which (some 170,000 livres) was paid. In June 1777 he went to Berlin, where, as in Spain, he was not officially recognized. Although he had little to do with the negotiations, he signed with Franklin and Deane in February 1778 the treaties between the United States and France. Having become unpopular at the courts of France and Spain, Lee was recalled in 1779, and returned to the United States in September 1780. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1781 and a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782-1785. With Oliver Wolcott and Richard Butler he negotiated a treaty with the Six Nations, signed at Fort Stanwix on the 22nd of October 1784, and with George Clark and Richard Butler a treaty with the Wyandot, Delaware, Chippewa and Ottawa Indians, signed at Ft. McIntosh on the 21st of January 1785. He was a member of the treasury board in 1784-1789. He strongly opposed the constitution, and after its adoption retired to his estate at Urbana, Virginia, where he died on the 12th of December 1792.

See R. H. Lee, _Life of Arthur Lee_ (2 vols., Boston, 1829), and C. H. Lee, _A Vindication of Arthur Lee_ (Richmond, Virginia, 1894), both

## partisan. Much of Lee's correspondence is to be found in Wharton's

_Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence_ (Washington, 1889). Eight volumes of Lee's MSS. in the Harvard University Library are described and listed in _Library of Harvard University, Bibliographical Contributions_, No. 8 (Cambridge, 1882).