C.
Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44
HORACE, _Odes_, I. xii. 41-44.
[Linenotes: 41. +Hunc+ = Fabricius. 43. +paupertas+ = _frugality_, not _poverty_ (= _egestas_). 43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with its cottage home to match_ (+apto+). --W. 'Hurrah! for Manius Curius The bravest son of Rome, Thrice in utmost need sent forth, Thrice drawn in triumph home.' --Macaulay.]
D47
THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (7)
_In Praise of Tarentum._
Unde si Parcae prohibent iniquae, Dulce pellîtis ovibus Galaesi Flumen et regnata petam Laconi Rura Phalantho. 12 Ille terrarum mihi praeter omnes Angulus ridêt, ubi non Hymetto Mella decedunt viridique certat Baca Venafro, 16 Ver ubi longum tepidasque praebet Iuppiter brumas et amicus Aulon Fertili Baccho minimum Falernis Invidet uvis. 20 Ille te mecum locus et beatae Postulant arces, ibi tu calentem Debita sparges lacrima favillam Vatis amici. 24
HORACE, _Odes_, II. vi. 9-end.
+Subject.+ 'Septimius, my dear friend who would accompany me to the ends of the earth, let me spend the close of my life at Tibur (Tivoli), or if not there, then at Tarentum. Let us go there together, and live there till I die.' --Wickham.
[Linenotes: 9. +unde+ = _from this place_, i.e. from Tibur. 10. +dulce pellitis ovibus+ = _dear to the skin-clad_ (+pellitis+) _sheep_, so clad to keep their fleeces clean. --Gow. 10-11. +Galaesi flumen+, flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, near the city. 12. +Phalantho+, an exile from Sparta, founded Tarentum, 708 B.C. 13, 21, 22. +Ille+ (13) ... +ille+ (21) ... +ibi+ (22) = _Tarentum_, emphatic guiding words. Cf. +te mecum+ (21) ... +tu amici+ (22, 24) = _Septimius and Horace_. 14-15. +ubi non ... decedunt+ = _where the honey does not give way to (is not inferior to) that of Hymettus_. 15-16. +viridi Venafro+ = _with the green (olive-groves of) Venafrum_ (N. of Campania). 16. +Baca+ = _the olive_, the noblest of berries. --Gow. 18. +Aulon+ = (_the grapes of_) _Aulon_, a hill and valley near Tarentum. 19. +Fertili+ = _who makes the vines fertile_. 22-24. +ibi tu ... vatis amici.+ 'There when life shall end, Your tear shall dew my yet warm pyre, Your bard and friend.' --Conington.]
+Reference.+ Polybius, x. 1. In 272 B.C. Milo with his garrison of Epirots marched out of Tarentum with all the honours of war.
+Rome now ruled supreme over the whole of Italy from Ariminum in the North to the Sicilian Straits.+
D48
THE PRAISE OF ITALY.
'_Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum._'
Adde tot egregias urbes operumque laborem, 155 Tot congesta manu praeruptis oppida saxis, Fluminaque antiquos subterlabentia muros. An mare, quod supra, memorem, quodque alluit infra? Anne lacus tantos? Te, Lari maxime, teque, Fluctibus et fremitu adsurgens Benace marino? 160 . . . . . . . Haec eadem argenti rivos aerisque metalla 165 Ostendit venis atque auro plurima fluxit. Haec genus acre virum, Marsos pubemque Sabellam, Adsuetumque malo Ligurem, Volscosque verutos Extulit: haec Decios, Marios, magnosque Camillos, Scipiadas duros bello, et te, maxime Caesar, 170 Qui nunc extremis Asiae iam victor in oris Imbellem avertis Romanis arcibus Indum. Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum: tibi res antiquae laudis et artis Ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere fontes, 175 Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.
VERGIL, _Georg._ ii. 155-176.
[Linenotes: 158. +mare quod supra alluit+ = the _mare superum_ = the Adriatic. +mare quod infra alluit+ = the _mare inferum_ = the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian (#Turrhênos# = Tuscan) sea. 159. +Lari+ = Lake Larius (= _Como_), N. of Milan. 160. +Benace+ = Lake Benacus (= _Garda_), W. of Verona. +fremitu marino+ = _with roar as of the sea_. 168. +adsuetum malo+ = _trained in hardship_. --Mackail. +Volscosque verutos+ = _and the Volscian spearmen (light infantry)_. +verutos+ = armed with the _verutum_ (or _veru_ = lit. a _spit_), a _javelin_. 170. +Scipiadas+, Greek patronymic form = Lat. _Scîp[)i]ônês_. +maxime Caesar+ = Augustus. 172-173. After Actium, 31 B.C., Augustus spent more than a year in reducing and settling the East (+imbellem Indum+) whose forces had been wielded by Antony. --Sidgwick. 173. +Saturnia tellus+, in allusion to Saturn's reign in Latium in the age of gold. 174-175. +tibi res ... fontes+ = _for thee I enter on themes of ancient glory and skill_ (i.e. in agriculture) _and dare to unseal_ (+recludere+) _the sacred springs_; +res laudis+, the theme of the _Aeneid_, +res artis+, of the _Georgics_. 176. +Ascraeum carmen+ = _the song of Ascra_, i.e. the _Georgics_, because Hesiod (author of _Works and Days_ to which Vergil is much indebted) was born at Ascra, near Helicon, in Boeotia. --S.]
CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C.
C1
_The Vision of Anchises.--Rome's Heroes._
'Ille triumphata Capitolia ad alta Corintho Victor aget currum, caesis insignis Achivis. Eruet ille Argos Agamemnoniasque Mycenas, Ipsumque Aeaciden, genus armipotentis Achilli, Ultus avos Troiae, templa et temerata Minervae. 840 Quis te, magne Cato, tacitum, aut te, Cosse, relinquat? Quis Gracchi genus, aut geminos, duo fulmina belli, Scipiadas, cladem Libyae, parvoque potentem Fabricium, vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem? Quo fessum rapitis, Fabii? Tu Maximus ille es, 845 Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem.' . . . . . . . 'Aspice, ut insignis spoliis Marcellus opimis 855 Ingreditur, victorque viros supereminet omnes! Hic rem Romanam, magno turbante tumultu, Sistet, eques sternet Poenos Gallumque rebellem, Tertiaque arma patri suspendet capta Quirino.'
VERGIL, _Aen._ vi. 836-846, 855-859.
[Linenotes: 836. +Ille+ = L. Mummius Achaicus, destroyed Corinth, 146 B.C. 838. +Ille+ = L. Aemilius Paullus, crushed Perseus (= +Aeaciden+ l. 839) at Pydna, 168 B.C. 841. +Cosse+ = Cornelius Cossus, won Spolia Opima a second time, 428 B.C. 842. +Gracchi genus+, e.g. (i.) Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, twice Consul 215, 212 B.C., in 2nd Punic War; (ii.) T. S. G. distinguished in Spain; (iii.) the two great Tribunes, Tiberius and Gaius. 843. +Scipiadas+ = (i.) Scipio Africanus Maior, victor at Zama, 202 B.C.; (ii.) Scipio Africanus Minor, destroyed Carthage, 146 B.C. 844. +Fabricium+, Consul 282 and 278 B.C. in war with Pyrrhus. Proof against bribes. +Serrane+ = Regulus, victor at Ecnomus, 256 B.C., a prisoner, 255 B.C. True to his word. 845. +Maximus+ = Q. Fabius M. Cunctator, Dictator after Cannae. The Shield of Rome. 846. From the Annals of Ennius (239-169 B.C.), often quoted. 855. +Marcellus+, five times Consul. Took Syracuse 212 B.C. The Sword of Rome. 857. +magno ... tumultu+ = _when a great upheaving shakes it_. --Page. +Tumultus+ (as Cic. tells us) is specially used of a rising in Italy or in Gaul, as it was close to Italy. (Elsewhere = _bellum_.) 858. +Sistet, ... sternet.+ Notice the antithesis and alliteration (assonance).]
+The Vision of Anchises+ is the imperishable record of the national life, where the poet 'sums up in lines like bars of gold the hero-roll of the Eternal City.' --Myers.
C2
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
_The Foundation of Carthage, 878 B.C._
Pygmalion, cognita sororis fuga, cum impio bello fugientem persequi pararet, aegre precibus matris deorumque minis victus quievit. . . . Itaque Elissa delata in Africae sinum incolas eius loci adventu peregrinorum mutuarumque rerum commercio {5} gaudentes in amicitiam sollicitat. Dein empto loco, qui corio bovis tegi posset, in quo fessos longa navigatione socios, quoad proficisceretur, reficere posset, corium in tenuissimas partes secari iubet atque ita maius loci spatium, quam petierat, occupat: unde {10} postea ei loco Byrsae nomen fuit. Confluentibus deinde vicinis locorum, qui spe lucri multa hospitibus venalia inferebant, sedesque ibi statuentibus ex frequentia hominum velut instar civitatis effectum. est. . . . Itaque consentientibus omnibus Carthago {15} conditur, statuto annuo vectigali pro solo urbis. In primis fundamentis caput bubulum inventum est, quod auspicium fructuosae quidem, sed laboriosae perpetuoque servae urbis fuit; propter quod in alium locum urbs translata. Ibi quoque equi caput repertum, {20} bellicosum potentemque populum futurum significans, urbi auspicatam sedem dedit. Tunc ad opinionem novae urbis concurrentibus gentibus brevi et populus et civitas magna facta.
JUSTINUS, xviii. 5.
[Linenotes: 1. +Pygmalion+, King of Tyre, murdered Sychaeus, husband of Elissa (Dido). 4. +sinum+ = Gulf of Tunis. (See Murray's Classical Atlas.) 5. +peregrinorum+ = _of strangers_. +per + ager+. Cf. _pilgrim_. Fr. _pèlerin_. +mutuarum rerum commercio+ = _barter_. 11. +Byrsae+, i.e., later, the Citadel quarter, as if from #bursa# = a _hide_, prob. corrupted from Phoen. _Bozra_ (= a _fort_). So _Carthage_ = _Kirjath (city)_; cp. _Kirjath-Arba_ (Hebron), and _Hannibal_ (= Hanniel) = _the grace of Baal_. 14. +velut instar c.+ = _as if the semblance of a state_; cf. 'instar montis equus,' Verg. --Post. 17. +bubulum+ = _of an ox_, adj. from _bos_. 22. +auspicatam+ = _auspicious_, in active sense.]
+Parallel Passages.+ Verg. _Aen._ i. 336-368, 418-438, and _Aen._ iv. 21-22.
+References.+ Bosworth Smith, _Carthage and the Carthaginians_. --Ihne, _Hist. of Rome_, vol. ii. pp. 3-21.
C3
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
_Aeneas views the Building of Carthage, circ. 878 B.C._
Iamque ascendebant collem, qui plurimus urbi Imminet adversasque aspectat desuper arces. 420 Miratur molem Aeneas, magalia quondam, Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum. Instant ardentes Tyrii pars ducere muros Molirique arcem et manibus subvolvere saxa, Pars optare locum tecto et concludere sulco; 425 Iura magistratusque legunt sanctumque senatum; Hic portus alii effodiunt; hinc lata theatris Fundamenta locant alii, immanesque columnas Rupibus excidunt, scaenis decora alta futuris. Qualis apes aestate nova per florea rura 430 Exercet sub sole labor, cum gentis adultos Educunt fetus, aut cum lîquentia mella Stipant et dulci distendunt nectare cellas, Aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent: 435 Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella. 'O fortunati, quorum iam moenia surgunt!' Aeneas ait, et fastigia suspicit urbis.
VERGIL, _Aen._ i. 419-438.
[Linenotes: 419. +plurimus+ = _in huge mass_, with the predicate +imminet+. 421. +magalia+ = _huts_, a Carthaginian (Phoenician) word. Cf. #megaron#. 422. +strata viarum+ = _stratas vias_ = _the paved roads_. --Sidgwick. 423, 424, 425. +ducere ... moliri ... subvolvere ... optare ... concludere+, dependent on the idea of _eagerness_ or _striving_ in +instant+.--S. 426. Vergil is thinking, as often, of Roman institutions, and not of what was appropriate to heroic times. Cf. _Aen._ i. 507-8. 430-436. This simile is a reproduction of _Georg._ iv. 162-169. Cf. Milton, _Par. Lost_, i. 768: 'As bees In springtime, when the sun with Taurus rides, Pour forth their populous youth about the hive.' 432. +lîquentia+ = _liquid_, from +lîquor+, dep. Elsewhere Vergil uses +l[)i]quens+ from +l[)i]queo+. 433. +Stipant+ = _pack_, the notion of _pushing_ and _tightness_ being given in the very sound of the heavy overhanging spondees in this line. --S. 435. +Ignavum ... arcent+ = _drive the drones, a slothful herd, from the enclosure_. Notice the order. --Page. 437. 'The want of a city is the key-note of the _Aeneid_.' --Conington.]
C4
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
_A Roman Martyr. Country before Expediency._
M. Atilius Regulus, cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus esset duce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisi redditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem. Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis {5} speciem videbat, sed eam, ut res declarat, falsam iudicavit: quae erat talis: manere in patria, esse domui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello, communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis {10} gradum. . . . Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit, sententiam ne diceret recusavit: quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur, non esse se senatorem. . . . Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas, captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem {15} rediit neque eum caritas patriae retinuit nec suorum, . . . 'At stulte, qui non modo non censuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit.' Quo modo stulte? etiamne, si reipublicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutile reipublicae sit, id cuiquam {20} civi utile esse?
CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 99, 100.
[Linenotes: 1. +consul.+ Regulus was Consul 261 and 256 B.C., and Proconsul in Africa 255 B.C., when he was defeated and taken prisoner by Xanthippus. 6. +speciem+ = the _specious (plausible) appearance (semblance)_. 12, 13. +sententiam ... recusavit+ = _declined to give his own opinion on the case_. 13. +iure iurando+ (sc. _dato_) = _by the oath sworn to his enemies_. 17. '+At stulte+' (sc. _fecit_) = '_But, it may he said, he acted like a fool._' 19. +etiamne+ (sc. _stulte fecit_) = _What, how did he act like a fool, if_ ...--Holden.] 20, 21. +potest autem ... utile esse.+ Cf. #Ho tê polei ouk esti blaberon oude ton politên blaptei# = that which is not harmful (#blaberon# = +inutile+) to the State is not harmful to the citizen.]
+Parallel Passages.+ Polybius, i. 31-36 (he makes no mention of the embassy of Regulus); Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 2 (interesting letter on the death of Regulus); and espec. Hor. _Od._ III. v. 13-end.
'With counsel thus, ne'er else aread [_advised_], He nerved the Fathers' weak intent, And, girt by friends that mourn'd him, sped Into illustrious banishment.' --C.
C5
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
A. _First Roman Naval Victory near Mylae, 260 B.C._
C. Duilius, primo Punico bello a Romanis dux contra Carthaginienses missus, cum videret eos multum mari valere, classem magis validam quam decoram aedificavit, et manus ferreas, quas corvos vocabant, instituit. His, quas ante pugnam hostes {5} valde deriserant, in pugna ipsa ad Liparas insulas commissa naves hostium comprehendit, easque partim cepit, partim demersit. Dux classis Punicae Carthaginem fugit, et ex senatu quaesivit quid faceret. Omnibus ut pugnaret succlamantibus: {10} 'Feci,' inquit, 'et victus sum.' Sic poenam crucis effugit, nam hac poena dux, re male gesta, apud Poenos afficiebatur. Duilius autem victor primum triumphum maritimum Romae egit, et ad memoriam victoriae columna rostrata in foro posita est. {15}
(_Adapted_) Cf. FLORUS, I. xviii. 7-10.
[Linenotes: 4. +corvos+ = _crows_ (the #korakes# of Polybius), boarding-bridges. A broad movable ladder, fastened to the foremast, and held in position by a rope. When the rope was let go, the iron hook at the upper end of the ladder penetrated the deck of an enemy's ship. 6. +ad Liparas insulas+ = Aeoliae Insulae (Lipari Islands), N.E. of Sicily. Mylae was on a promontory S.E. of these Islands. 8. +Dux+, i.e. Hannibal, the defender of Agrigentum 262 B.C.]
B. _Unique honour conferred on Duilius._
C. Duilium, qui Poenos classe primus devicerat, redeuntem a cena senem saepe videbam puer; delectabatur cereo funali et tibicine, quae sibi nullo exemplo privatus sumpserat: tantum licentiae dabat gloria. {20}
CICERO, _De Senectute_, xiii. § 44.
[Linenotes: 18. +cereo funali+,[28] i.e. _torchlight_. +nullo exemplo+ = _without any precedent_. 18-19. +sibi ... sumpserat.+ Cicero is wrong: more probably the honour was conferred on Duilius by a vote of the Comitia Tributa. 19. +dabat+ = _excused_; lit. _granted_, _allowed_. -- J. S. Reid.]
[Footnote 28: The +funale+ was a torch composed of twigs twisted into a rope (+funis+) and dipped in pitch or oil. --J. S. R.]
+References.+ Polybius, i. 22, for a description of the _corvi_, #korakes#. Sir Andrew Barton (Percy's _Reliques_). Lord Howard says:--
'Were twenty shippes, and he but one, I swear by kirke and bower and hall, He would overcome them every one If once his beames they do down fall.'
C6
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
_Carthaginian Victory off Drepana, 249 B.C._
_Rashness of Claudius._
Praedictiones vero et praesensiones rerum futurarum quid aliud declarant nisi hominibus ea ostendi, monstrari, portendi, praedici? Ex quo illa ostenta, monstra, portenta, prodigia dicuntur. Quod si ea ficta credimus licentia fabularum, Mopsum, Tiresiam, {5} Amphiaraum, Calchantem, Helenum, quos tamen augures ne ipsae quidem fabulae adscivissent, si res omnino repudiaret, ne domesticis quidem exemplis docti numen deorum conprobabimus? Nihil nos P. Claudi bello Punico primo temeritas movebit, qui {10} etiam per iocum deos irridens, cum cavea literati pulli non pascerentur, mergi eos in aquam iussit, ut biberent, quoniam esse nollent? Qui risus, classe devicta, multas ipsi lacrimas, magnam populo Romano cladem attulit. Quid? Collega eius Iunius {15} eodem bello nonne tempestate classem amisit, cum auspiciis non paruisset? Itaque Claudius a populo condemnatus est, Iunius necem sibi ipse conscivit.
CICERO, _De Nat. Deorum_, II. 3. 7-8.
[Linenotes: 3. +ostenta ... dicuntur+ = _are called in Latin_ '_ostenta_,' '_monstra_,' etc. --Walford. 4. +prodigium+ for _prodicium_ = _pro_ + [Rt]_dic-_ #deik-# = _point out_. 5. +Mopsum+, etc. = _all those stories about Mopsus_, _etc._, in apposition to +ea+: poetical construction. +Mopsum+, the prophet who accompanied the Argonauts. +Tiresiam+, the blind prophet of Thebes. 6. +Amphiaraum+, the seer of Argos. One of the Seven against Thebes. +Helenus+, son of Priam. A seer of the _Iliad_ and the _Aeneid_. 10. +P. Claudi temeritas.+ P. Cl. Pulcher (son of Appius Claudius, the blind Censor) defeated by Adherbal off Drepana (N.W. corner of Sicily, between Eryx and Lilybaeum). 15. +Iunius.+ L. J. Pullus, consul 249 B.C. His fleet was destroyed by a storm off Pachynus (C. Passaro) the same year.]
+Parallel Passage.+ Florus ii. 2 says that 'Claudius was overthrown, not by the enemy, but by the gods themselves, whose auspices he had despised.'
+The Defeat off Drepana.+ 'The reason of the defeat lay in the superiority of the Carthaginian admiral and seamen, and the inexperience of Claudius and of his crews, consisting mainly of landsmen who knew nothing of the sea. This disaster and the destruction of the fleet of Junius crowned the series of misfortunes which befell the Romans in the year 249 B.C., the most dismal time of the whole war.' --Ihne.
C7
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
_Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae, 241 B.C._
_Peace with Carthage._
A. Interim Carthaginienses classe apud insulas Aegates a C. Lutatio, consule Romanorum, superati statuerunt belli facere finem, eamque rem arbitrio permiserunt Hamilcaris. Ille, etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, quod {5} patriam, exhaustam sumptibus, diutius calamitates belli ferre non posse intellegebat, sed ita, ut statim mente agitaret, si paulum modo res essent refectae, bellum renovare Romanosque armis persequi, donicum aut virtute vicissent aut victi manus dedissent. {10}
CORN. NEPOS, _Hamilcar_, i.
[Linenotes: 1. +apud insulas Aegates+, the Goat Islands, off the W. Coast of Sicily, between Drepana and Lilybaeum (Marsala). 3. +statuerunt belli facere finem.+ This victory led to the close of the First Punic War. 5. +paci serviendum+ = _to devote himself to (obtaining) peace_. 9. +donicum+ (= _donec_), lit. '_at the time of day when ----_' 10. +virtute vicissent+ = _they (the Romans) should have conquered by (superior) prowess_.]
B.
Hic dum stagnosi spectat templumque domosque Literni ductor, varia splendentia cernit Pictura belli patribus monumenta prioris 655 Exhausti: nam porticibus signata manebant, Quis inerat longus rerum et spectabilis ordo. . . . . . . . Addiderant geminas medio consurgere fluctu Aegates: lacerae circum fragmenta videres 685 Classis et effusos fluitare in gurgite Poenos. Possessor pelagi pronaque Lutatius aura Captivas puppes ad litora victor agebat.
SILIUS ITALICUS, vi. 653-657, 684-688.
[Linenotes: 653-654. +stagnosi Literni.+ Town and River on the coast of Campania, N. of Cumae. The River flows through a marsh = Literna palus. 654. +ductor+ = Hannibal. 654-657. Silius (who closely imitates Vergil) makes Hannibal view the sculptured memorials of the First Punic War, just as Aeneas sees carved the tale of Troy. Verg. _Aen._ i. 445-493.]
+Parallel Passage.+ Polybius, i. caps. 59-63.
+Terms of Peace.+ Carthage engaged to evacuate Sicily; not to make war upon Hiero of Syracuse; to give up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and to pay 2200 talents in twenty years.
+Sicily the first Roman Province.+
C8
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
A. _Great Importance of the Second Punic War._
In parte operis mei licet mihi praefari bellum maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sint, me scripturum, quod Hannibale duce Carthaginienses cum populo Romano gessere. Nam neque validiores opibus ullae inter se civitates gentesque contulerunt {5} arma, neque his ipsis tantum unquam virium aut roboris fuit, et haud ignotas belli artes inter sese, sed expertas primo Punico conferebant bello, et adeo varia fortuna belli ancepsque Mars fuit, ut propius periculum fuerint, qui vicerunt. Odiis etiam prope {10} maioribus certarunt quam viribus, Romanis indignantibus quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, Poenis, quod superbe avareque crederent imperitatum victis esse.
[Linenotes: 3. +Hannibale duce.+ Polybius called the war of which Hannibal was the life and soul the 'Hannibalian War.' 6. +his ipsis+, sc. _Romanis Poenisque_, with _validiores_. 6-7. +virium aut roboris+ = _offensive or defensive strength_. --R. 8. +expertas+ = _tested_, in a passive sense. 9. +ut propius ... vicerunt+, e.g. after Cannae, 216 B.C. 12. +ultro inferrent arma+ = _should presume to attack_. --Dimsdale. 13. +Poenis+, sc. _indignantibus_. +superbe avareque.+ 'When the war of the mercenaries broke out in Africa (241-238 B.C.) Rome availed herself of the distress of Carthage to extort the cession of Sardinia, and raised the war indemnity by 1200 talents.' --Ihne.]
B. _The Oath of the Boy Hannibal._
Fama est etiam, Hannibalem annorum ferme {15} novem, pueriliter blandientem patri Hamilcari, ut duceretur in Hispaniam, cum, perfecto Africo bello, exercitum eo traiecturus sacrificaret, altaribus admotum, tactis sacris, iure iurando adactum, se, cum primum posset, hostem fore populo Romano. {20}
LIVY, xxi. 1.
[Linenotes: 16. +blandientem+ = _coaxingly entreating_. --D. 17. +perfecto Africo bello+, i.e. between Carthage and her mutinous mercenaries, 241-237 B.C.]
+Parallel Passage.+ For Hannibal's Oath, Livy xxxv. 19.
+Importance of the War.+ 'It was a struggle for existence, for supremacy or destruction. It was to decide whether the Graeco-Roman civilisation of the West or the Semitic (Carthaginian) civilisation of the East was to be established in Europe, and to determine its history for all future time.' --Ihne.
C9
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
'_The paths of glory lead but to the grave._'
Expende Hannibalem: quot libras in duce summo 147 Invenies? . . . . Additur imperiis Hispania, Pyrenaeum 151 Transilit. Opposuit natura Alpemque nivemque: Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit aceto. Iam tenet Italiam, tamen ultra pergere tendit: 'Actum,' inquit, 'nihil est, nisi Poeno milite portas 155 Frangimus et media vexillum pono Subura.' O qualis facies et quali digna tabella, Cum Gaetula ducem portaret belua luscum! Exitus ergo quis est? O gloria! vincitur idem Nempe et in exilium praeceps fugit, atque ibi magnus 160 Mirandusque cliens sedet ad praetoria regis, Donec Bithyno libeat vigilare tyranno. Finem animae, quae res humanas miscuit olim, Non gladii, non saxa dabunt, nec tela, sed ille Cannarum vindex et tanti sanguinis ultor, 165 Anulus. I, demens, et saevas curre per Alpes, Ut pueris placeas et declamatio fias.
JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 147-167.
[Linenotes: 147-148. +Expende ... invenies+ = _if you lay_ (lit. 'weigh') _Hannibal in the scale, how many pounds will you find in the greatest of commanders?_ --Duff. Cf. Ov. _Met._ xii. 615: Iam cinis est: et de tam magno restat Achille Nescio quid parvam quod non bene compleat urnam. 156. +media Subura+, i.e. in the heart of Rome. The Subura was one of the busiest and most populous quarters of Rome. 157. +O qualis facies ... tabella+ = _what a sight and how fit for caricature!_ lit. 'worthy of what a picture' i.e. how ridiculous a picture it would have made. --Hardy. 158. +luscum+ = _one-eyed_. Hannibal lost an eye from disease, while marching through the country flooded by the Arno, 217 B.C. 160. +in exilium+, i.e. first to Antiochus of Syria, and then to Prusias of Bithynia. 166. +anulus.+ Hannibal took poison which he carried about in a ring (+anulus+) 183 B.C., aged 76. 167. +ut ... fias+ = _to suit the taste of schoolboys, and become the subject of their speeches_. --Duff.]
+For the thought+, cf. Shak. Ham. V. i. 232:
Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, Might stop a hole to keep the wind away: O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe Should patch a wall to expel the winter's flaw!
C10
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Character of Hannibal._
Nunquam ingenium idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit. Itaque haud facile discerneres, utrum imperatori an exercitui carior esset; neque Hasdrubal alium quemquam praeficere malle, ubi quid fortiter ac strenue agendum {5} esset, neque milites alio duce plus confidere aut audere. Plurimum audaciae ad pericula capessenda, plurimum consilii inter ipsa pericula erat. Nullo labore aut corpus fatigari aut animus vinci poterat. Caloris ac frigoris patientia par; cibi potionisque {10} desiderio naturali, non voluptate modus finitus; vigiliarum somnique nec die nec nocte discriminata tempora: id, quod gerendis rebus superesset, quieti datum; ea neque molli strato neque silentio accersita; multi saepe militari sagulo opertum humi iacentem {15} inter custodias stationesque militum conspexerunt. Vestitus nihil inter aequales excellens; arma atque equi conspiciebantur. Equitum peditumque idem longe primus erat; princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio excedebat. Has tantas viri virtutes {20} ingentia vitia aequabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica, nihil veri, nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum ius iurandum, nulla religio.
LIVY, xxi. 4.
[Linenotes: 2. +habilius+ = _better adapted_, lit. 'more easily handled'; cf. our _handy_. 7. +ad pericula capessenda+ = _in incurring peril_. 12. +discriminata+ = _regulated_, lit. 'divided off'; cf. _dis-cerno_, _dis-crimen_. 14. +accersita+ (= _arcessita_) = _wooed_. 15. +sagulo+ = _in his military cloak_: diminutive of _sagum_. 21. +inhumana crudelitas.+ Polybius says that many of his alleged cruelties were to be set down to his namesake H. Monomachus. 21-23. +perfidia plus quam Punica.+ 'This does not seem to have been anything worse than a consummate adroitness in laying traps for his enemies.' --Church and Brodribb. Cf. 'Perfidious Albion.' 23. +nulla religio+ = _no scruples_, i.e. no force binding (_re + ligare_) or restraining from wrong-doing, no conscience.]
+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxvi. 41 of Scipio Africanus Minor--Sallust _Cat._ 5 of Catiline--Polybius ix. 22-26 (important).
'Bitterly as the Romans hated, reviled, and persecuted Carthage, the most deadly poison of their hatred they poured upon Hannibal; they did not hesitate to blacken his memory by the most revolting accusations.' --Ihne.
C11
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Siege of Saguntum, 219 B.C._
Angulus muri erat in planiorem patentioremque quam cetera circa vallem vergens; adversus eum vineas agere instituit, per quas aries moenibus admoveri posset. Sed ut locus procul muro satis aequus agendis vineis fuit, ita haudquaquam prospere, {5} postquam ad effectum operis ventum est, coeptis succedebat. Et turris ingens imminebat, et murus, ut in suspecto loco, supra ceterae modum altitudinis emunitus erat, et iuventus delecta, ubi plurimum periculi ac timoris ostendebatur, ibi vi maiore obsistebant. {10} Ac primo missilibus summovere hostem nec quicquam satis tutum munientibus pati; deinde iam non pro moenibus modo atque turri tela micare, sed ad erumpendum etiam in stationes operaque hostium animus erat; quibus tumultuariis certaminibus {15} haud ferme plures Saguntini cadebant quam Poeni. Ut vero Hannibal ipse, dum murum incautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit, tanta circa fuga ac trepidatio fuit, ut non multum abesset, quin opera ac vineae desererentur. {20}
LIVY, xxi. 7.
[Linenotes: 2. +quam cetera+ (sc. _loca_) +circa+ = _than the neighbouring country_. 4-5. +ut ... ita+ = lit. _as ... so_, i.e. _although ... yet ..._ 6. +postquam ... ventum est+ = _when they came to attack the wall in earnest_. +Effectum+ (verbal noun in _us_) = _the completion of the work_, i.e. the bringing up of the ram. --Dimsdale. 8. +ut in suspecto loco+ = _as (was natural) in a suspected_ (i.e. weak) _spot_. --Capes. 11-12. +nec quicquam ... pati+ = _they allowed those engaged on the works no sort of safety_, lit. not (even) moderate safety. --D. 18. +adversum femur+ = _in the front of the thigh_.]
+SAGUNTUM+ (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about 20 miles S. of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greek colonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B.C. Rome made an alliance with Saguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked the city ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies of Carthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city in his rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months' siege and a heroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm 219 B.C.
_Nec pavet hic populus (Massilia) pro libertate subire Obsessum Poeno gessit quod Marte Saguntum._
LUCAN, _Phars._ iii. 349-50.
Cf. also Juv. _Sat._ xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A.D.
C12
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
A. _The Dream of Hannibal._
Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnis a Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse ut Italiae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illum utentem cum exercitu progredi {5} coepisse; tum ei ducem illum praecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisse elatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem, circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta, virgulta, tecta {10} pervertere.
CICERO, _De Divinatione_, i. 24, 49.
[Linenotes: 1. +Coelius+, i.e. L. Coelius Antipater (a contemporary of C. Gracchus 123 B.C.), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his narrative. 7. +id ... non potuisse.+ Cf. Livy 'temperare oculis nequivisse = he could not restrain his eyes.' 8. +cupiditate+ = _from curiosity_. Cf. Livy 'cura ingeni humani = with the natural curiosity of the human mind.' 8-11. +visam belluam ... pervertere+ = _he thought he saw a monster overthrowing_.]
B. _The Interpretation--Vastitatem esse Italiae._
Hoc trepidus monstro ... ardua quae sit, 198...200 Scitatur, pestis, terrasque urgentia membra Quo ferat et quosnam populos deposcat hiatu. Cui gelidis almae Cyllenes editus antris: 'Bella vides optata tibi: te maxima bella, Te strages nemorum, te moto turbida caelo 205 Tempestas, caedesque virum, magnaeque ruinae Idaei generis, lacrimosaque fata sequuntur. Quantus per campos populatis montibus actus Contorquet silvas squalenti tergore serpens, Et late umectat terras spumante veneno: 210 Tantus, perdomitis decurrens Alpibus atro Involves bello Italiam, tantoque fragore Eruta convulsis prosternes oppida muris.'
SILIUS ITALICUS, iii. 198-213.
[Linenotes: 202. +hiatu+ = _with its wide-open mouth_. 203. +Cyllenes+, i.e. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is said to have been born: hence styled _Cyllenius_. 209. +tergore = tergo+. poet. and post-Augustian.]
+Parallel Passage.+ Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii. 47.
C13
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_From the Pyrenees to the Rhone. Passage of the Elephants._
Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variat memoria actae rei. . . . Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esse elephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terra in amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne {5} secunda aqua deferretur, pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humo iniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur. Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta, {10} huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viam praegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressi sunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis ab actuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita {15} primis expositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant, donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta ab ceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibus extremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum {20} edebant, donec quietem ipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientes quidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribus quaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. {25}
LIVY, xxi. 28.
[Linenotes: 2. +variat ... rei+ = _the accounts of what was done differ_. --Dimsdale. 7. +parte superiore ... pontis+ = _fastened to the upper part of the bank_, i.e. to the bank at a point higher up stream. --D. 9. +per solum+ = _on firm ground_. 14. +ab actuariis+ = _by some light craft_, lit. 'Easily moved' (_ago_). 17-18. +donec ... agerentur+ = _So long as they were being driven on what seemed a bridge connected with the land._ --C. and B. _Agebantur_ would be more usual, but _agerentur_ may give the reason of _nihil trepidabant_. Cf. _donec--fecisset_ ll. 21-22. 19. +in altum+ = _into mid stream_, usu. of the Sea. --D. +inter se+ = _one on another_, _alii alios_. 24. +quaerendis pedetemptim vadis+ = _feeling their way into shallow water_. +pedetemptim+ = _step by step_, lit. 'stretching out the feet' (_pes + tendo_). Cf. _paulatim_, _sensim_.]
+Reference.+ Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought that elephants could not swim.
C14
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_From the Rhone to Italy. Hannibal encourages his Soldiers._
Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atque Italiam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigando adhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terror invaserit. . . . Alpes quidem habitari, coli, {5} gignere atque alere animantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant, legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidem eorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibus saepe agminibus cum {10} liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tuto transmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belli portanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur, quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! {15} Romam, caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduum videri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiri posse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute genti per eos dies totiens ab se victae, {20} aut itineris finem sperent campum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis.
LIVY, xxi. 30.
[Linenotes: 2-3. +varie ... versat+ = _works on their minds by different methods_, i.e. +castigando adhortandoque+.--Dimsdale. 4-5. +repens terror.+ Livy says that H.'s soldiers dreaded the Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps. 7. +Eos ipsos legatos+, i.e. of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan). 9. +advenas Italiae cultores+ = _foreign settlers in Italy_. _advenas_ = adj. here. --D. 11. +migrantium modo+ = _as immigrants_. 16. +Romam caput orbis.+ A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was not yet mistress even of all Italy (e.g. the Boii not subdued until 191 B.C.). 18. +Cepisse Gallos.+ The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B.C. 20. +genti ... victae+, e.g. at the Passage of the Rhone. 21. +campum+, i.e. the Campus Martius, N.W. of Rome, where the Tiber makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. p. 116, ll. 7, 8.] [[Selection C9, lines 155, 156]]
+The Speeches of Livy.+ 'He does not intend in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of the time in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character and motive.' --Mackail.
C15
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_From the Rhone to Italy. The Descent of the Alps._
Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum mille admodum altitudinem abruptus erat. . . . Tandem nequiquam iumentis atque hominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum loco purgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque {5} egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupem muniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendum esset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struem ingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni {10} coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso aceto putrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntque anfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiam deduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum {15} iumentis prope fame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habent rivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta in pabulum missa, et quies {20} muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo inde ad planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis.
LIVY, xxi. 36, 37.
+Context.+ At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. the Little St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in the road, caused by a landslip or avalanche.
[Linenotes: 2-3. +in pedum ... abruptus erat.+ Polybius says that the precipice at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for about 1000 ft. _in length_. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000 ft. _in depth_. 3-4. +Tandem ... fatigatis+, i.e. after H.'s attempt to pass by a side-way over a glacier failed. 4. +in iugo+, i.e. on the higher level where the road was broken away. 6. +ad rupem muniendam+ = _to cut a way through the rock_. _Munire_ (cf. _moenia_) = lit. 'to wall,' 'to build.' So _munire viam_ = _to make a road_. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a sort of terrace. 9. +detruncatis+ = _trimmed_, (lit. 'lopped off'), i.e. cleared of branches. 11-12. +infuso aceto.+ Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar, which the _posca_, the soldiers' regular drink of vinegar and water, would supply. Polybius does not mention this. 13-14. +molliuntque ... clivos+ = _relieve the steepness of the descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths_. _Anfractus_, from _ambi + frango_.]
+References.+ Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179.
C16
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
A. _The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B.C._
Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consulis castra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos in insidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Semproni credulitatem adequitare vallo eius {5} iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut ad primum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul et adortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitu fluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem {10} opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuit
## partibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet.
FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 5. 23.
[Linenotes: 1. +ad Trebiam+, a small tributary S. of the Padus, which it joins 2 miles W. of Placentia (Piacenza). 2. +castra.+ Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily, effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified camp on the W. or left bank of the Trebia. 8-9. +ieiunum ... rigefecit+, i.e. Sempronius _made stiff_ (+rigefecit+) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men _faint with hunger_ (+ieiunum+). 11. +oleoque+, i.e. _ut mollirent artus_ = _to make their limbs supple_. 12-13. +nec defuit ... caederet.+ The Romans kept their ground with the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked them in rear.]
B. _The River bars the Retreat._
Et iam, dispersis Romana per agmina signis, 570 Palantes agit, ad ripas, miserabile! Poenus Impellens trepidos, fluvioque immergere certat. Tum Trebia infausto nova proelia gurgite fessis Incohat, ac precibus Iunonis suscitat undas. Haurit subsidens fugientum corpora tellus, 575 Infidaque soli frustrata voragine sorbet. Nec niti lentoque datur convellere limo Mersa pedum penitus vestigia: labe tenaci Haerent devincti gressus, resolutaque ripa Implicat aut caeca prosternit fraude paludis. 580
SILIUS ITALICUS, iv. 570-580.
[Linenotes: 574. +precibus ... undas.+ The poet, in his imitation of Vergil, makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal. 576. +soli frustrata+ = _prevented from reaching firm ground_. 577. +lento+ = _sticky_. 579. +resoluta+ = _crumbling_.]
+References+. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191.
C17
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (1)
Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexplorato postero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam in patentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod ex adverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super {5} caput _haud[29] detectae_ insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus et circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simul invadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magis Romanis subita atque improvisa {10} res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula campo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribus collibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariter decucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret, se circumventum {15} esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnari coeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringique gladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut[30] in re trepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos {20} clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adire audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. {25}
LIVY, xxii. 4, 5.
[Footnote 29: Var. lect. _decepere_.]
[Footnote 30: For this qualifying use of _ut_ cf. p. 42, iii. (b) and p. 83 line 1.] [[Demonstration IV.iii and Selection D24]]
[Linenotes: 1. +Flaminius+ (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome. Consul 223 B.C., conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B.C. Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (a second time) 217 B.C., defeated and killed at Trasimene. 2. +inexplorato+ = _without reconnoitring_. 'This word expresses the whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great.' --Dimsdale. 4. +pandi+ (= _se pandere_) = _to deploy_. 13. +ipsa ... conspecta+ = _were sufficiently visible to each other_. 15. +prius quam satis cerneret+ = _before he could clearly distinguish anything_. --D. 19. +ut in re trepida+ = _considering the confusion of the moment_. --D.]
+The Scene of the Battle.+ At the N.W. end of the Lake the mountains of Cortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. the pass expands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from ½ to 1½ miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. end of the plain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibal encamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troops behind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N., and his cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. to cut off the Roman retreat.
C18
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (2)
Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipi poterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locum noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus, opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis {5} quam tecti. Et erat in tanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorum ictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos _strepentium_[31] paventiumque clamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globo illati {10} haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientium agmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ab lateribus montes ac lacus, a fronte et ab tergo hostium acies claudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis {15} spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam et nova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principes hastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa alia pugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus {20} cuique ante aut post pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeo intentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiae magnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. {25}
LIVY, xxii. 5.
[Footnote 31: Var. lect. _terrentium_ = of those causing fear.]
[Linenotes: 4. +ad arma capienda aptandaque+ = _to seize and put on for the battle their arms_. --Dimsdale. 5. +onerati:+ i.e. most were cut down in their full marching equipment. 8-9. +mixtos ... clamores+ = _the mingled shouts of noisy triumph_ (+strepentium+) _or dismay_. 10. +pugnantium ... haerebant+ = _rushed upon a knot_ (+globo+) _of combatants, and became entangled with it_. --Jebb. 14. +a fronte+, i.e. by Hannibal's African and Spanish infantry. +ab tergo+, i.e. by Hannibal's cavalry and the Gauls. 18-19. +non illa ... triarios+ = _not in that well-known_ (+illa+) _mode of fighting_ (sc. +pugna+) _arranged according to_. . . . Livy refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by Camillus) of i. +hastati+, _of young men_, ii. +principes+, _of men at their prime_, iii. +triarii+, _of middle-aged men_.]
+References:+ Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, _Hist._ vol, i. pp. 204-10.
C19
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (3)
_The Death of Flaminius._
Dumque ea commemorat densosque obit obvius hostes, Advolat ora ferus mentemque Ducarius. Acri 645 Nomen erat gentile viro, fusisque catervis Boiorum quondam patriis, antiqua gerebat Vulnera barbaricae mentis, noscensque superbi Victoris vultus, 'Tune, inquit, maximus ille Boiorum terror? libet hoc cognoscere telo, 650 Corporis an tanti manet de vulnere sanguis. Nec vos poeniteat, populares, fortibus umbris Hoc mactare caput: nostros hic curribus egit Insistens victos alta ad Capitolia patres. Ultrix hora vocat.' Pariter tunc undique fusis 655 Obruitur telis, nimboque mente per auras Contectus nulli dextra iactare reliquit Flaminium cecidisse sua. Nec pugna perempto Ulterior ductore fuit; namque agmine denso Primores iuvenum, laeva ob discrimina Martis 660 Infensi superis dextrisque, et cernere Poenum Victorem plus morte rati, super ocius omnes Membra ducis stratosque artus certamine magno Telaque corporaque et non fausto Marte cruentas Iniecere manus. Sic densi caedis acervo 665 Ceu tumulo, texere virum.
SILIUS ITALICUS, v. 644-666.
[Linenotes: 644. +Dum ... hostes+, i.e. after Flaminius' vain attempt to rally and form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault (_inexplorato_[32] _angustiis superatis_) with his life. 646. +Ducarius+--Livy, 'an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper.' 651. +mânet+ = _will flow_. Cf. _emanate_. 652. +populares+ = _fellow-countrymen_, but of Romans usu. _civis_. 658-666. Livy says more simply 'He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.' 660. +laeva+ = _unfavourable_, lit. 'on the left side.' Cf. _sinister_.]
[Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note.] [[Selection C17, "inexplorato"]]
+Parallel Passages.+--Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. iii. 84.
+Character of Flaminius.+ 'The party feelings which have so coloured the language of the ancient writers (e.g. Livy, Polybius) respecting him need not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed an unequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul and as Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile of Trasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourable grave.' Arnold, _Hist. Rome_, iii. 110.
C20
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator._
Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi, ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, nec senectus mores mutaverat. . . . Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cum plane grandis esset, et Hannibalem {5} iuveniliter exsultantem patientia sua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:
_Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem; Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem; Ergo plusque magisque viri nunc gloria claret._ 10
Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp. Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit, restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatem dividenti. . . . Multa in eo viro praeclara {15} cognovi, sed nihil admirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri et consularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophum non contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civium magnus, sed intus {20} domique praestantior.
CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 10-12.
[Linenotes: 1. +Ego+, i.e. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B.C. +eum qui Tarentum recepit.+ Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212 B.C. and _recovered_ by Fabius 209 B.C. 2-3. +Erat ... gravitas+ = _that hero possessed dignity tempered by courtesy_. --J. S. R. +condita+ (_condio_) = lit. _seasoned_. 5. +grandis+, sc. _natu_. He was consul for a first time in 233 B.C. 6. +iuveniliter.+ Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps. +exsultantem+ = _wildly roaming_, of a horse galloping at will. 7. +noster Ennius+, circ. 239-169 B.C., famous espec. for his Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use this metre. 9. +Noenum+ (_ne + oinum_ = _not one thing_) = _non_. Cf. _nihil_ = _ne + hilum_ = not a whit, nothing. 12-14. Flaminius, when tribune 232 B.C., by a vote of the Comitia Tributa (i.e. by a _plebiscitum_) and against the expressed wish of the Senate (_contra senatus auctoritatem_) carried an agrarian law for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens. 18. +laudatio+, sc. _funebris_, the funeral speech. 19-20. +in luce ... civium+ = _in public and under the gaze of his fellow-countrymen_. --J. S. R.]
+References.+ Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch, _Fabius_, vi.
C21
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B.C._
Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditum esset, Minucius convocatis militibus 'Saepe ego' inquit 'audivi, milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit, secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui {5} nec ipse consulere nec alteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animi ingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperare discimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabio iungamus; ad praetorium {10} eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eum parentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignum est, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt, patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis {15} animorum gloriam dies hic dederit.' Signo dato conclamatur inde, ut colligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra in admirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. {20}
LIVY, xxii. 29, 30.
+Context.+ Fabius' policy of 'masterly inactivity' had become so unpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided between Fabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from a destruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid of Fabius. +Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness.+
[Linenotes: 4. +consulat+ = _can give counsel_--so _consulere_ l. 6. 6-7. +extremi ingenii+ = _has the meanest capacity_. gen. of quality. 7-8. +prima ... sors est+ = _the highest rank in the scale of spirit and intellect_. --Dimsdale. 14. +patronos+ = _as the authors of your freedom_. +Patronus+ = legal title used by a freed slave (_libertus_) of his former master. The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as _liberti_, owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their +patroni+. 17. +ut colligantur vasa+, i.e. _impedimenta_. Cf. _signa movere_.]
+Fabius Cunctator.+ 'Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it to war, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully and persistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that any general could at that time render to the State. It was probably at this time that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (_corona graminea_), the highest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved a besieged town.' --Ihne.
C22
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 218 B.C. (1)
_The Destruction of the Roman Infantry._
Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo et viribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandem Romani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulere hostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum {5} validum a cetera prominentem acie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenore uno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati, postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimque reductis {10} alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant, aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontem primum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornua fecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere {15} alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani, defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum terga ceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam, quod inclusi adversus {20} circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cum recentibus ac vegetis pugnabant.
LIVY, xxii. 47.
[Linenotes: 1. +Sub ... certaminis+, i.e. _at the close of_ (+sub+) the first stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated. 2-3. +constabant ... Hispanisque.+ These formed Hannibal's centre, the _convex_ of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left, but at some distance behind. 4. +obliqua fronte+, perh. = _concave_, so as to surround _the projecting part of the enemy's line_ (+a cetera prominentem acie+). 5. +cuneum:+ here = the _convex_ formation of the Gauls and Spaniards. 8-9. +in mediam aciem+ = _the centre of the line_, i.e. of the Gauls and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first. 10. +subsidia+ = _reserves_, i.e. the Africans, on the right and left. 14-16. +Afri circa ... alas.+ Hannibal's formation is now reversed.[33] The horns (+cornua+) of the semicircle (the Africans) are now advanced, and _outflanked_ (+circumdedere alas+) the Romans, who rushed heedlessly _into the intervening space_ (+in medium+, i.e. the _concave_ part of H.'s line formed by the retirement of the Gauls and Spaniards). 21-22. +recentibus ac vegetis+ = _fresh in body and mind_.]
[Footnote 33: i.e. the Africans now formed the horns of a _crescent_ in relation to their centre, while it formed the _concave_ part of the crescent. --D.]
+Results of the Battle.+ Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, and the Romans lose (including 23,000 taken prisoners) about 70,000 men.
C23
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (2)
'_Paulus animae magnae prodigus._'
Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidisset, 'L. Aemili' inquit, 'quem unum insontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum, dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, {5} et comes ego te tollere possum ac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sine hoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est.' Ad ea consul: 'Tu quidem, Cn. Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e {10} manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus, urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiis firment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem et vixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac {15} strage militum meorum patere exspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegae existam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam.' Haec eos agentes prius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulem ignorantes, {20} quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultum arripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt.
LIVY, xxii. 49.
[Linenotes: 1. +praetervehens equo+ = _riding by_. +praetervehor+ used here as a deponent. --Dimsdale. 2. +oppletum+ (= _perfusum_) = _covered_ (lit. _filled up_), or _drenched_. 4. +respicere+ = _to look on with favour_. --D. 9. +macte virtute esto+ = lit. _go on and prosper in your courage_. +mactus+ = i. _magis + auctus_ = _increased_, _glorified_, or more prob. ii. = old partic. of obsolete _mago_ (= _augeo_), from [Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar#. Vocative used as nominative. 14. +praeceptorum.+ His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics of Fabius were again adopted after his death. 15. +et vixisse adhuc et mori+ = _died as he had ever lived_. --D. 17. +reus iterum e consulatu+ = _a second time to stand on my defence in consequence of my consulship_, i.e. on a charge that grew out of his acts as Consul (219 B.C.) with M. Livius Salinator of misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War. 18-19. +ut ... protegam.+ The two Consuls had the chief command of the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae.]
'The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but the Romans would have given up the idea of further resistance.' --Ihne.
C24
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (3)
A. _Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome._
Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, ut tanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentis quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbal praefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, 'Immo {5} ut, quid hac pugna sit actum, scias, die quinto' inquit 'victor in Capitolio epulaberis. Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam.' Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capere animo posset. Itaque voluntatem {10} se laudare Maharbalis ait; ad consilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: 'Non omnia nimirum eidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.' Mora eius diei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. {15}
LIVY, xxii. 51.
[Linenotes: 2-4. +diei ... sumeret+ = _he should take what remained of that day and the following night for rest_. --Church and Brodribb. 8. +venisse+, sc. +te+, suggested by +sequere+. --Dimsdale. 9. +res+ = _the idea_, i.e. of such a rapid termination to the war. --D. Hannibal was too far off (11 days' march) to take Rome by storm. Its population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was strongly fortified by its situation and by art.]
B. _Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy._
Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magna reliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium, P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo talia agitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se {20} sua interfecturum, nisi qui iurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse se primus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximis minatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplo coegit ad iurandum. {25}
FRONTINUS, _Strat._ iv. 7. 39.
[Linenote: 18. +P. Scipio adulescens+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior, _fatalis dux huiusce belli_, the predestined champion in this war.]
+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, where Camillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii.
C25
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
A. _Rome's Heroes._
Regulum et Scauros animaeque magnae Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno Gratus insigni referam Camena Fabriciumque. 40 Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44 Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo Fama Marcelli; micat inter omnes Iulium sidus velut inter ignes Luna minores. 48
HORACE, _Odes_, I. xii. 37-48.
[Linenotes: 37. +Scauros+[34] (= +Scaurum+) = _such men as Scaurus_. Censor, 100 B.C. 40. +Fabricium+, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B.C. See p. 101, Fabricius the Just. [[Selection D42]] 43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with homestead to match_. --Gow.]
[Footnote 34: Cf. in French, _Les Vergiles_.]
B. _The Dream of Propertius._
Visus eram molli recubans Heliconis in umbra, Bellerophontei qua fluit umor equi, Reges, Alba, tuos et regum facta tuorum, Tantum operis, nervis hiscere posse meis; 4 Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora, Unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit, Et cecini Curios fratres et Horatia pila, Regiaque Aemilia vecta tropaea rate, 8 Victricesque moras Fabii pugnamque sinistram Cannensem et versos ad pia vota deos, Hannibalemque Lares Romana sede fugantes, Anseris et tutum voce fuisse Iovem. 12
PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) iii. (ii.) 1-12.
+Subject:+--Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with his lips (l. 5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow the example of Ennius.
[Linenotes: 2. i.e. the Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties. 4. +nervis ... meis+ = _that I had strength to gasp forth_. --Ramsay. 7. +Curios+ = _Curiatios_. +Horatia pila+: see pp. 67-68. [[Selections D8, D9]] 8. +Aemilia+, i.e. of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B.C. over Perseus of Macedon. 10. +versos ... deos+, i.e. the solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius, Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods _turned a ready ear_ (+versos+). 12. +fuisse+, dependent on +cecini+ l. 19. +Iovem+, i.e. _Iovis Capitolini templum_. See p. 84.] [[Selection D25]]
C26
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C._ (1)
A. _Capua aspires to rival Rome._
Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit. Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi, Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus, 4 Aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox, Nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube Parentibusque abominatus Hannibal: 8 Impia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas, Ferisque rursus occupabitur solum.
HORACE, _Epod._ xvi. 1-10.
[Linenotes: 5. +Aemula virtus Capuae.+ In 216 B.C. Capua was, after Rome, the richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she aspired to dominion over Italy. +Spartacus acer+, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B.C. 6. +novis rebus infidelis+ = _faithless to revolution_, because they assisted in betraying Catiline's plot 63 B.C.--Wickham. 9. +impia ... aetas+ = _we an impious generation whose blood is foredoomed_ (i.e. there is a curse on us) _shall destroy_ (Rome).]
B. _Decius Magius defies Hannibal._
Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendique Decium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cum manente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectae catenae, ducique ante lictorem {15} in castra est iussus. Quoad capite aperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undique multitudinem vociferans: 'Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis: foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundus vinctus ad mortem {20} rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Ite obviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, ut hunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis.'
LIVY, xxiii. 10.
+Context.+ After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entry into the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magius and his son, poured out to meet him.
[Linenotes: 11. +in templo magistratuum+ = _on the magistrates' bench_, (or _tribunal_). 12. +Decium Magium+, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome. 14-15. +negaret ... posse+ = _urged that by the terms of the treaty_ (i.e. between the Capuans and H.) _this could not be insisted on_. --Church and Brodribb.]
C27
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C._ (2)
A. _'Capua,' it is said, 'became Hannibal's Cannae.'_
Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma Campaniam Tarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeo ut vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictum Alpibus, indomitum armis Campani--quis {5} crederet?--soles et tepentes fontibus Baiae subegerunt.
FLORUS, II. vi. 21-22.
[Linenotes: 2. +Campaniam Tarentumque+, once the two most fertile districts in Italy. 4. +Capuam ... fuisse.+ Ihne says: 'Whatever may have been the pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal's troops in Capua, their military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent history of the war sufficiently demonstrates.' 7-8. +tepentes fontibus Baiae+, on a small bay west of Naples and opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs.]
B. _The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B.C._
Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobiles Campani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes in custodias {10} dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civium Campanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit, quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam. Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem {15} omni fertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servata est, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudo incolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omnis et tecta publica populi Romani facta. {20}
LIVY, xxvi. 16.
[Linenotes: 10. +sociorum Latini nominis+ = _sociorum_ +ac+ _Latini nominis_, which includes all the Italian allies. 'The _Nomen Latinum_ were the members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338 B.C. after the Latin War.' --Rawlins. 13. +delendam.+ Cf. Cato's _Delenda est Carthago_. 15-17. +agrum ... in Italia esse.+ Cf. Verg. _Georg._ ii. 224-5: 'Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the Vesuvian ridge.' --Mackail. 18. +frequentandae+ = _for the purpose of peopling_. 19. +institorum+ = _pedlars or dealers_. Cf. our 'commercial travellers'. 20. +publica ... facta+ = _confiscated_. 'This _ager publicus_ was leased by the censors to farmers (_aratores_) who paid rent (_vectigal_) for it.' --R.]
C28
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Marcellus at Nola, 216 B.C._
Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercitum instruxit. . . . Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali sub signis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stanti primo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus {5} porta egrederetur nec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquia esse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussos propere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satis fidens, si cunctantibus {10} instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebem moturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signa succeditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signa canere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto {15} maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroris tumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P. Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere. . . . Ingens victoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta {20} est; non vinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere.
LIVY, xxiii. 16.
+Context.+ The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joining Hannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, as elsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time to inform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger of a revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the town with a strong garrison.
[Linenotes: 3-5. +Hannibali ... primo miraculo esse+ = _Hannibal, who ... had his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished that_. --Church and Brodribb. 7. +colloquia esse+, i.e. his _communications_ (+colloquia+) with the Carthaginian party in Nola. 8. +res[)i]des+ = _inactive_, lit. _that remains sitting_ (+re + sedeo+). 10. +si cunctantibus instaret+ = _if he met hesitation with prompt
## action_. --Church and Brodribb. Lit. _if he pressed upon those
hesitating_. 12. +in sua ... ministeria+ = _to their several posts_. 19-21. +Ingens ... gesta est+ = _a great victory, the greatest, perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day_.]
+Nola+, an important town in Campania, S.E. of Capua. It remained faithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal.
+Marcellus at Nola.+ 'It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nola from being taken.' --Ihne.
C29
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Cicero's Description of Syracuse._
Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omnium saepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cum munito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: et portus habet prope in aedificatione {5} aspectuque urbis inclusos: qui cum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur et confluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, mari disiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta est urbs, ut ex {10} quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum una est ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusque portus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronis regis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs {15} Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimae porticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumque egregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunae fanum antiquum fuit, {20} Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasium amplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars et habitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postrema coaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum est maximum. {25}
CICERO, _In Verrem_, ii. 4. 117-119.
[Linenotes: 5-6. +prope ... inclusos+, a special feature of Syracuse, because many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a harbour detached from them (e.g. Ostia, the port of Rome), though sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens. 7. +in exitu+ = _at their outlet_, i.e. the narrow channel between Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two harbours. 9. +disiuncta+ = _separated from the rest_ (+dis+--). 12. +Insula+, i.e. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited. 14. +Hieronis regis+, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C., distinguished by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263 B.C. till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome. 16. +Achradina+, the mainland N. of Ortygia. At the time of the famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B.C., the city consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina. 18. +prytaneum+ = _town-hall_ (#prutaneion# = _the presidents' hall_). 25. +theatrum est maximum+, capable of holding 25,000 people. Of all the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the Theatre alone remains.]
+Reference.+ Freeman's _History of Sicily_.
C30
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Engineering Skill of Archimedes._
Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormenta in muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingenti pondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebat telis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela {5} in hostem ingererent, murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quae cava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem. Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorum essent, in {10} eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmae catenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbi recelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; dein remissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum {15} ingenti trepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si recta reciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusa omnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed ea quoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa {20} erat Hieronis impensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte.
LIVY, xxiv, 34.
[Linenotes: 1. +adversus ... apparatum+, i.e. to oppose the elaborate naval attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina. 7. +cubitalibus fere cavis+ = _with holes_ (fr. +cavum+ = noun) _about 1½ feet square_, +cubitalibus+ (_cubitum_) = _a cubit long_. Polybius has a _palm_ long, about 3 inches. This is more probable. 8. +scorpionibus+ = _crossbows_ or _manuballistae_. 10. +quo interiores ... essent+ = _so as to be too close in to be hit by_ (+intertores ictibus+) _the engines_. 10-12. +in eas+ (sc. +proras+) +iniecta+ = _on their bows was dropped_ ... 11. +tollenone+ = _from a swing beam_, supported at the centre of gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum. 12-13. +cum (ferrea manus) gravique ... ad solum+ = lit. _when (the grappling-iron) swung back_ (+recelleret+) _to the ground by a heavyweight of lead_. 'This is incorrect; it was not the grappling-iron, but the other (_inland_) end of the lever which was brought down to the ground.' --Rawlins. 15. +remissa+ (sc. +ferrea manus+) = _the grappling-hook was (then) suddenly let go_. 16. +ita undae affligebat+ = _was dashed with such violence on the disturbed water_ (+undae+).]
+Cause of the War.+ Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B.C., his whole family was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into the hands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal's agents.
C31
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Marcellus laments over Syracuse._
Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium ferme ilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimasse dicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloria urbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo {5} ingentes exercitus cum duobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cum Carthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta, tot tam opulenti tyranni regesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum ante omnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque {10} sua dederat, beneficiis in populum Romanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretque cogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura, priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, {15} qui intra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes ad dedendam urbem. . . . Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multa irae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriae proditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum {20} pavor captae urbis in discursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas in pulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegre id Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiam inquisitis honori praesidioque {25} nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse.
LIVY, xxv. 24, 31.
[Linenotes: 1-2. +ex superioribus locis+, i.e. from the heights of Epipolae, which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were celebrating a three days' festival of Artemis. 6. +ducibus+, e.g. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes. 7-8. +tot bella ... gesta+, e.g. at Himera, 480 B.C., on the same day as Salamis. 8-9. +tot tam ... regesque+, e.g. Gelo, 485 B.C.; Dionysius the Elder, 406 B.C.; Hiero II., the friend and ally of Rome, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C. 8. +tyranni+, i.e. _absolute rulers, despots_, with reference rather to the _irregular way_ in which the power was gained, than the way in which it _was exercised_. 16. +qui ... fuerant+, i.e. Syracusan deserters who kept up communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse. 22. +formis+ = _diagrams_. 24. +sepulturae+. Cf. Demonstration VI, page 54.]
+The Treatment of Syracuse.+ It would have been the undying glory of Marcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy city from further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome, a precedent afterwards followed.
C32
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Death of Marcellus, 208 B.C._
Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique et conspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae rei positus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castris progressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut {5} pariter ab suis quisque latebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipso consurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam. Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in ea valle {10} consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatum ab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamen diutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris {15} iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab Etruscis Fregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnando rem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiam transfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum {20} videre, tum et ipsi--perpauci autem supererant--cum Crispino consule duobus iaculis ieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt.
LIVY, xxvii. 27.
+Context+. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B.C. After the attempt to retake Locri (S.E. of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal, Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. near Venusia in Apulia. Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adopted Fabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explore the country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps.
[Linenotes: 2-3. +Numidis speculator+. A wooded hill lay between the two camps: H. had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen. 4-5. +si quos possent excipere+ = _on the chance of their being able to intercept_. --Stephenson. 6-8. +Non ante ... circumiere+ = _those who were to spring on the enemy_ (lit. _those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass confronting the enemy_ +obviis+) _from the hill itself did not show themselves until a detachment had made their way round_ (+circumiere+).--S. 10. +valle+ = _a hollow_, i.e. a depression on the Roman side of the hill. 16. +Fregellani+. Fregellae, a town of the Volsci, on the Via Latina between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B.C. 17. +ipsique ex parte pugnando+ = _taking their share in fighting_. --S.]
+Character of Marcellus+. 'He was a brave soldier, a firm intrepid patriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as a general no match for Hannibal.' --Ihne.
C33
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Character of Scipio Africanus Maior._
Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoque quadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apud multitudinem aut _ut_ per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitus mente monita agens, sive et ipse capti {5} quadam superstitione animi, sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctatione exsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togam virilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit, quam {10} in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumque solus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitam servabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdam fecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia {15} eiusdem generis, alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuvene excesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturae tantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit.
LIVY, xxvi. 19.
[Linenotes: 2-3. +in ostentationem earum compositus+ = _he made a study_ (+compositus+) _of displaying them_, implying artificiality. --R. 3-5. +pleraque ... agens+ = _in most of his dealings_ (+pleraque agens+) _with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired_ (+visa+) _by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration_ (+divinitus mente monita+). 7. +sorte+ = _by an oracular response_ (which was often written on a little tablet or _lot_, +sors+). 11. +aedem+, i.e. the _cella_ (_chapel_, the part enclosed within the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 13-14. +seu consulto seu temere vulgatae+ = _whether designedly or undesignedly spread abroad_. 17. +humanae+ = _which one has for a mere man_. --Rawlins. 19. +tantam rerum molem+ = _so stupendous a task_. --R. In 212 or 211 B.C. the two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio, son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B.C. sent to Spain, at the age of 27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11,000 men.]
+Character of Scipio.+ 'He was a man far above the average of his contemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not fail to rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by not only daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry them out.' --Ihne.
C34
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B.C._
Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatores Tarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadis pervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitum dari, eo secum armatos quingentos {5} duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamine intravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam, circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omnium non animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantium spectantiumque {10} et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergo senserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimque ancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moenia capta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox {15} caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armati impetum fecerunt. . . . Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passim factae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo dato caedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, {20} quae ingens omnis generis fuit.
LIVY, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel.)
[Linenotes: 3. +vadis pervagatos stagnum+ = _made their way through the pool by wading_ (+vadis+). 8. +contractum+ = _concentrated (confined)_. 13. +ancipitem+ = _double_, _twofold_, _on two opposite sides_. 15. +intus forisque+ = _both within and without_. +foris+, adv. (an abl. form from an obsolete nom. +fora+) = _out of doors_, _without_. Cf. +foras+ = _out through the doors_, _forth_. 16-17. +caedendo ... distractis foribus+ = _when the doors were destroyed and broken up by blows_.]
+Carthago Nova+ (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle of Hannibal) 243 B.C. The city is situated on a promontory running out into the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world, protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weak side, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tide the water of the shallow pool W. of the town fell so much that it was fordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. He first made a feint attack on the N. wall and then led 500 men across the ford, who scaled the W. wall and opened the nearest gate from the inside.
+Result of its Capture.+ 'New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis of operations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thus determining the issue of the Spanish War.' --Ihne.
C35
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Nero's famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B.C._
Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum Frentanum Praetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusque commeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equos iumentaque alia producerent, ut {5} vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipse de toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex milia peditum, mille equites. . . . Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibus virorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et {10} laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanae imperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumque suorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasque precabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura {15} ex hostibus victoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent, ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos post dies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisque et offerre et fatigare {20} precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usui essent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestia certare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari, nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem {25} ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset, quieti dare.
LIVY, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel.)
+Context.+ Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen of Hasdrubal's march and plans--to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then to march on Narnia and Rome--with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrew secretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forced march joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus.
[Linenotes: 1-2. +Larinatem+, etc., districts lying between Apulia and Umbria, but not given in their geographical order. 15. +faustum+ (for _favostus_, _fav-eo_) = that which is done under the blessing of the gods: +felix+ = that which succeeds in consequence of having this blessing upon it. --Stephenson. 16-17. +damnarentur ... votorum+ = _condemned (to pay) their vows_. Cf. Verg. _Voti reus_ = _bound to my vow_, i.e. bound to fulfilment. 23. +Modestia certare+ (sc. _cum iis_) +... sumerent+ = _the soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take anything_ ...--S.]
'Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassed the average qualifications of Roman generals.' --Ihne.
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SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_The Metaurus, 207 B.C._
Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis; Est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum Virtus, neque imbellem feroces Progenerant aquilae columbam; 32 Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam, Rectique cultus pectora roborant; Utcumque defecere mores, Indecorant bene nata culpae. 36 Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal Devictus et pulcher fugatis Ille dies Latio tenebris, 40 Qui primus alma risit adorea, Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas Ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus Per Siculas equitavit undas. 44 Post hoc secundis usque laboribus Romana pubes crevit, et impio Vastata Poenorum tumultu Fana deos habuere rectos. 48
HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 29-48.
[Linenotes: 29-36. The thought is: 'It is true that scions of a good stock must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet _education_ (+doctrina+ = _training_ l. 33) _brings out the innate force_.' 29. +fortibus et bonis.+ For the combined epithets cf. #kalos kagathos#. 36. +Indecorant ... culpae+ = _faults disfigure_ (+indecorant = dedecorant+) _scions of an honourable stock_ (+bene nata+). 37. +Neronibus+, e.g. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of Augustus. 41. +alma adorea+ = _with kindly (refreshing) success_. 43. +ceu flamma per taedas+ = _like fire through a pine-forest_. --W. 44. +equitavit+ = _galloped_, _careered_, used of Hannibal, and, by zeugma, with +flamma+ and +Eurus+. 46-47. +impio tumultu+ = _by the sacrilegious invasion_ (or _riot_, _outrage_), possibly with reference to Livy's story (xxvi. 11) of the plundering of the Temple of Feronia. 48. +rectos+ = _upright_, i.e. of the images supposed to have been thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again.]
+Results of the Battle.+ 'The war in Italy was to all appearances finished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain.' --Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, he foresaw the doom of Carthage:--
'Lost, lost is all: A nation's hope, a nation's name, They died with dying Hasdrubal.' --C. (Hor. _Od._ IV. iv. 70-73).
C37
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B.C._
Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur legatorum verba audisse. {5} Postquam edita sunt mandata, 'Iam non perplexe,' inquit, 'sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis {10} obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.' Iam hoc ipsum praesagiens animo praeparaverat {15} ante naves. Itaque inutili militum turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa relinquentem, {20} tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium terra excedentem.
LIVY, xxx. 19, 20.
+Context.+ Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.
[Linenotes: 3-4. +ad Magonem.+ Mago, H.'s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C. fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa. 6. +Iam non perplexe+ = _now in no veiled manner_ (lit. _not obscurely_). 8. +iam pridem trahebant+ = _began long ago to try to pull me back_. --Rawlins. 11. +obtrectatione+ = _by disparagement_. 13. +Hanno+, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his sons.]
+Hannibal's Speech.+ ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says 'The whole course of the war is a sufficient refutation of these charges.'
C38
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Zama, 202 B.C._ (1) _Before the Battle._
Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma expedirent milites animosque ad {5} supremum certamen, non in unum diem sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par {10} periculum praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen procedunt postero die duorum {15} opulentissimorum populorum duo longe clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis {20} magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia obversabantur.
LIVY, xxx. 31, 32.
[Linenotes: 1-2. +Ita infecta pace ... renuntiant+, referring to Livy's picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace. 7-10. +Roma an Carthago ... praemium fore.+ 'By the victory of Zama it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by Rome and not by Carthage.' --Ihne. 14. +effuso+ = _dispersed_, i.e. _defeated_. 15. +discrimen+ = _decisive point_, _decision_. 18. +aut cumulaturi aut eversuri+ = _either to augment_ (lit. _heap up_) _or overthrow_. 21. +pensarent vires+ = _they estimated (weighed) their strength_.]
+The Battle of Zama.+ 'Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see +C+ 39, B. note), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.'s Carthaginian cavalry into such disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio's horse. The first Roman line threw H.'s mercenaries back upon their reserves of the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until Scipio's Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of H.'s horse, fell upon the enemy's rear and decided the battle.' --Ihne.
C39
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
_Zama, 202 B.C._ (2) _The Order of Battle._
A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, {5} at certe fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum ab Italia invitos extraxerat. {10}
+Hannibal's Army.+ It consisted broadly of five classes:
1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).
These he placed in his _third_ line.
2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.
These he placed in his _second_ line.
3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic contingent, and the Spaniards.
These he placed in his _first_ line.
4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.
These he placed on his _wings_.
5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his _front_, to open the attack.
B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti {15} facile transmitti sine perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in cornua divisit et dextro Romanis {20} equitibus Laelium, sinistro Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie causa victoriae fuit.
FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3. 16.
+Scipio's order of battle.+ Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the black squares of a chessboard--the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line--he placed them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:
+not+ +but+ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY.
C40
SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (1)
_Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C._
Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primo bestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus e tribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorum militibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae {5} haud dubie vincebat, brevi circuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergo adortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali re trepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis, nec {10} circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedem referentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc loco etiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclive pulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. {15} Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam. Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem inter ceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortuna esset; deinde, postquam fugam {20} effusam animadvertit et omnia circa iuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit.
LIVY, xxxiii. 9, 10.
+Context.+ Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in 215 B.C., and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B.C.) by an attack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum in Epirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble he had caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. A _casus belli_ was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B.C.) asking for help against Philip.
[Linenotes: 3-4. +unus ... militum.+ Ihne says 'He seized the favourable opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a brilliant victory for Rome.' 5. +signorum+ (= _manipulorum_) = _companies_, i.e. with some 3500 men. 13. +loco premebantur+ = _they_ (i.e. _the phalanx_) _began to feel the disadvantage of position_. --Rawlins. 16. +in medio caesi+ = _cut down from both sides_. --R.]
+Cynoscephalae+ (_Dog's Heads_), a low chain of hills between Pherae and Scotussa in Thessaly.
+Results of the Battle.+ 'The Romans lost only 700 men. That was the price paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Great in the dust.' --Ihne.
+Terms of Peace+, 196 B.C. Macedonia to remain an independent state, but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunk to the level of a vassal state.
C41
SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (2)
_Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B.C._
Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cum propter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generis artium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propter opportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria {5} omnium rerum usus ministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatus erat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sed exspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae sua fortuna esset. Ad spectaculum {10} consederant, et praeco cum tubicine, ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indici solet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: 'Senatus Romanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusque devictis, {15} liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios, Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos, Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas.' ... Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quae sua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro {20} libertate aliorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes; hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutis et fortunae ingentis.
LIVY, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel.)
[Linenotes: 1. +Isthmiorum statum ludicrum+ = _time fixed_ (+statum+) _for the Isthmian Games_ (celebrated at Corinth every two years). 3-4. +quo certamina ... visuntur+ = _which makes them go to see contests of every kind of artistic performance_ (+artium+) _and of feats of strength and agility_. --Rawlins. 7. +concilium is mercatus erat ...+ = _that gathering was the general rendezvous_ (+mercatus+) _of_ ... +mercatus+ = i. _trade_, or _mart_; ii. _a festival assemblage_ (#panêguris#). 11. +in mediam aream+ = _into the centre of the open space (of the stadium)_. 17. +Locrensesque omnes+, i.e. E. & W. Locris. 18. +Perrhaebos+, N. of Thessaly. +Achaeos Phthiotas+ = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S.E. of Thessaly). 19-24. +Esse aliquam ... ingentis:+ in these words the Greeks express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the boon conferred upon them.]
+The Freedom of Greece.+ 'The Greeks believed with a childlike simplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that they had crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from a foreign yoke. . . . Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, and
## particularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for he
understood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so many other Romans, to Greek views and opinions.' --Ihne.
C42
WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B.C.
A. _Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B.C. Victory due to Cato._
Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaia pro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritus tantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eo Porcius Cato, qui tum, iam {5} consularis, tribunus militum a populo factus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, qui praesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergo subitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimque irrupere Romani {10} et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt.
FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 4. 4.
+Context.+ In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted the invitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B.C., had been snubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny of Rome.
B. _Battle of Magnesia, 190 B.C._
Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor Carthaginis Africanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iam toto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum {15} ad amnem montemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibus auxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitum falcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensae magnitudinis, auro purpura {20} argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciem utrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hoc imbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat. Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. {25}
FLORUS, i. 24. 14-18.
+Context.+ In 190 B.C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war into Asia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff, fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn. Domitius, an experienced officer.
[Linenotes: 14-15. +Et iam toto cesserat mari+, as the result of the decisive defeat, in 190 B.C., of the Syrian fleet off +Myonnesus+. 15-16. +Maeandrum ... ponuntur.+ The battle was fought near Magnesia (N.W. of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus.]
+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, 'The +Battle of Magnesia+ decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of +Zama+ and +Cynoscephalae+ had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia.' --Ihne.
C43
_Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B.C._
Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse, postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit et omnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo ante praeparatum ad tales habebat casus, {5} poposcit. 'Liberemus,' inquit, 'diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum censent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininus victoriam feret.' Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque {10} Prusiae, et hospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculum exhausit. . . . Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum non tempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemo eorum satis dignum splendore {15} vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnes non in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal et Philopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen in carcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque {20} damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus, voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsilium indixit.
LIVY, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel.)
+Context.+ After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (_Suffete_ = L. _praetura_) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms. However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome _as making plans for a new war_, and in 195 B.C. he was forced to flee from Carthage and took refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. found for seven years a safe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not be at ease so long as H. lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greece undertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal.
[Linenotes: 13-15. +non tempore magis congruente quam+ = _not so much in coincidence of_ (+congruente+, lit. _agreeing with_) _date as_. --R. 18. +Philopoemen+, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (+in carcere+, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison. 20-23. +Scipio+ was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the tribune Naevius (185 B.C.) of having been bribed by Antiochus to procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at Liternum, where _by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and his grave to exile_ (+voluntarium ... indixit+). '_Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes._' Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself.]
C44
_M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B.C._ (1)
At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Nam et in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictum addidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare. Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam {5} aetatem ab adolescentia, rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. A multis tentatus non modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit.
In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam {10} et agricola sollers et peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator et cupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat, tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque de Graecis neque de {15} Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Ab adulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam rem omnes {20} Origines videtur appellasse.
NEPOS, _Cato_, ii., iii.
[Linenotes: 1. +Censor+, 184 B.C., with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life. 3. +in edictum.+ The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued a _proclamation_ or _edict_, setting forth the principles upon which they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended to use his power for the suppression of luxury. 5. +pullulare+ = _to spread, increase_; lit. _to put forth_, of plants and animals. Cf. _pull-us_ (our _pullet_), _pu-er_, #pôlos# (= _a foal_).] +octoginta.+ This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when he died 149 B.C. 6-7. +rei publicae ... non destitit.+ Seneca says: _Scipio cum hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit._ 7-9. Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time acquitted. 11. +iuris consultus+ = _lawyer_. 12. +magnus imperator+, e.g. in the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae (191 B.C.) was mainly due to Cato. +probabilis orator+ = _a tolerable, acceptable orator_. Oscar Browning. 17-21. His two great works were his treatise +De Re Rustica+ (or +De Agri Cultura+), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his +Origines+, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. 'It was Cato's great merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for literary prose composition.' --Ihne.]
+Cato the Censor.+ 'He deserves our highest respect for the defiant and manly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices of the age.' --Ihne.
C45
_M. Porcius Cato._ (2)
Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae Moles relinquent, undique latius Extenta visentur Lucrino Stagna lacu platanusque caelebs 4 Evincet ulmos: tum violaria et Myrtus et omnis copia narium Spargent olivetis odorem Fertilibus domino priori; 8 Tum spissa ramis laurea fervidos Excludet ictus. Non ita Romuli Praescriptum et intonsi Catonis Auspiciis veterumque norma. 12 Privatus illis census erat brevis, Commune magnum: nulla decempedis Metata privatis opacam Porticus excipiebat Arcton. 16 Nec fortuitum spernere caespitem Leges sinebant, oppida publico Sumptu iubentes et deorum Templa novo decorare saxo. 20
HORACE, _Odes_, II. xv.
+Argument.+ 'Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens are supplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. +This is not the spirit of Romulus or of Cato.+ Their rule was private thrift, public magnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples of hewn stone.' --W.
[Linenotes: 1. +Iam+ = _presently_. 1-2. +regiae moles+ = _princely piles_. +moles+, lit. _masses_, of _huge buildings_. 2-4. +undique ... lacu+ = _and fish-ponds_ (+stagna+) _of wider extent than the L. lake will be sights to see_ (+visentur+).--Wickham. 4. +platanus caelebs+ = _the bachelor plane_, so called because vines were not _wedded to it_ (i.e. trained upon it).--Gow. 6. +omnis copia narium+ = _all that is sweet to smell_. Lit. _all the fulness of the nostrils_. 10. +ictus+ (sc. _solis_). The point is that formerly trees were stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun is excluded. --Gow. 11. +intonsi+ (= _antiqui_) = _old-fashioned_. Cf. Cic.'s use of _barbatus_. 13. +census erat brevis+ = _list of property was short_. 14. +commune+ (= #to koinon#) = _the common (public) stock_. 14-15. +decempedis metata privatis+ = _measured with ten-foot rods for private owners_. In old days the +porticûs+ were always _publicae_. 17. +fortuitum caespitem+ = _the chance-cut (handy) turf_. 20. +novo saxo+ = _with fresh-hewn stone_, i.e. hewn on purpose. --W.]
+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, _Catiline_ 12, 13.
'Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavoured without success to bring this old time back.' --Ihne.
C46
THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.
_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (1)
Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maior sexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculique capessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat, implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A {5} tergo caetratis erat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur. Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidem phalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, unde circa fluvium {10} commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alas sociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraque nova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, non quemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo {15} effectu evanescunt, ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commenta Macedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecuti sunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. {20}
LIVY, xliv. 41.
+Context.+ Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the death of his father in 179 B.C. He did all he could to prepare for the inevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as the Liberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus of Syria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174 B.C., the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiating with Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. The Senate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B.C.), appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to the supreme command in Macedonia.
[Linenotes: 4. +caetratos+ = _Targeteers_, armed with the _small_ round shield. 5-7. +A tergo ... habebat+ (sc. +legio prima+) = _the (first) Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards the Shieldmen_. --Rawlins. 6. +clipeatos+ = _Shieldmen_, armed with the _large_ round shield. 7. +chalcaspides+ = _Brazen Shields_, Right Division of phalanx. 9. +leucaspidem+ = _White Shields_, Left Division of phalanx. 10. +in dextrum cornu+ (sc. +Romanum+), i.e. nearest to the sea. 13-15. +commenta ... oportet+ = lit. _the contrivances of men, though in theory_ (+in verbis+) _they had some importance_ (+vim+) _yet upon trial_ (+experiendo+) _when there is need of action and not of discussion_ (+edisseri+) _how to act_. . . . 17. +commenta Macedonum.+ Perh. with reference to Perseus' contrivances (e.g. by the use of _dummy_ elephants) to prepare his men and horses to make a stand against _real_ elephants.]
C47
THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.
_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (2)
In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ulla evidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant, quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuius confertae et intentis horrentes {5} hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; si carptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitate hastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut ab tergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tum adversus catervatim {10} incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariam acie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent, insinuabant ordines suos. . . . Diu phalanx a fronte, a lateribus, ab tergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, {15} inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos, qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphas concurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venire rati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, {20} longius in aquam, quidam etiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphis caederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliam foediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litus
## acti, exeuntes obterebant {25} elidebantque.
LIVY, xliv. 41, 42.
[Linenotes: 1. +In medio ... immissa+ = _On the centre the second legion charged_ (+immissa+), i.e. into the interstices of the phalanx, which was not preserving its usual close order. --Rawlins. 4-6. +fluctuantem ... vires sunt+ = _first demoralised the phalanx so as to make it waver_, (+fluctuantem+), _and then shattered it. Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles with couched_ (+intentis+) _spears, is irresistible_ (+intolerabiles+). 6. +carptim aggrediendo+ = _by repeated harassing attacks_. 10. +ruinae modo+ = _in hopeless confusion_. --R. 17. +classe.+ The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with the army.]
+Results of the Battle+. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom was divided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had fought its last great battle.
+Character of Paulus+. 'He was a model of the Roman of the best time. He was not, like his contemporary Cato, a onesided worshipper of everything old; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious to preserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them.' --Ihne.
C48
THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B.C.
_Destruction of Carthage, 146 B.C._
Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus, nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa, quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvis profligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen {5} Scipionum videbatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem belli reposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent esse morientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quam cum integra. Compulsis {10} in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mari Romanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis parte foderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere posse credebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iam diebus, {15} iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, nova perditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribus flamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorum se dederunt quod minus credas--duce Hasdrubale. {20}
FLORUS, II. xv. 11-17 (sel.).
+Context.+ An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B.C. to inquire into the affairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who, astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage, returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must be destroyed--_delenda est Carthago_. A pretext was soon found in the war (151 B.C.) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally of Rome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitions of war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city and settle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die rather than give up the sacred soil of their country.
[Linenotes: 5. +profligato+ = _almost finished_. 6. +in alium Scipionem+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal. 12. +alterum portum+, i.e. they pierced the narrow strip of land separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea. 18. +deploratis+ = _was looked upon as lost_, lit. _wept for bitterly_. 20. +duce Hasdrubale:+ 'Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of _the last Carthaginian_ in the best sense of the word, as a representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and patriotism of his race.' --Ihne.]
'The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemn curse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build a new town on that spot.' --Ihne.
+Africa made a Roman Province.+
C49
WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B.C.
_Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B.C._
Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annos DCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit. Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alter Africanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec {5} quisquam ex novis hominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversi imperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegans liberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, ut Polybium Panaetiumque, {10} praecellentes ingenio viros, domi militiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius intervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacis serviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpus periculis {15} aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit, ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas ac statuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, si eas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. {20}
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i. 13.
+Context.+ In 149 B.C. an adventurer named Andriscus claimed to be Philip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly. He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B.C. his army was routed and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans, _no longer needing the help of Greek troops_, determined to break up the Achaean League. A last desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but the Greeks were easily defeated (146 B.C.) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, and Corinth itself was plundered and destroyed.
[Linenotes: 2-3. +quam ... condita.+ Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city #Dios Korinthos#. 10. +Panaetium+, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor. 13. +dispunxit+ = _he devoted, gave up_ (lit. _marked off_). 19. +locaret+ = _he hired_ (lit. _place out_, i.e. _give out on contract_). +conducentibus+ = _to the contractors_.]
+The Destruction of Corinth.+ 'The flames which consumed Miletus (destroyed by the Persians 494 B.C.) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480 B.C.) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of a magnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came the long dark night.' --Ihne.
+Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of the Roman governor of Macedonia+.
C50
WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B.C.
_The Lusitanian Hannibal._
Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solis gentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vir calliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito dux atque imperator et, si fortuna {5} cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, non contentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omnia citra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiam praetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene ad internecionem {10} exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibus nostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iam Fabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violata victoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem et extrema {15} deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticos percussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vinci non posse.
FLORUS, II. xvii. 13-17 (sel.).
+Context.+ After the defeat of Perseus (168 B.C.) and before the outbreak of the third Punic War (149 B.C.) a suitable opportunity seemed to present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest of Spain; but 'for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and of humble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured for himself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal and Mithridates.' Ihne.
[Linenotes: 1. +cum Lusitanis.+ The Lusitani (S. of the R. Tagus = mod. Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B.C. 6. +cessisset+ (= _concessisset_) = _had permitted._ 10-12. +Claudium Unimanum ... fixit+, i.e. in 147 B.C. 'The captured fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e.g. +trabeis+, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains.' --Ihne. 13. +Fabius Maximus consul+, i.e. Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141 B.C., and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome soon found a pretext for breaking. 17. +percussores+ = _assassins_, lit. _strikers_ (_per + cutio_ = _quatio_). Cf. the fate of Sertorius, 72 B.C.]
+The War with Viriathus.+ 'It was sad and disgraceful for the Roman arms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover, the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability and the moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than even in the war with Viriathus.' --Ihne.
C51
NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B.C.
_Destruction of Numantia, 133 B.C._
Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redacto in disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum se umquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret. Dedere etiam se volebant, {5} si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossa atque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, a duce orantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant, placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret {10} fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorum cingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deplorato exitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce se suos patriam ferro veneno {15} subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Macte fortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem! Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manu aetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitas nullum de {20} se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus non fuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: arma ipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine.
FLORUS, II. xviii. 11-17 (sel.).
+Context.+ In 143 B.C. the Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged by the successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their most important town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius (Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consul failed to take it, until in 134 B.C. Scipio Africanus Minor, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborn city.
[Linenotes: 2-3. +Sic redacto ... a Scipione.+ 'Scipio's first task, when he arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there, once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and cowardice--the most unroman of all vices--had begun to creep in.' --Ihne. 7. +lorica+ = _a breastwork_, serving as _a screen_. Usu. = _a cuirass_. 11. +sedit+ = _was decided on_, lit. _settled_. 16. +Macte+ = _a blessing on_ or _hail to thee_. +Mactus+ prob. from [Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar# = _blessed_, but cf. _mag-nus_. 18. +Asseruit+ = _it protected_. +assero+ (_ad + sero_) = lit. _join-to_.]
+Destruction of Numantia.+ Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town to the ground, and received the added surname of +Numantinus+.
+Roman Province in Spain.+
C52
_Rome the Invincible._
Dixitque tandem perfidus Hannibal: 'Cervi, luporum praeda rapacium, Sectamur ultro, quos opimus Fallere et effugere est triumphus. 52 Gens, quae cremato fortis ab Ilio Iactata Tuscis aequoribus sacra Natosque maturosque patres Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes, 56 Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus Nigrae feraci frondis in Algido, Per damna, per caedes ab ipso Ducit opes animumque ferro 60 Non Hydra secto corpore firmior Vinci dolentem crevit in Herculem, Monstrumve submisere Colchi Maius Echioniaeve Thebae. 64 Merses profundo: pulchrior evenit; Luctere: multa proruet integrum Cum laude victorem geretque Proelia coniugibus loquenda.' 68
HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 49-68.
[Linenotes: 51. +ultro+ = _aggressively, needlessly_. --Wickham. 51-52. +opimus triumphus+ = _a rare_ (lit. _rich, noble_) _triumph_. Cf. _spolia opima_. 53-56. 'This stanza is a _résumé_ of the story of the _Aeneid_.' --W. 53. +gens+ (sc. +illa+), i.e. the Roman stock. 57-60. 'The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from its pyre.' --W. 58. +frondis+ with +feraci+. Cf. _fertilis frugum_. 59-60. +ab ipso ... ferro+ = _from the very edge of the steel itself, the holm-oak_ (= _the Roman stock_) _draws fresh power and spirit_. 61-62. Cf. the saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, 'I see that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent.' 63-64. i.e. of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes. 63. +submisere+ = _produced, raised_. 64. +Echioniae Thebae.+ Echion was one of the five survivors of the #Spartoi# (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes. 65. +Merses+ (= +si mersaris+) = _plunge it if you will_. +evenit+ = _it emerges (comes forth)_. 66-67. +multa cum laude+ = _amid loud applause_, of a feat in a wrestling match. --W. 68. +coniugibus+ = i. _by Roman wives_ or ii. _by Carthaginian widows_. So Conington, 'Whose story widow'd wives shall tell.']
CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS, ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B.C.
B1
THE GRACCHI.
Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliis bellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem et paucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa, modo per socios et nomen Latinum, {5} interdum per equites Romanos, quos spes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat, et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium, tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum M. {10} Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haud satis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo more iniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usa multos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque {15} in reliquum sibi timoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitates pessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbius ulcisci volunt.
SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 42.
[Linenotes: 1-3. +quorum maiores ... addiderant+, e.g. their grandfather P. Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (in Spain and Sardinia). 3-4. +paucorum scelera ... coepere.+ (i) Tib. Gracchus by his Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the ruling class (in excess of the 500 _iugera_ limit of the Licinian Laws, 367 B.C.). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried the Sempronian Law, 'one of the cornerstones of individual liberty.' 5. +per socios ... Latinum+, by working on Roman jealousy against the Italians, for whom equality was claimed. 6. +spes societatis+, i.e. the hope of sharing with the nobility in office, and in provincial appointments. 10. +triumvirum c. d.+, one of the three Commissioners for establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the _ager publicus_. 11. +Fulvio Flacco+, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B.C. 17. +pessum dedit+ = _has destroyed_. _pessum_ (prob.) = _pedis_ + _versum_ = _towards the feet, to the ground_, cf. _pessum ire_.]
+The aim of the Gracchi.+ 'Their object was to reduce the excessive power of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, which had become merely nominal, a reality.' --Ihne.
+Their political mistake.+ 'Their error consisted in the belief that such a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the old Comitia. They overlooked the necessity of +remodelling the Roman people itself+ by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in reality make them represent the people.' --Ihne.
B2
CICERO ON THE GRACCHI.
A. _On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C._
Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda Numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum interemit.
_De Off._ i. 76.
[Linenotes: 2. +Numantia+, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus, 133 B.C. 3. +P. Nasîca+, a partisan leader of the Senate. +privatus+ = _not in office_. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it suits his purpose, e.g. in _de lege agraria_, ii. § 10, _duos (Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae viros ... quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video partes constitutas_.]
B. _On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B.C._
Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas {5} fecisset et effudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verba audiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legem frumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendum venerat. Animum advertit {10} Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem: quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentum petat, quam dissuaserit. 'Nolim' inquit 'mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritim dividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam.' Parumne declaravit vir {15} gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari? Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices.
_Tusc. Disput._ iii. 20, 48.
[Linenotes: 8. +L. Piso ille Frugi+ = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of _worth_), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus. 8-9. +legem frumentariam+, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens at about half the market price. 'One of the worst measures ever proposed by a well-meaning statesman.' --Ihne. 12. +qui+ = _how_, old abl. of _qui_.]
C. _On C. Gracchus as an Orator._
Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studio et doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute, pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse.
_Brutus_, 125.
[Linenote: 20. +doctus a puero.+ CORNELIA MATER GRACCHORUM (inscribed upon her statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education; so Cic. _Brut._ 104 _Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero doctus et Graecis literis eruditus_. 'From her they had received that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering, which animated their political action.' --Ihne.]
B3
THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B.C.
_The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B.C._
Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur, Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere, idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sed nocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante {5} diem colloquio decretum, Maurus, adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secum ipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quae scilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremo Sullam accersi {10} iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidias tendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haud procul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obvius honoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem {15} Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat, accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur. Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Marium deductus est. {20}
SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 113.
[Linenotes: 2. +Bocchus+, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha, coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance. +Sullam+, appointed Quaestor 107 B.C. by Marius, who superseded Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War. 9. +quae scilicet ... patefecisse+, i.e. the external signs of his irresolution,--the calling and then dismissing his people (+adhibitis ... remotis+, ll. 6, 7), and the changes of his countenance (+voltu ... varius+, ll. 8, 9). +Scilicet+ is here used with the Infinitive +patefecisse+, the verbal sense of the word (= _scire_ + _licet_) being prominent. 10. +accersi+ (= _arcessiri_), frequent in Sallust. 16. +necessariis+ (_necesse_) = _friends_. Cf. #anankaioi# (#anankê#). 19. +Iugurtha Sullae ... traditur.+ Sulla is said to have been so proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him. (Plutarch, _Sulla_, 3.)]
+Jugurtha.+ 'Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic for six years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time, against a Metellus, a Marius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherous promises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law.' --Ihne.
B4
A. _Arpinum--Birthplace of Cicero and Marius._
Hic novus Arpinas, ignobilis et modo Romae 237 Municipalis eques, galeatum ponit ubique Praesidium attonitis et in omni monte laborat. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sed Roma parentem, 243 Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit. Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat 245 Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro, Nodosam post haec frangebat vertice vitem, Si lentus pigra muniret castra dolabra; Hic tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum Excipit et solus trepidantem protegit urbem. 250
JUVENAL, _Sat._ viii. 237-239, 243-250.
[Linenotes: 239. +in omni monte+, i.e. in every part of Rome, on each of the seven hills. 244. +patrem patriae:+ under the Empire the title _pater patriae_ became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor. +libera+ = _while yet free_, emphatic. The State was no longer free when Augustus received this title, 2 B.C.--Duff. 247. +frangebat vertice vitem+ = _he had the vine-switch (rattan) broken on his head_, i.e. served as a common soldier. --D. 248. +dolabra+ = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe for digging the fossa. For +dolabra+, cf. _Dolabella_. 249. +Cimbros+, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae, 101 B.C. 250. +Excipit+ = _faced_ (lit. _is ready to receive_); metaphor from field-sports. --D.]
B. _From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius._
Hic Iovis altisoni subito pinnata satelles Arboris e trunco serpentis saucia morsu Surrigit ipsa feris transfigens unguibus anguem Semianimum et varia graviter cervice micantem. 4 . . . . . . . Hanc ubi praepetibus pennis lapsuque volantem Conspexit Marius, divini numinis augur, Faustaque signa suae laudis reditusque notavit,
## Partibus intonuit caeli pater ipse sinistris:
Sic aquilae clarum firmavit Iuppiter omen.
[Linenotes: 1. +Iovis pinnata satelles+, i.e. the Eagle. Cf. Pindar, _Pyth._ i. 6: #heudei d' ana skaptô (= skêptrô) Dios aietos#, _and sleeps on the staff of Zeus his eagle_. 3. +Surrigit+ (= _surgit_) = _raises up_; very rare in this sense. The _v.l._ +Sûbigit+ (for _s[)u]bigit_) = _carries aloft_.]
Compare Plutarch's story of the eagle's nest, with seven young ones in it, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so the diviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul.
B5
_The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B.C._
Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eorum inundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique et Gallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castra Silani, inde ad Senatum {5} petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibi terrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibus inter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armis petere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec {10} secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati, exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset. . . . Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem, prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus {15} adsecutus in loco quem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque medium hostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone id egerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certe necessitate acta virtus {20} victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquam exercitu, 'Si viri estis' inquit, 'en, illic habetis.' Itaque tanto ardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruento flumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. {25}
FLORUS, III. iii. 1-9 (sel).
[Linenotes: 5. +Silani+ = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B.C. 11. +Mallius--Caepio+, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the Rhone, 105 B.C. Plutarch, _Lucullus_ 27, says: 'The 6th Oct., on which day the battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B.C.' 12. +Actum erat+, sc. _de republica_. 14. +compendiis+ = _short ways_; cf. our _compendium_ = _an abridgement_. 16. +Aquas Sextias+, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B.C. = Aix, 18 miles N. of Marseilles. 23. +caedes hostium.+ 150,000 (Vell.) and 200,000 (Liv. Ep. lxviii.). 'By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the Cimbri, 101 B.C.), the movement of the German races southward was for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was Marius, the champion of the people.' --Ihne.]
+Parallel Passages.+ Propert. IV. iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. lxviii.
+References.+ Plutarch, _Marius_, 15. Ihne, _Hist. Rome_, vol. v. pp. 98-105.
B6
MARIUS, 157-86 B.C.
A. _His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time._
Atque aliquis magno quaerens exempla timori, 'Non alios,' inquit, 'motus tum fata parabant, Cum post Teutonicos victor Libycosque triumphos Exsul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva. 70 Stagna avidi texere soli laxaeque paludes Depositum, Fortuna, tuum: mox vincula ferri Exedere senem longusque in carcere paedor. Consul et eversa felix moriturus in urbe Poenas ante dabat scelerum. Mors ipsa refugit 75 Saepe virum, frustraque hosti concessa potestas. Sanguinis invisi: primo qui caedis in ictu[35] Deriguit ferrumque manu torpente remisit; Viderat immensum tenebroso in carcere lumen Terribilesque deos scelerum Mariumque futurum 80 Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est Colla tibi: debet multas his legibus aevi Ante suam mortes: vanum depone furorem." Si libet ulcisci deletae funera gentis, Hunc, Cimbri, servate senem.' 85
LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 67-85.
[Footnote 35: Postgate, _actu_.]
[Linenotes: 67. +exempla timori+ = _precedents to hear out his fears_. --Haskins. 70. +Exsul.+ 88-7 B.C. For details see Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-40. 72. +Fortuna+, i.e. the _evil_ destiny of Rome, protecting him because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 16-17 _debet ... mortes_. 73. +in carcere+, i.e. at Minturnae, S.E. of Latium. There were extensive marshes in the neighbourhood. +paedor+ = _filth_. 82. +legibus aevi+ = _the laws that govern time_ = _fatis_. --H.]
B. _Marius outlived his fame._
Quid illo cive tulisset Natura in terris, quid Roma beatius umquam, Si circumducto captivorum agmine et omni 280 Bellorum pompa animam exhalasset opimam, Cum de Teutonico vellet descendere curru?
JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 278-282.
_Marius outlived his powers and his reputation._
'Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of the greatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstained with any blood save that of foreign foes.' --Ihne.
+Parallel Passages.+ Ov. _P. Ep._ iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. x. 276-278.
+References.+ Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. iv. pp. 336-7, vol. v. pp. 111-12.
B7
_Cicero on Civil Strife._
Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum eas quas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L. Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huius urbis, multosque fortes viros partim {5} eiecit ex civitate, partim interemit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit: omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit. Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis viris interfectis, lumina civitatis {10} exstincta sunt. Ultus est huius victoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quanta deminutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae. . . . Atque illae tamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam rempublicam {15} pertinebant--non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed in ea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se in hac urbe florere voluerunt--eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliatione concordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. {20}
CICERO, _In Cat._ iii. 10.
[Linenotes: 4. +P. Sulpicium+, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As Tribunus Plebis 88 B.C. carried the Leges Sulpiciae. 6. +Cn. Octavius+, one of Sulla's chief supporters. Consul 87 B.C. Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair. 9-11. +Superavit ... exstincta sunt+, i.e. 87-6 B.C. The Reign of Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 22 'Nihil illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta.' 10. +lumina civitatis+, e.g. the Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula; Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. and C. Caesar. 11-13. The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 28 'Primus ille (Sulla), et utinam ultimus, exemplum proscriptionis invenit.']
+Parallel Passages.+ Horace, _Epodes_ vii. and xvi. 1-14.
+The Sullanian Proscriptions.+ Sulla was not like Marius swayed by feelings of revenge alone. His main object was the public good, which in his conviction was to be realised by a return to the older institutions of the republic. This he believed could be accomplished only by the utter annihilation of his opponents. The Proscriptions were not however intended to be an encouragement to indiscriminate murder, but rather a barrier against the rage of over-zealous partisans.
B8
_Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 B.C._
Deinde interiectis paucis annis tribunatum iniit M. Livius Drusus, vir nobilissimus, eloquentissimus, sanetissimus, meliore in omnia ingenio animoque quam fortuna usus. Qui cum senatui priscum restituere cuperet decus et indicia ab equitibus ad {5} eum transferre ordinem ... in eis ipsis, quae pro senatu moliebatur, senatum habuit adversarium non intellegentem, si qua de plebis commodis ab eo agerentur, veluti illiciendae multitudinis causa fieri, ut minoribus perceptis maiora permitteret. Denique {10} ea fortuna Drusi fuit, ut malefacta collegarum quamvis optime ab ipso cogitatis senatus probaret magis. . . . Tum conversus Drusi animus, quando bene incepta male cedebant, ad dandam civitatem Italiae: quod cum moliens revertisset e foro, immensa {15} illa et incondita, quae eum semper comitabatur, cinctus multitudine in area domus suae cultello percussus, qui affixus lateri eius relictus est, intra paucas horas decessit. Sed cum ultimum redderet spiritum, intuens circumstantium macrentiumque {20} frequentiam, effudit vocem convenientissimam conscientiae suae: ecquandone, inquit, propinqui amicique, similem mei civem habebit res publica? Hunc finem clarissimus iuvenis vitae habuit.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 13-14.
[Linenotes: 3-4. +Drusus.+ 'Generous and free from all selfishness and meanness, but without political experience, adroitness and knowledge of men, he aspired to a task which surpassed his strength.' --Ihne. 4-6. By the Sempronian Laws of C. Gracchus 123 B.C. _exclusive judicial rights had been given to the Equites_, as a counterpoise to the power of the Senate. The corruption of the Equites (as Judices) was flagrant, and Drusus proposed to transfer the judicial functions to a mixed body of 300 Senators and 300 Knights, the selected Knights to be included in the now attenuated ranks of the Senate. 14. +ad dandam civitatem Italiae.+ The claims of the Italians to the franchise were just and pressing, but the overbearing pride and self-sufficiency of the Roman citizens proved too strong.]
+Parallel Passages.+ Cic. _de Oratore_ iii. 1, and _pro Cluent._ 56, 153. Florus, iii. 18.
+Reference.+ Ihne, _Hist._ vol. v. pp. 176-189.
'Drusus was the Mirabeau of the social revolution of Rome, and had his measures been carried Rome might have been spared the most terrible of her civil wars.'
B9
THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (1)
A. _Cause and Outbreak of the War at Asculum._
Cum ius civitatis, quam viribus auxerant, socii iustissime postularent, quam in spem eos cupidine dominationis Drusus erexerat, postquam ille domestico scelere oppressus est, eadem fax, quae illum cremavit, socios in arma et in expugnationem urbis {5} accendit. . . . Primum fuit belli consilium ut in Albano monte festo die Latinarum Iulius Caesar et Marcius Philippus consules inter sacra et aras immolarentur. Postquam id nefas proditione discussum est, Asculo furor omnis erupit, in ipsa quidem ludorum {10} frequentia trucidatis qui tum aderant ab urbe legatis. Hoc fuit impii belli sacramentum. Inde iam passim ab omni parte Italiae duce et auctore belli discursante Poppaedio diversa per populos et urbes signa cecinere. {15}
FLORUS, III. xviii. 3-10 (sel.).
[Linenotes: 2. +iustissime.+ 'The final issue of the war confirmed the justice and the wisdom of the reforms planned by the Gracchi and by Livius Drusus.' --Ihne. 7. +Latinarum+, sc. _Feriarum_, the solemn festival conducted by the Consuls on the Alban Mount. 10. +Asculo.+ Asculum (Ascoli), chief town of Picenum. The opening and closing scene of the war.]
B. _Advice of the Sabellian father to his sons._
'Vivite contenti casulis et collibus istis, O pueri,' Marsus dicebat et Hernicus olim 180 Vestinusque senex, 'panem quaeramus aratro, Qui satis est mensis: laudant hoc numina ruris, Quorum ope et auxilio gratae post munus aristae Contingunt homini veteris fastidia quercus. Nil vetitum fecisse volet, quem non pudet alto 185 Per glaciem perone tegi, qui summovet Euros Pellibus inversis; peregrina ignotaque nobis Ad scelus atque nefas, quaecumque est, purpura ducit.'
JUVENAL, _Sat._ xiv. 179-188.
[Linenotes: 179. +collibus istis+, i.e. in the central mountain range of Italy. The Federals chose Corfinium (E. of Lake Fucinus) to be the Italian rallying-point, and the seat of a new State. 180-181. +Marsus ... Hernicus ... Vestinus+, Sabellian peoples noted for their bravery and simplicity; the backbone of Rome's army. 182. +numina ruris+, e.g. Ceres, Liber and Priapus. 185-196. +alto perone+ = a high rustic boot of raw hide. 187. +pellibus inversis+ = skins with the hair turned inwards. --Duff.]
B10
THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (2)
A. _Defeat and Death of Rutilius._
Hanc tibi, 'Quo properas', memorant dixisse 'Rutili? Luce mea Marso consul ab hoste cades.' Exitus accessit verbis, flumenque Toleni Purpureum mixtis sanguine fluxit aquis. 566
OVID, _Fasti_, vi. 563-566. [Hallam VI. 487-490]
[Linenote: 563. +Hanc+, sc. _Leucothea_, goddess of the sea and of harbours. +Rutili+. Rutilius, consul 90 B.C., defeated and slain at the R. Tolenus (Turano) by the Marsian Vettius Scato.]
B. _The Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C._
Data est civitas Silvani lege et Carbonis: si qui {5} foederatis civitatibus ascripti fuissent, si tum, cum lex ferebatur, in Italia domicilium habuissent et si sexaginta diebus apud praetorem essent professi.
CICERO, _pro Archia_, 4, 7.
[Linenotes: 5. +lege+, i.e. the Lex Plautia Papiria of the tribines M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo. The Lex Julia of L. Julius Caesar 90 B.C., granting the _civitas_ to the Latins and to all the other Italian States not in rebellion, had weakened the resistance. The Lex Plautia Papiria 'scattered among the Italian ranks the seeds of discord and dissolution.']
C. _Cicero's first and only Campaign._
Memini colloquia et cum acerrimis hostibus et cum gravissime dissidentibus civibus. Cn. Pompeius, {10} consul me praesente, cum essem tiro in eius exercitu, cum P. Vettio Scatone, duce Marsorum, inter bina castra collocutus est. . . . Quem cum Scato salutasset, 'quem te appellem?' inquit: 'voluntate hospitem, necessitate hostem.' Erat in colloquio aequitas: {15} nullus timor, nulla suberat suspicio; mediocre etiam odium. Non enim, ut eriperent nobis socii civitatem, sed ut in eam reciperentur petebant.
CICERO, _Phil._ xii. 11, 27.
D. _The battle near Asculum, and capture of the city._
Strabo vero Pompeius omnia flammis ferroque populatus non prius finem caedium fecit quam Asculi {20} eversione manibus tot exercituum consulum direptarumque urbium dis litaretur.
FLORUS, III. xviii. 14.
[Linenote: 20. +Asculi eversione.+ The siege was memorable for the desperate patriotism of the besieged under their leader Judacilius, cf. siege of Saguntum.]
+Reference.+ Ihne, _Hist._ vol. v. pp. 190-220.
B11
L. CORNELIUS SULLA, 138-78 B.C.
_His Character and Bearing._
Igitur Sulla gentis patriciae nobilis fuit, familia prope iam exstincta maiorum ignavia, litteris Graecis et Latinis iuxta atque doctissimi eruditus, animo ingenti, cupidus voluptatum sed gloriae cupidior: tamen ab negotiis numquam voluptas remorata; {5} facundus callidus et amicitia facilis, ad simulanda negotia altitudo ingeni incredibilis, multarum rerum ac maxumae pecuniae largitor. Atque illi, felicissumo omnium ante civilem victoriam, numquam super industriam fortuna fuit, multique dubitavere fortior {10} an felicior esset. Nam postea quae fecerit, incertum habeo pudeat an pigeat magis disserere. Igitur Sulla, uti supra dictum est, postquam in Africam atque in castra Mari cum equitatu venit, rudis antea et ignarus belli, solertissumus omnium in paucis {15} tempestatibus factus est. Ad hoc milites benigne appellare, multis rogantibus aliis per se ipse dare beneficia, invitus accipere, sed ea properantius quam aes mutuum reddere, ipse ab nullo repetere, magis id laborare ut illi quam plurimi deberent, ioca atque {20} seria cum humillumis agere, in operibus in agmine atque ad vigilias multus adesse neque interim, quod prava ambitio solet, consulis aut cuiusquam boni famam laedere, tantum modo neque consilio neque manu priorem alium pati, plerosque antevenire. {25}
SALLUST, _Jug._ 95, 96.
[Linenotes: 1. +nobilis+, i.e. of a patrician family which had held curule offices. 1-2. +familia ... exstincta.+ The Cornelii were a distinguished _gens_ in early times and included 7 patrician families (e.g. the Lentuli and Scipios). Of these the Sullae were the least known. 2-3. +litteris Graecis ... eruditus.+ Contrast the proud boast of Marius:--'I have learnt no Greek: in the knowledge, however, which is far the most important for the State, I am a master.' --Sall. _Jug._ 85. 9. +ante civilem victoriam+, i.e. before 81 B.C. 10-11. +fortior an felicior.+ Sulla assumed the name Felix on the death of the younger Marius 82 B.C. Cf. Plut. _Sulla_, cap. vi. 11-12. +Nam postea ... disserere.+ Cf. Vell. Patere. II. xvii. 2: 'Sulla vir qui neque ad finem victoriae satis laudari neque post victoriam abunde vituperari potest.' 20. +illi+ more strictly _sibi_--'a negligence not unfrequent.' --Merivale. 22. +multus adesse+ = _frequently visited_, +multus+ = _saepe_.]
For +character of Sulla+ cf. Plut. _Sulla_, and Mommsen, iv. pp. 139-142: 'One of the most marvellous characters in history.'
B12
MITHRIDATES THE GREAT, 130-63 B.C.
A. _His Youth and Early Training._
Huius futuram magnitudinem etiam caelestia ostenta praedixerant. Nam et eo, quo genitus est, anno, et eo, quo regnare primum coepit, stella cometes per utrumque tempus LXX diebus ita luxit, ut caelum omne conflagrare videretur. Puer tutorum insidias {5} passus est, qui eum fero equo impositum equitare iacularique cogebant: qui conatus cum eos fefellissent, supra aetatem regente equum Mithridate, veneno eum appetivere. Veritus deinde, ne inimici, quod veneno non potuerant, ferro peragerent, venandi {10} studium finxit, quo per septem annos neque urbano neque rustico tecto usus est, sed per silvas vagatus, diversis montium regionibus pernoctabat ignaris omnibus, quibus esset locis; adsuetus feras cursu aut fugere aut persequi, cum quibusdam etiam viribus {15} congredi. Quibus rebus et insidias vitavit, et corpus ad omnem virtutis patientiam duravit.
[Linenotes: 1. +Huius.+ Mithridates (_Mithras_ = Persian sun-god) 'second only to Hannibal in inextinguishable, life-long hostility to Rome, as also in military genius.' Ihne. 5. +tutorum+ = (_at the hands_) _of his guardians_. Cf. _tueor._ 17. +ad omnem virtutis patientiam+ = _to all manly endurance_.]
B. _His Preparations for Conquest._
Ad regni deinde administrationem cum accessisset, statim non de regendo, sed de augendo regno cogitavit. Itaque Scythas invictos antea ingenti {20} felicitate perdomuit. Hieme deinde appetente, non in convivio, sed in campo, nec in avocationibus, nec inter sodales, sed inter aequales, aut equo aut cursu aut viribus contendebat. Exercitum quoque suum ad parem laboris patientiam cotidiana exercitatione {25} durabat, atque ita invictus ipse inexpugnabilem exercitum fecerat.
JUSTINUS, xxxvii. 2, 3, 4.
[Linenotes: 19. +de augendo regno.+ He subdued all the coast districts of the Euxine, East, North and West, as far as the Hister (Danube). 22. +avocationibus+ = _in diversions_ (very rare). 24. +exercitum.+ At the outbreak of the War with Rome, 88 B.C., he had collected a motley force of 250,000 foot and 40,000 horse.]
+Mithridates.+ 'With one blow he overthrew the Roman dominion in Asia, carried the war into Europe, united almost the whole Eastern world in an attack on the Republic, and resisted for 25 years the first generals of his time,--a Sulla, a Lucullus, and a Pompeius.' --Ihne.
+Historic Parallels.+ Alexander, Hannibal, Peter the Great.
B13
FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (1)?]
_The Battle of Chaeronea, 86 B.C. Brilliant Tactics of Sulla._
Archelaus adversus L. Sullam in fronte ad perturbandum hostem falcatas quadrigas locavit, in secunda acie phalangem Macedonicam, in tertia Romanorum more armatos auxiliares, mixtis fugitivis Italicae gentis, quorum pervicaciae plurimum fidebat; {5} levem armaturam in ultimo statuit; in utroque deinde latere equitatum, cuius amplum numerum habebat, circumeundi hostis causa posuit. Contra haec Sulla fossas amplae latitudinis utroque latere duxit et capitibus earum castella communiit: qua {10} ratione, ne circuiretur ab hoste et peditum numero et maxime equitatu superante, consecutus est. Triplicem deinde peditum aciem ordinavit relictis intervallis per quae levem armaturam et equitem, quem in novissimo conlocaverat, cum res exegisset, emitteret. {15} Tum postsignanis qui in secunda acie erant imperavit ut densos numerososque palos firme in terram defigerent, intraque eos appropinquantibus quadrigis antesignanorum aciem recepit: tum demum sublato universorum clamore velites et levem armaturam {20} ingerere tela iussit. Quibus factis quadrigae hostium aut implicitae palis aut exterritae clamore telisque in suos conversae sunt turbaveruntque Macedonum structuram: qua cedente, cum Sulla instaret et Archelaus equitem opposuisset, Romani equites {25} subito emissi averterunt eos consummaverantque victoriam.
FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3. 17.
[Linenotes: 1. +Archelaus+ (and his brother Neoptolemus) 'trained in the traditions and experience of Greek and Macedonian masters.' 2. +falcatas quadrigras.+ Archelaus had 60 of these chariots armed with scythes projecting. Cf. Livy xxxvii. 41. 5. +pervicaciae+ = _steadfastness_ (_per_ + _vic_; cf. _vinco_). 11-12. +qua ratione ... consecutus est.+ Sulla had about 30,000 men (15,000 Romans only) against 120,000. 23. +turbaverunt.+ 'The war-chariots on this as on other occasions (e.g. at Magnesia) had not only proved a failure, but had actually led to a partial disaster.' --Ihne. Cf. use of war elephants, e.g. at Beneventum 275 B.C. and at Zama 202 B.C. 27. +victoriam.+ It was a great victory, but the results were trifling, partly because Sulla had no fleet, and partly because his political enemies at Rome were bent on crippling him.]
+Historic Parallel.+ The Battle of Magnesia 190 B.C.
B14
FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (2)
A. _Capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 86 B.C._
Sulla interim cum Mithridatis praefectis circa Athenas ita dimicavit, ut et Athenas reciperet et plurimo circa multiplices Piraei portus munitiones labore expleto amplius CC milia hostium interficeret nec minus multa caperet. . . . Nam oppressi (Athenienses) {5} Mithridatis armis homines miserrimae condicionis cum ab inimicis tenerentur, oppugnabantur ab amicis et animos extra moenia, corpora necessitati servientes intra muros habebant.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23.
[Linenotes: 2. +ut Athenas reciperet.+ Sulla reduced the city by starvation. 3. +Piraei portus.+ This was strongly held by Archelaus, and was taken only after a most obstinate defence. 7. +cum ... tenerentur.+ The contemptible adventurer Aristion, with his bodyguard of 2000 men and the bribe of Delos and its treasure, had made himself master of Athens.]
B. _Battle of Orchomenus, 85 B.C. Sulla restores the Fight._
L. Sulla, cedentibus iam legionibus exercitui {10} Mithridatico ductu Archelai, stricto gladio in primam aciem procucurrit appellansque milites dixit, si quis quaesisset, ubi imperatorem reliquissent, responderent pugnantem in Boeotia: cuius rei pudore universi eum secuti sunt. {15}
FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 8. 12.
[Linenote: 10-15. = 'The great victory at Orchomenus was the turning-point in the War.' --Ihne.]
C. _Peace of Dardanus. End of the First Mithridatic War, 84 B.C._
Transgressus deinde in Asiam Sulla parentem ad omnia supplicemque Mithridatem invenit, quem multatum pecunia ac parte navium, Asia omnibusque aliis provinciis, quas armis occupaverat, decedere coegit, captivos recepit, in perfugas noxiosque {20} animadvertit, paternis, id est Ponticis finibus contentum esse iussit.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23.
[Linenote: 16-22. +The terms of peace+ were (i) Restoration of all conquests, (ii) Surrender of 80 ships and of all prisoners, (iii) Indemnity of 3000 talents. Florus says 'Non fregit ea res Ponticos, sed incendit.' Sulla was anxious to secure peace, because his presence was needed at Rome.]
+Sulla's Conduct of the War+. 'No previous general had shown so great a mastery of the art of war and such care and interest for the welfare of the State, as distinguished from the success of a party.' --Ihne.
B15
SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (1)
_Battles of Sacriportus and the Colline Gate._
A.
Iam quot apud Sacri cecidere cadavera Portum Aut Collina tulit stratas quot porta catervas, 135 Tum cum, paene caput mundi rerumque potestas Mutavit translata locum, Romanaque Samnis Ultra Caudinas speravit volnera Furcas.
LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 134-138.
[Linenotes: 134. +apud Sacriportum+, near Praeneste, where Sulla totally defeated the Marians, under the younger Marius, 82 B.C. 135. +Collina Porta+, i.e. N.E. gate of Rome near the _Collis_ Quirinalis. 136. +paene+, with _mutavit_, l. 137.]
B. At Pontius Telesinus, dux Samnitium, vir animi bellique fortissimus penitusque Romano nomini infestissimus, contractis circiter XL milibus fortissimae pertinacissimaeque in retinendis armis iuventutis Kal. Novembribus ita ad portam Collinam cum Sulla {10} dimicavit, ut ad summum discrimen et eum et rempublicam perduceret, quae non maius periculum adiit Hannibalis intra tertium miliarium conspicata castra, quam eo die, quo circumvolans ordines exercitus sui Telesinus dictitansque adesse Romanis ultimum {15} diem vociferabatur eruendam delendamque urbem, adiciens numquam deluturos raptores Italicae libertatis lupos, nisi silva, in quam refugere solerent, esset excisa. Post primam demum horam noctis et Romana acies respiravit et hostium cessit. Telesinus {20} postera die semianimis repertus est, victoris magis quam morientis vultum praeferens, cuius abscisum caput ferro figi gestarique circa Praeneste Sulla iussit.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 27.
[Linenotes: 6. +Pontius Telesinus+, 'a kinsman in name and temper of the hero of 321 B.C.' 12-14. +quae ... castra.+ 'As Hannibal had tried to relieve the closely pressed Capua by a direct attack on Rome, Pontius Telesinus thought to draw off the besieging army from Praeneste by threatening the Capital.' --Ihne. 20. +Romana acies respiravit.+ Sulla, with the left wing, was driven back by the Samnites to the walls of Rome, but Crassus with the right wing was completely victorious, and to him the final victory was due. 'The issue of the whole war, at least on Italian ground, was decided by the battle of the Colline Gate.' --Ihne.]
B16
SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (2)
A. _Death of the Younger Marius. Sulla Felix._
Tum demum desperatis rebus suis C. Marius adulescens per cuniculos, qui miro opere fabricati in diversas agrorum partes fuerunt, conatus erumpere, cum foramine e terra emersisset, a dispositis in id ipsum interemptus est. . . . De quo iuvene quid {5} existimaverit Sulla, in promptu est; occiso enim demum eo Felicis nomen adsumpsit, quod quidem usurpasset iustissime, si eundem et vincendi et vivendi finem habuisset.
VELL. PAT. ii. 27.
[Linenotes: 1. +Tum+, i.e. after Sulla's victory at the Colline Gate, 82 B.C. +C. Marius.+ 'He possessed his father's martial spirit, courage and unyielding perseverance.' --Ihne. 2. +per cuniculos+ = _through subterranean passages_.]
B. _The Sullan Proscriptions._
'Sulla quoque immensis accessit cladibus ultor. 139 Ille quod exiguum restabat sanguinis urbi Hausit: dumque nimis iam putria membra recidit, Excessit medicina modum, nimiumque secuta est, Qua morbi duxere, manus. . . . 143 Tum data libertas odiis, resolutaque legum 145 Frenis ira ruit. Non uni cuncta dabantur, Sed fecit sibi quisque nefas: semel omnia victor Iusserat . . . Hisne Salus rerum, Felix his Sulla vocari, 221 His meruit tumulum medio sibi tollere Campo? Haec rursus patienda manent: hoc ordine belli Ibitur: hic stabit civilibus exitus armis.' . . . . Sic maesta senectus 232 Praeteritique memor flebat metuensque futuri. 233
LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 139-148, 221-224.
[Linenotes: 139. +Sulla ... ultor+ = _Sulla too in his vengeance came to crown these fearful disasters_. --Haskins. 141-143. +dumque ... manus.+ Sulla is compared to a surgeon who in too great haste to remove the mortified flesh cuts away the sound flesh also. 146. +non uni ...+ = _all crimes were not committed for one man's sake_, i.e. to please Sulla. 223-224. +hoc ordine belli ibitur+ = _in this course of war events will move_. --H. i.e. History will repeat itself. 232. +sic maesta senectus.+ An old man, who had lived through the Marian and Sullan times, predicts similar horrors of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey.]
+The Proscriptions.+ 'They were the product not of passion or thirst of blood, but of a cool political calculation, and the conviction of its inevitable necessity.' --Ihne.
B17
A. _Sulla appointed Dictator, 81 B.C._
Dictator creatus (cuius honoris usurpatio per annos centum et viginti intermissa; nam proximus post annum quam Hannibal Italia excesserat, uti appareat populum Romanum usum dictatoris haud metu desiderasse tali quo timuisset potestatem) imperio, {5} quo priores ad vindicandum maximis periculis patriam usi erant, eo in immodicae crudelitatis licentiam usus est.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 28.
[Linenotes: 1-2. +cuius honoris ... intermissa.+ The last real Dictator (M. Junius Pera) was appointed after Cannae 216 B.C. 5-8. +imperio quo ... usus est.+ 'The Dictator of the first age of the Republic down to the Punic Wars had always a _well-defined special duty to discharge in a given time_. Sulla's task was of _a general nature and all-comprehensive range_, and he had the most essential of all monarchical attributes, which is _the unlimited duration of office_.' --Ihne.]
B. _Sulla lays down his Dictatorship, 79 B.C._
Nec minoris impotentiae voces propalam edebat, ut Titus Ampius scribit, 'Nihil esse rempublicam, {10} appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie. Sullam nescisse litteras, qui dictaturam deposuerit.'
SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 77.
[Linenotes: 9. +impotentiae+ = _arrogance_ (lack of self-restraint). 10. +Ampius.+ Titus Ampius Balbus, a Pompeian general. 11-12. +Sullam nescisse litteras+ = (i) S. had not profited by the teachings of History, or (ii) S. was without a liberal education.]
C. _Death of Sulla, 78 B.C._
Puteolis enim ardens indignatione, quod Granius, princeps eius coloniae pecuniam a decurionibus ad refectionem Capitolii promissam cunctantius daret, {15} animi concitatione nimia atque immoderato vocis impetu convulso pectore, spiritum cruore ac minis mixtum evomuit, nec senio iam prolapsus, utpote sexagesimum ingrediens annum, sed alita miseriis reipublicae inpotentia furens. Igitur in dubio est {20} Sullane prior an iracundia Sullae sit extincta.
VALERIUS MAXIMUS, ix. 3. 8.
[Linenote: 13. +Granius+, the chief magistrate of Puteoli, had kept back money destined for the building of the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The old one was destroyed by fire 83 B.C. 'It was Sulla's great desire that his name should be recorded on the front of the new temple, for it was to be the symbol of the Republic, restored as he fondly hoped by him to its pristine purity.' --Ihne.]
B18
THE LEGES CORNELIAE, 81 B.C.
A. _Limitation of the Tribune's Right of Veto._
In ista quidem re vehementer Sullam probo, qui tribunis plebis sua lege iniuriae faciendae potestatem ademerit, auxili ferendi reliquerit.
CICERO, _de Legibus_, iii. 9. 22.
[Linenotes: 2. +iniuriae faciendae+, e.g. by their abuse of the right of veto. 3. +auxili ferendi.+ 'Sulla limited the office of tribune to the original functions for which it was established, _the legal protection of the people from the abuse of magisterial power_.' --Ihne.]
B. _Abolition of Corn Distributions._
Populus Romanus, paullo ante gentium moderator, exutus imperio gloria iure, agitandi inops despectusque ne servilia quidem alimenta relicua habet.
SALLUST, _Hist., Orat. M. Lepidi_.
[Linenotes: 5. +agitandi inops+ (i.e. _vitam sustentandi_) = _without means of livelihood._ 6. +servilia alimenta+ = _a slave's allowance of food_. Sulla abolished the largesses of corn.]
C. _Restoration of Judicial Functions to the Senators._
Iudicandi munus quod C. Gracchus ereptum senatui ad Equites, Sulla ab illis ad Senatum transtulerat.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 32.
[Linenote: 8-10. Sulla filled up the gaps in the Senate from the ranks of the Equites, and to the new Senate thus constituted he entrusted the administration of justice.]
D. _A Sumptuary Law, Limiting the Expense of the Table._
L. Sulla dictator, cum plerique in patrimoniis amplis eluerentur et familiam pecuniamque suam prandiorum conviviorumque gurgitibus proluissent, legem ad populam tulit, qua cautum est, ut Kalendis, Idibus, Nonis diebusque ludorum et feriis quibusdam {15} sollemnibus sestertios trecenos in cenam insumere ius potestasque esset, ceteris autem diebus omnibus non amplius tricenos.
AULUS GELLIUS, ii. 24, 11.
[Linenote: 12. +eluerentur+ = _had squandered_ (lit. 'washed away').]
+Leges Corneliae.+ 'Sulla's legislation was an attempt to revive what was dead and gone. The time had arrived when the old republican institutions could last no longer. The transformation of the state into a monarchy was inevitable.' --Ihne.
+The Sultan Constitution.+ It had as little endurance as that of Cromwell, and was finally destroyed in 70 B.C. during the consulship of Pompeius and Crassus.
B19
_Speech of Lepidus against Sulla, 78 B.C._
Nam praeter satellites commaculatos quis eadem volt? aut quis non omnia mutata praeter victorem? Scilicet milites, quorum sanguine Tarulae Scyrtoque, pessumis servorum, divitiae partae sunt! Itaque maxumam mihi fiduciam parit victor exercitus, cui {5} per tot volnera et labores nihil praeter tyrannum quaesitum est. Nisi forte tribuniciam potestatem evorsum profecti sunt, per arma conditam a maioribus suis, utique iura et iudicia sibimet extorquerent, egregia scilicet mercede, cum relegati in paludes et {10} silvam contumeliam atque invidiam suam, praemia penes paucos intellegerint. Quare igitur tanto agmine atque animis incedit? Quia secundae res mire sunt vitiis obtentui; quibus labefactis, quam formidatus est, tam contemnetur; nisi forte specie {15} concordiae et pacis, quae sceleri et parricidio suo nomina indidit; neque aliter rempublicam et belli finem ait, nisi maneat expulsa agris plebes, praeda civilis acerbissima, ius iudiciumque omnium rerum penes se, quod populi Romani fuit. Quae si vobis {20} pax et concordia intelleguntur, maxuma turbamenta reipublicae atque exitia probate, annuite legibus impositis, accipite otium cum servitio et tradite exemplum posteris ad populum Romanum suimet sanguinis mercede circumveniundum. {25}
SALLUST, _Hist, Orat. M. Lepidi_.
[Linenotes: 1. +Nam+, sc. 'His luck is not so great as he supposes, for...' 7-8. +tribuniciam ... evorsum+, i.e. by the Leges Corneliae 81 B.C. 9. +iudicia.+ Sulla restored the judicial functions to the Senate (from the Equites). 10. +relegati in paludes.+ Sulla established 120,000 soldiers in military colonies in different parts of Italy, but their roaming adventurous life had unfitted them for agricultural pursuits. 13-14. +Quia ... obtentui+ = _because prosperity serves in a marvellous manner to cover a man's faults of character_. --Holden. For +obtentui+ cf. _draw a veil over_. 16. +parricidio+ = _treason_. 18. +nisi ... agris+, i.e. Sulla's confiscations of estates, especially of those Italians who had fought against him. 24-25. +ad p. R. circumveniundum+ = _for oppressing_ (enslaving) _the people of Rome_.]
+M. Aemillus Lepidus+, Consul 78 B.C., a disappointed Optimate, jealous of Sulla's power, but without Sulla's ability. He posed as leader of the democratic party, took up arms against the State, but was defeated by Q. Catulus at the Milvian Bridge, 77 B.C.
B20
WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN, 78-72 B.C. (1)
_Sertorius and his Fawn._
Huic Sertorio cerva alba eximiae pulchritudinis et vivacissimae celeritatis a Lusitano quodam dono data est. Hanc sibi oblatam divinitus, et instinctam Dianae numine colloqui secum, monereque, et docere, quae utilia factu essent, persuadere omnibus instituit: {5} ac, si quid durius videbatur, quod imperandum militibus foret, a cerva sese monitum tum praedicabat. Id cum dixerat, universi, tamquam si deo, libentes parebant. Ea cerva quodam die, cum incursio esset hostium nuntiata, festinatione ac tumultu consternata {10} in fugam se proripuit, atque in palude proxima delituit; et postea requisita perisse credita est. Neque multis diebus post inventam esse cervam Sertorio nuntiatur. Tum, qui nuntiaverat, iussit tacere: ac, ne cui palam diceret, interminatus est: {15} praecepitque, ut eam postero die repente in eum locum, in quo ipse cum amicis esset, immitteret: admissis deinde amicis postridie, visum sibi esse ait in quiete cervam, quae perisset, ad se reverti, et, ut prius consueverat, quod opus esset facto praedicare. {20} Tum servo, quod imperaverat, significat. Cerva emissa in cubiculum Sertorii introrupit; clamor factus et orta admiratio est: eaque hominum barbarorum credulitas Sertorio in magnis rebus magno usui fuit. {25}
GELLIUS, _Noctes Atticae_, xv. 22.
[Linenotes: 1. +alba+ = a _dull_ white as opp. to +ater+ = _dull_ black. Cf. +candidus+ = _shining_ white as opp. to +niger+ = _shining_ black. 3. +instinctam+ = _fired_, _animated_. 15. +interminatus+ = _he forbade with threats_. +inter + minor+, freq. in Plautus and Terence. 23-25. 'Sertorius did not disdain to turn to account the superstition of the ruder Spanish tribes, and to have his plans of war brought to him as commands of Diana by the white fawn of the goddess.' --M.]
+Character of Sertorius.+ 'He was the only democratic (Marian) officer who knew how to prepare and to conduct war, and the only democratic statesman who opposed the furious doings of his party with statesmanlike energy. His Spanish soldiers called him the new Hannibal, and not merely because he had, like that hero, lost an eye in war. He in reality reminds us of the great Phoenician by his equally cunning and courageous strategy, and by the quickness of his ingenuity in turning to good account his victories and averting the consequences of his defeats.' --M.
B21
WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN (2)
A. _A New Hannibal._
Sertorius, exsul et profugus feralis illius tabulae, vir summae quidem sed calamitosae virtutis, malis suis maria terrasque permiscuit; et iam Africae, iam Balearibus insulis fortunam expertus usque in Oceanum Fortunatasque insulas penetravit consiliis, {5} tandem Hispaniam armavit. Viro cum viris facile convenit. Nec alias magis apparuit Hispani militis vigor quam Romano duce. Quamquam ille non contentus Hispania ad Mithridatem quoque Ponticosque respexit regemque classe iuvit. Et quid futurum {10} fuit satis tanto hosti, cui uno imperatore resistere res Romana non potuit? Additus Metello Gnaeus Pompeius. Hi copias attrivere viri prope tota Hispania persecuti. Diu et ancipiti semper acie pugnatum est; nec tamen prius bello quam suorum scelere {15} et insidiis extinctus est.
FLORUS, III. xxii. 2-6. A.
[Linenotes: 1. +feralis illius tabulae+ = _from that fatal list_, i.e. Sulla's list of proscribed Marians 82 B.C. 9-10. +ad Mithridatem ... iuvit.+ In 75 B.C. he concluded a formal treaty of alliance with Mithridates, and sent him the propraetor M. Marius to lead his troops. Cf. alliance between Hannibal and Philip. 14-15. +Diu et ancipiti semper acie pugnatum est+, e.g. the defeat of Pompey near Lauro. (For a graphic account of the strategy by which the battle was won see Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 5.)]
B. _The Death of Sertorius._
M. Perpenna praetorius e proscriptis, gentis clarioris quam animi, Sertorium inter cenam Oscae interemit Romanisque certam victoriam,
## partibus suis excidium, sibi turpissimam mortem pessimo {20} auctoravit
facinore. Metellus et Pompeius ex Hispaniis triumphaverunt.
VELL. PATERC. ii. 30.
[Linenotes: 17. +M. Perpenna praetorius+ (= _ex-praetor_), with the remnant of the army of Lepidus (defeated by Pompey in 77 B.C.) joined Sertorius in Spain. After serving under Sertorius for some years, through jealousy, he brought about his leader's assassination. 21. +auctoravit+ = _he brought about_. More usu. as +auctorari+ = _to hire oneself out for some service_, e.g. of gladiators.]
+The Death of Sertorius.+ 'So ended one of the greatest men that Rome had hitherto produced--a man who under more fortunate circumstances would perhaps have become the regenerator of his country.' --M.
B22
_Character and Early Career of Lucullus._
Magnum ingenium L. Luculli, magnumque optimarum artium studium, tum omnis liberalis et digna homine nobili ab eo percepta doctrina, quibus temporibus florere in foro maxime potuit, caruit omnino rebus urbanis. Ut enim admodum adolescens, {5} cum fratre pari pietate et industria praedito, paternas inimicitias magna cum gloria est persecutus, in Asiam quaestor profectus, ibi permultos annos admirabili quadam laude provinciae praefuit: deinde absens factus aedilis, continuo praetor: licebat {10} enim celerius legis praemio: post in Africam: inde ad consulatum: quem ita gessit ut diligentiam admirarentur omnes, ingenium cognoscerent. Post ad Mithridaticum bellum missus a senatu non modo opinionem vicit omnium quae de virtute eius erat, sed {15} etiam gloriam superiorum. Idque eo fuit mirabilius, quod ab eo laus imperatoria non admodum exspectabatur, qui adolescentiam in forensi opera, quaesturae diuturnum tempus, Murena bellum in Ponto gerente, in Asiae pace consumpserat. . . . {20} In eodem tanta prudentia fuit in constituendis temperandisque civitatibus, tanta aequitas, ut hodie stet Asia Luculli institutis servandis et quasi vestigiis persequendis.
CICERO, _Academica_, ii. 1.
[Linenotes: 1-3. +ingenium+, +studium+, +doctrina+, subjects of +caruit+. 3-5. +quibus temporibus ... urbanis+ = _all this was divorced_ (+caruit+, lit. _was cut off from_) _from the business of the capital, at the season when he might have had a specially brilliant career in the forum_. --J. S. Reid. 6. +paternas inimicitias+ = _his father's quarrel_. The first appearance of Lucullus in public life was as the accuser of the Augur Servilius who had procured the banishment of his father. 7-9. +in Asiam ... praefuit+, i.e. as Sulla's quaestor in the first Mithridatic War, 88-84 B.C. and then till 80 B.C. in charge of the province of Asia (= orig. Kingdom of Pergamus, N.W. part of Asia Minor). 11. +legis praemio+ = _owing to a privilege conveyed by statute_. J. S. R. 13-14. +ad Mithridaticum bellum+, i.e. the 3rd M. War, which he carried on for eight years (74-66 B.C.) with great success, until superseded by Pompeius in 66 B.C. 19-20. +Murena ... gerente.+ Lic. Murena, anxious for distinction, provoked the disastrous 2nd Mithridatic War, 83-81 B.C., when by the peremptory orders of Sulla the peace was renewed. 23. +stet ... servandis+ = _persists in maintaining_ (lit. _stands by_) _the ordinances of L._--J. S. R.]
+Reference.+ For _Character of Lucullus_, see Mommsen, vol. iv. pp. 337-8. Cf. also Vell. Paterc. ii. 32.
B23
A. _A Soldier of Lucullus._
Luculli miles collecta viatica multis Aerumnis, lassus dum noctu stertit, ad assem Perdiderat; post hoc vehemens lupus, et sibi et hosti Iratus pariter, ieiunis dentibus acer, Praesidium regale loco deiecit, ut aiunt, 30 Summe munito et multarum divite rerum. Clarus ob id factum donis ornatur honestis, Accipit et bis dena super sestertia nummum. Forte sub hoc tempus castellum evertere praetor Nescio quod cupiens hortari coepit eundem 35 Verbis, quae timido quoque possent addere mentem: 'I, bone, quo virtus tua te vocat, i pede fausto, Grandia laturus meritorum praemia. Quid stas?' Post haec ille catus, quantumvis rusticus, 'Ibit, Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,' inquit. 40
HORACE, _Ep._ II. ii. 26-40.
[Linenotes: 26. +viatica+ = _savings_ (cf. _prize-money_). +viaticum+ = originally _travelling-money_. 28. +vehemens lupus+ = _a very wolf in his fury_. Cf. Vergil's simile for a forlorn hope--'lupi ceu | Raptores.' --Wickham. 32. +donis honestis+ = _gifts of honour_--i.e. the _corona muralis_, the _mural crown_, such as is worn by the goddess Cybele. 33. +nummum+ (= _nummorum_) = _in hard cash_. 39. +catus+ = _shrewd_, _witty_, a Sabine word, = _acutus_. 39-40. +Ibit ... quo vis+, the original of Juvenal's _ad caelum, iusseris, ibit_. 40. +zonam+ = _purse_. The +zona+ here was a broad belt made double or hollow to carry money in.]
B. _The Wealth of Lucullus._
Chlamydes Lucullus, ut aiunt, 40 Si posset centum scaenae praebere rogatus, 'Qui possum tot?' ait; 'tamen et quaeram, et quot habebo Mittam': post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque Esse domi chlamydum; partem vel tolleret omnes. 44
HORACE, _Ep._ I. vi. 40-44.
+Subject.+ Horace says 'I am like Lucullus' soldier--when his pocket was empty he would volunteer for forlorn hopes; when it was full again he would do so no more. It was poverty that made me write verses.' --W.
[Linenotes: 40. +Chlamydes.+ The Chlamys was the light short mantle of the Greeks, here wanted for a pageant on the stage. 44. +tolleret.+ The subj. is the praetor or person giving the show. --W.]
+Reference.+ For _the magnificence of his Villas_ at Tusculum and near Neapolis, see Cicero _De Fin._ ii. § 107, _De Leg._ iii. § 30, Pliny, _N. H._ ix. 170.
B24
WAR WITH SPARTACUS, 73-71 B.C.
_Spartacus and his Gladiators._
Spartacus, Crixus, Oenomaus effracto Lentuli ludo cum triginta aut amplius eiusdem fortunae viris erupere Capua; servisque ad vexillum vocatis cum statim decem amplius milia coissent, homines modo effugisse contenti iam et vindicari volebant. {5} Prima sedes velut rabidis beluis mons Vesuvius placuit. Ibi cum obsiderentur a Clodio Glabro, per fauces cavi montis vitineis delapsi vinculis ad imas eius descendere radices et exitu inviso nihil tale opinantis ducis subito impetu castra rapuerunt. Adfluentibus {10} in diem copiis cum iam esset iustus exercitus, e viminibus pecudumque tegumentis inconditos sibi clipeos et ferro ergastulorum recocto gladios ac tela fecerunt, Indo iam consulares quoque aggressus in Appennino Lentuli exercitum percecidit, apud {15} Mutinam Gai Cassi castra delevit. Tandem enim totis imperii viribus contra mirmillonem consurgunt, pudoremque Romanum Marcus Crassus asseruit: a quo pulsi fugatique hostes in extrema Italiae refugerunt. Ibi circa Bruttium angulum clusi cum {20} fugam in Siciliam pararent neque navigia suppeterent ratesque ex trabibus et dolia connexa virgultis rapidissimo freto frustra experirentur, tandem eruptione facta dignam viris obiere mortem, et quod sub gladiatore duce oportuit, sine missione {25} pugnatum est. Spartacus ipse in primo agmine fortissime dimicans quasi imperator occisus est.
FLORUS, III. xx. 3-14 (sel.).
[Linenotes: 1. +Spartacus+, by birth a Thracian, who had served among the Thracian auxiliaries in the Roman army, had deserted and become a chief of banditti. He was taken prisoner and sold to a trainer of gladiators. +Crixus+, +Oenomaus+, the slave-names of two Celts. 1-2. +effracto ludo+ = _broke out of the gladiators' school_. 8. +vitineis vinculis+ = _by means of ropes made of vine-branches_. 9. +inviso+ = _unknown_, lit. _unseen_. 13. +ergastulorum+ = _from the slaves' work-houses_. 17. +mirmillonem.+ The Mirmillones were a class of gladiators usually matched with the Thraces or the _retiarii_ (_net-fighters_). 18. +Marcus Crassus+, the Triumvir of 60 B.C. +asseruit+ = _maintained_. Cf. our _assert_. 21. +in Siciliam+, where the slaves had risen in 133 and 104 B.C., and only waited an impulse to break out a third time. 25. +sine missione+ = _without quarter_. Cf. _missio_ = _the discharge_ from service of soldiers and gladiators.]
B25
THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B.C. (1)
_Lucullus Ponticus._
Quoniam de genere belli dixi, nunc de magnitudine pauca dicam. Atque ut omnes intellegant me L. Lucullo tantum impertire laudis, quantum forti viro et sapienti homini et magno imperatori debeatur, dico eius adventu maximas Mithridatis {5} copias omnibus rebus ornatas atque instructas fuisse urbemque Asiae clarissimam nobisque amicissimam, Cyzicenorum, obsessam esse ab ipso rege maxima multitudine et oppugnatam vehementissime, quam L. Lucullus virtute, assiduitate, consilio summis {10} obsidionis periculis liberavit: ab eodem imperatore classem magnam et ornatam, quae ducibus Sertorianis ad Italiam studio inflammata raperetur, superatam esse atque depressam; magnas hostium praeterea copias multis proeliis esse deletas patefactumque {15} nostris legionibus esse Pontum, qui antea populo Romano ex omni aditu clausus fuisset; Sinopen atque Amisum, quibus in oppidis erant domicilia regis, omnibus rebus ornatas atque refertas, ceterasque urbes Ponti et Cappadociae permultas uno {20} aditu adventuque esse captas; regem spoliatum regno patrio atque avito ad alios se reges atque ad alias gentes supplicem contulisse: atque haec omnia salvis populi Romani sociis atque integris vectigalibus esse gesta. {25}
CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 20, 21.
[Linenotes: 5-6. +maximas ... fuisse.+ M. had 140,000 well-trained men, Roman officers sent by Sertorius, 16,000 cavalry, a war-fleet of 400 ships, and abundance of stores. 7-11. +urbemque ... liberavit.+ The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. side of the island of the same name in the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), close to the shore of M[-y]sia, to which it was joined by two bridges. 12-14. +classem ... depressam+, i.e. probably the Battle of Tenedos 73 B.C., in which Marcus Marius and the ablest of the Roman emigrants met their death, and the whole Aegean fleet of Mithridates was annihilated. 15. +multis proeliis+, e.g. of Cabira, 72 B.C.; Tigranocerta, 69 B.C. 18. +Sinopen.+ +Sinope+, on the W. headland of the great bay of which the delta of the R. Halys forms the E. headland, was the birthplace and residence (+domicilia+) of M. 22. +ad alios reges+, e.g. to his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia. 23-24. +salvis ... vectigalibus+, i.e. without ruining the provincial by forced contributions and requisitions.]
+Reference.+ For _Siege of Cyzicus_, see Mommsen, vol. iv. pp. 326-328; Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 13. 6.
B26
CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.
_His Character, and Career to 66 B.C._
Iam vero virtuti Cn. Pompei quae potest oratio par inveniri? Quid est quod quisquam aut illo dignum, aut vobis novum aut cuiquam inauditum possit adferre? Neque enim illae sunt solae virtutes imperatoriae, quae vulgo esistimantur, labor in {5} negotiis, fortitudo in periculis, industria in agendo, celeritas in conficiendo, consilium in providendo, quae tanta sunt in hoc uno, quanta in omnibus reliquis imperatoribus, quos aut vidimus aut audivimus, non fuerunt. Testis est Italia, quam ille ipse {10} victor L. Sulla huius virtute et subsidio confessus est liberatam: testis est Sicilia, quam multis undique cinctam periculis non terrore belli, sed consilii celeritate explicavit: testis est Africa, quae magnis oppressa hostium copiis eorum ipsorum sanguine {15} redundavit: testis est Gallia, per quam legionibus nostris iter in Hispaniam Gallorum internecione patefactum est: testis est Hispania, quae saepissime plurimos hostes ab hoc superatos prostratosque conspexit: testis est iterum et saepius Italia, quae {20} cum servili bello taetro periculosoque premeretur, ab hoc auxilium absente expetivit, quod bellum exspectatione eius attenuatum atque imminutum est, adventu sublatum ac sepultum: testes nunc vero iam omnes orae atque omnes exterae gentes ac nationes. {25}
CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 29-31.
[Linenotes: 10-12. +Testis est Italia ... liberatam.+ In 83 B.C. Pompeius, aged twenty-four, raised three legions in Picenum, gained several advantages over the Marian generals, and was saluted by Sulla as Imperator. 12-14. +testis est Sicilia ... explicavit.+ In 82 B.C. Pompeius, sent as propraetor to Sicily, quickly took possession of the island for Sulla. 14-16. +testis est Africa ... redundavit.+ In 81 B.C. Pompeius defeated at Utica the Marian Ahenobarbus (allied with Hiarbas of Numidia), and was, though _a simple Roman eques_, granted a triumph by Sulla and saluted as +Magnus+. 16-18. +testis est Gallia ... patefactum est.+ In 77 B.C., on his way to Spain as proconsul against Sertorius, he had to cut his way through the Transalpine Gauls, and laid out a new and shorter road over the Cottian Alps. 21. +servili bello.+ On his return from Spain he cut to pieces the scattered remnants of the army of Spartacus. 21-23. +ab hoc ... imminutum est.+ Cic. assumes that the enemy was crippled even by the mere notion of sending for Pompeius.]
+References.+ Plutarch, _Pompeius_; Vell. Paterc. ii. 29.
B27
GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (1)
_The Man Caesar._
Fuisse traditur excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis, valetudine prospera; nisi quod tempore extremo repente animo linqui atque etiam per somnum exterreri solebat. Armorum et equitandi {5} peritissimus, laboris ultra fidem patiens erat. In agmine nonnunquam equo, saepius pedibus anteibat, capite detecto, seu sol seu imber esset; longissimas vias incredibili celeritate confecit. In obeundis expeditionibus dubium cautior an audentior, {10} exercitum neque per insidiosa itinera duxit umquam nisi perspeculatus locorum situs. A Brundisio Dyrrachium inter oppositas classes hieme transmisit cessantibusque copiis, quas subsequi iusserat, cum ad accersendas frustra saepe misisset, {15} novissime ipse clam noctu parvulum navigium solus obvoluto capite conscendit, neque aut quis esset ante detexit aut gubernatorem cedere adversae tempestati passus est, quam paene obrutus fluctibus. Ne religione quidem ulla a quoquam incepto absterritus {20} umquam vel retardatus est. Cum immolanti aufugisset hostia, profectionem adversus Scipionem et Iubam non distulit. Prolapsus etiam in egressu navis, verso ad melius omine Teneo te, inquit, Africa.
SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 45, 57-59 (sel.)
[Linenotes: 4. +animo linqui+ = _he was subject to fainting-fits_. 8. +capite detecto+, so Cyrus the Younger and Hannibal. 9. +incredibili celeritate+, cf. Cic. _Ep. ad Att._ viii. 9 _hoc_ #teras# (= prodigy) _horribili vigilantia, celeritate, diligentia est_. Cf. also Napoleon the Great. 14. +cessantibusque copiis+ = _and when the troops delayed their coming_. Caesar did not then know that Antonius had himself been attacked at Brundisium by a Pompeian fleet, and had shown great skill in baffling it, and forcing it to put to sea again. Once more Antonius set sail with 4 legions and 800 horsemen, and fortunately a strong S. wind carried him safely to the port of Lissus (N. of Dyrrachium). 18-19. +gubernatorem ... passus est.+ '_Quid times? Caesarem vehis!_' was Caesar's famous exhortation to the pilot. (Florus.) 21-22. +Cum ... hostia:+ if the victim even tugged at the rope when being led to sacrifice, it was considered unfortunate, and hence a long slack rope was used. Cf. Juv. xii. 5 _Sed procul extensum petulans_ (butting) _quatit hostia funem_. 24. According to Frontinus his words were '_Teneo te, terra mater_.']
+The man Caesar.+ 'We may picture him as a man the dignity of whose bodily presence was in due proportion to the greatness of his mental powers.' --Warde Fowler.
B28
GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (2)
_Captured by Pirates. Studies Oratory at Rhodes, 76-75 B.C._
Composita seditione civili Cornelium Dolabellam consularem et triumphalem repetundarum postulavit; absolutoque Rhodum secedere statuit, et ad declinandam invidiam et ut per otium ac requiem Apollonio Moloni clarissimo tunc dicendi magistro {5} operam daret. Huc dum hibernis iam mensibus traicit, circa Pharmacussam insulam a praedonibus captus est, mansitque apud eos, non sine summa indignatione, prope quadraginta dies cum uno medico et cubicularis duobus. Nam comites servosque {10} ceteros initio statim ad expediendas pecunias, quibus redimeretur, dimiserat. Numeratis deinde quinquaginta talentis, expositus in litore non distulit quin e vestigio classe deducta persequeretur abeuntis, ac redactos in potestatem supplicio, quod saepe illis {15} minatus inter iocum fuerat, adficeret. Vastante regiones proximas Mithridate ne desidere in discrimine sociorum videretur, ab Rhodio quo pertenderat, transiit in Asiam, auxiliisque contractis et praefecto regis provincia expulso, nutantes ac dubias civitates {20} retinuit in fide.
SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 4.
[Linenotes: 1. +Composita seditione civili+, i.e. after the abortive attempt of Lepidus to make himself master of the state 77 B.C. +C. Dolabellam,+ impeached for illegal extortion during his government of Macedonia. +Repetundarum+ (sc. _pecuniarum_), post-Aug. for _de repetundis (pecuniis)_, used i. of money extorted by an official and to be returned, ii. of money extorted as a bribe. Caesar lost his case, but succeeded in showing that Sulla's senatorial judges were corrupt. 4. +Apollonio Moloni+, the famous rhetorician, whose pupil Cicero was both at Rome and at Rhodes. Very possibly Caesar took this step by the advice of Cicero. 7. +circa Pharmacussam insulam:+ S.W. of Miletus (= mod. _Farmako_). 8-9. +non sine summa indignatione:+ Plutarch, _Caes._ gives a picturesque account of his adventures as their prisoner. 10. +cubicularis+ (_cubiculum_) = lit. _chamber-servants_. 11. +pecunias ...+ Velleius says that Caesar's ransom was paid out of public funds. 14. +e vestigio+ (= _statim_) = _immediately_.]
+Caesar at Rhodes.+ 'Caesar, from what we know of his taste and character, could hardly have found the same delight as Cicero in his studies at Rhodes. He nevertheless became one of the greatest orators of his day, and according to some accounts, second only to Cicero. It is characteristic of Caesar, but unfortunate for us, that he never took any pains to collect and preserve his speeches.' --Warde Fowler.
B29
CICERO PROSECUTES VERRES, 70 B.C.
_A Roman Citizen maltreated._
Quid ego de P. Gavio, Consano municipe, dicam, indices? Aut qua vi vocis, qua gravitate verborum, quo dolore animi dicam? Quod crimen eius modi est ut, cum primum ad me delatum est, usurum me illo non putarem; tametsi enim verissimum esse {5} intellegebam, tamen credibile fore non arbitrabar. Quid nunc agam? Rem in medio ponam: quae tantum habet ipsa gravitatis ut neque mea, quae nulla est, neque cuiusquam ad inflammandos vestros animos eloquentia requiratur. {10}
Caedebatur virgis in medio foro Messanae civis Romanus, iudices; cum interea nullus gemitus, nulla vox alia illius miseri inter dolorem crepitumque plagarum audiebatur, nisi haec, _Civis Romanus sum_. Hac se commemoratione civitatis omnia verbera {15} depulsurum, cruciatum a corpore deiecturum arbitrabatur. Is non modo hoc non perfecit ut virgarum vim deprecaretur, sed cum imploraret saepius usurparetque nomen civitatis, crux, crux, inquam, infelici et aerumnoso comparabatur. {20}
O nomen dulce libertatis! O ius eximium nostrae civitatis! O lex Porcia legesque Semproniae! O graviter desiderata et aliquando reddita plebi Romanae tribunicia potestas! Hucine tandem omnia reciderunt ut civis Romanus in provincia populi Romani, {25} in oppido foederatorum, ab eo qui beneficio populi Romani fasces et secures haberet deligatus in foro virgis caederetur?
CICERO, _in Verrem_, ii. 5. 62.
[Linenotes: 1. +Consano municipe+ = _a burgess of Consa_, on the borders of Lucania. 22. +Lex Porcia.+ Passed by M. Porcius Cato, 197 B.C., forbade the execution or scourging of a Roman citizen. +Leges Semproniae+, a code of laws passed by C. Sempronius Gracchus, 123 B.C. One of these declared it to be the sole right of the people to decide capital cases. 22-24. +O graviter desiderata ... potestas!+ Sulla (Dictator 82-79 B.C.) took from the tribunes _the right of proposing laws_, and left them only their original right of Intercessio or veto. In 70 B.C. Pompeius, who had formally accepted the democratic programme, gave back to the tribunes the power to initiate legislation.]
+The Orationes In Verrem.+ Cicero, as patronus of the Sicilians, undertook the prosecution of the Senator C. Verres for his gross misconduct as governor of Sicily, 73-71 B.C.
B30
CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.
_The Lex Gabinia, 67 B.C._
Converterat Cn. Pompei persona totum in se terrarum orbem et per omnia maior cive habebatur. Qui cum consul perquam laudabiliter iurasset se in nullam provinciam ex eo magistratu iturum idque servasset, post biennium A. Gabinius tribunus {5} legem tulit, ut cum belli more, non latrociniorum, orbem classibus iam, non furtivis expeditionibus, piratae terrerent, quasdamque etiam Italiae urbis diripuissent, Cn. Pompeius ad eos opprimendos mitteretur essetque ei imperium aequum in omnibus {10} provinciis cum proconsulibus usque ad quinquagesimum miliarium a mari. Quo decreto paene totius terrarum orbis imperium uni viro deferebatur; sed tamen idem hoc ante biennium in M. Antoni praetura decretum erat. Sed interdum persona ut exemplo {15} nocet, ita invidiam auget aut levat: in Antonio homines aequo animo passi erant; raro enim invidetur eorum honoribus, quorum vis non timetur: contra in iis homines extraordinaria reformidant, qui ea suo arbitrio aut deposituri aut retenturi videntur {20} et modum in voluntate habent. Dissuadebant optimates, sed consilia impetu victa sunt.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 31.
[Linenotes: 3-5. +Qui cum consul ... servasset.+ Pompeius, consul with Crassus in 71-70 B.C., thought it beneath his dignity to accept a consular province, and waited in Rome as a simple citizen until an opportunity should be offered him to play an extraordinary part. 5. +A. Gabinius+, a client of Pompeius, a man ruined in finances and character, but a dexterous negotiator, a bold orator, and a brave soldier. In 57 B.C. did excellent service as proconsul of Syria. 6-9. +ut cum belli more ... diripuissent.+ 'For twenty years the sea had been rendered unsafe by these curses of human society.' The commerce of the whole Mediterranean was in their power. 13-15. +sed tamen ... decretum erat.+ In 74 B.C. M. Antonius, son of the orator and father of the triumvir, was entrusted by the Senate with the task of clearing the seas from the corsairs. In spite of his extensive powers, the utter incapacity of Antonius, and the mismanagement of the Senate, caused the expedition to end in failure and disgrace.]
+Result.+ 'The Gabinio-Manilian proposals terminated the struggle between the senate and the popular party, which the Sempronian laws (133-123 B.C.) had begun. As the Sempronian laws first constituted the revolutionary party into a _political opposition_, the Gabinio-Manilian first converted it from an _opposition_ into a _government_.' --M.
B31
CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.
_Pompeius clears the Seas of Pirates, 67 B.C._
Quis enim umquam aut obeundi negoti aut consequendi quaestus studio tam brevi tempore tot loca adire, tantos cursus conficere potuit, quam celeriter Cn. Pompeio duce tanti belli impetus navigavit? Qui nondum tempestivo ad navigandum mari Siciliam {5} adiit, Africam exploravit, in Sardiniam cum classe venit, atque haec tria frumentaria subsidia rei publicae firmissimis praesidiis classibusque munivit. Inde cum se in Italiam recepisset, duabus Hispaniis et Gallia transalpina praesidiis ac navibus confirmata, {10} missis item in oram Illyrici maris et in Achaiam omnemque Graeciam navibus Italiae duo maria maximis classibus firmissimisque praesidiis adornavit, ipse autem, ut Brundisio profectus est, undequinquagesimo die totam ad imperium populi Romani {15} Ciliciam adiunxit: omnes, qui ubique praedones fuerant, partim capti interfectique sunt, partim unius huius se imperio ac potestati dediderunt. Ita tantum bellum, tam diuturnum, tam longe lateque dispersum, quo bello omnes gentes ac nationes {20} premebantur, Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme adparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit.
CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 34, 35.
[Linenotes: 4. +tanti belli impetus,+ fig. for _an attacking fleet of such force_, which from its size would ordinarily sail slowly. --Wilkins. 5-8. +Qui ... munivit.+ Early in the year (+nondum tempestivo ad navigandum+) Pompeius cleared of pirates the Sicilian, African, and Sardinian waters, so re-establish the supply of grain from these provinces to Italy. 14-18. +undequagesimo ... dediderunt.+ The bold Cilician seakings alone ventured to face the Roman fleet in the offing of Coracesium (at the W. frontier of Cilicia), but were completely defeated. Forty-nine days (+undequinquagesimo+) after Pompeius had appeared in the Eastern seas, Cilicia was subdued, and the war at an end. 'In all about 1300 piratical vessels are said to have been destroyed: besides which the richly filled arsenals and magazines of the buccaneers were burnt. Of the pirates, about 10,000 perished (+interfecti+); upwards of 20,000 fell alive (+partim capti--partim se dediderunt+) into the hands of the victor.' --M. 22. +ineunte vere ... confecit.+ 'In the summer of 67 B.C., three months after the beginning of the campaign, commerce resumed its wonted course, and instead of the former famine abundance prevailed in Italy.' --M.]
+This was the first trial of rule centralised in a single hand,+ and Pompeius fully justified the confidence that was placed in him.
B32
THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B.C. (2)
_Pompeius subdues Mithridates and Tigranes._
Pompeius interea memorabile adversus Mithridaten, qui post Luculli profectionem magnas novi exercitus vires reparaverat, bellum gessit. At rex fusus fugatusque et omnibus exutus copiis Armeniam Tigranenque generum petit, regem eius temporis, {5} nisi qua Luculli armis erat infractus, potentissimum. Simul itaque duos persecutus Pompeius intravit Armeniam. Prior filius Tigranis, sed discors patri, pervenit ad Pompeium: mox ipse supplex et praesens se regnumque dicioni eius permisit, {10} praefatus neminem alium neque Romanum neque ullius gentis virum futurum fuisse, cuius se societate commissurus foret, quam Pompeium; non esse turpe ab eo vinci, quem vincere esset nefas, neque inhoneste aliquem summitti huic, quem fortuna super {15} omnes extulisset. Servatus regi honos imperi, sed multato ingenti pecunia, quae omnis, sicuti Pompeio moris erat, redacta in quaestoris potestatem ac publicis descripta litteris. Syria aliaeque, quas occupaverat, provinciae ereptae, et aliae restitutae populo {20} Romano, aliae tum primum in eius potestatem redactae, ut Syria, quae tum primum facta est stipendiaria. Finis imperi regi terminatus Armenia.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 37.
+Context.+ In 66 B.C. Lucullus, of whom Mommsen says 'hardly any other Roman general accomplished so much with so trifling means,' was superseded by Pompeius. By the Lex Manilia Pompeius obtained, in addition to the extensive powers conferred upon him by the Lex Gabinia 67 B.C., the military administration of Asia as far as Armenia. 'Never since Rome stood had such power been united in the hands of a single man.' --M.
[Linenotes: 3-4. +rex fusus ... copiis+, i.e. in Lesser Armenia, on S. bank of R. Lycus, where Pompeius afterwards founded Nicopolis. 5. +Tigranenque generum petit.+ Tigranes had married Cleopatra, the daughter of Mithridates. 17-19. +quae omnis ... litteris,+ i.e. paid into the Roman treasury. Cf. Lucan ix. 197 _Immodicas possedit opes, sed plura retentis_ | _Intulit_ sc. _in aerarium_.]
+The End of Mithridates.+ After his defeat at Nicopolis the aged king took refuge in his Northern capital of Panticapaeum (on the Cimmerian Bosporus). Here, when all turned against him, he took poison, 63 B.C. 'In him a great enemy was borne to the tomb, a greater than had ever yet withstood the Romans in the indolent East.' --M.
+Syria made a Roman Province,+ 65 B.C.
B33
GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (3)
A. _Curule Aedile, 65 B.C._
Aedilis praeter comitium ac forum basilicasque etiam Capitolium ornavit porticibus ad tempus exstructis, in quibus abundante rerum copia pars apparatus exponeretur. Venationes autem ludosque et cum collega et separatim edidit, quo factum est, {5} ut communium quoque impensarum solus gratiam caperet, nec dissimularet collega eius Marcus Bibulus evenisse sibi quod Polluci: ut enim geminis fratribus aedes in foro constituta tantum Castoris vocaretur, ita suam Caesarisque munificentiam unius Caesaris {10} dici.
SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 10.
[Linenotes: 1. +Aedilis.+ As curule-aedile Caesar exceeded all previous expenditure. This was meant to secure the favour of the democracy, and gain the position of its leader, which was in fact vacant; for Crassus was never popular, and Pompeius was absent in the East. +basilicas+ (#basilikê# sc. #oikia# and #stoa#: _regia_) = _halls_. 2. +porticibus:+ these acted as booths, in a grand fair, as we should say. 4. +Venationes+, here of the combats with wild beasts. 7. +M. Bibulus+, also Caesar's colleague in his first consulship, 59 B.C.]
B. _Propraetor in Further Spain, 61 B.C._
Ex praetura ulteriorem sortitus Hispaniam, retinentes creditores interventu sponsorum removit, ac neque more neque iure, ante quam provinciae ornarentur, profectus est; pacataque provincia, pari {15} festinatione, non expectato successore, ad triumphum simul consulatumque decessit. Sed cum, edictis iam comitiis, ratio eius haberi non posset nisi privatus introisset urbem, et ambienti ut legibus solveretur multi contradicerent, coactus est triumphum, {20} ne consulatu excluderetur, dimittere.
SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 18.
+Context.+ In 69 B.C. Caesar was elected to a Quaestorship (the lowest step in the ladder of official life) and discharged his judicial duties in Further Spain with tact and industry.
[Linenotes: 13. +retinentes ... removit+ = _freed himself from his creditors, who were for detaining him_, by the help of sureties. Caesar is said to have borrowed from Crassus 830 talents. 14-15. +ante quam provinciae ornarentur:+ a regular phrase used of supplying the newly chosen magistrate with money, arms, attendants, etc. 18. +ratio ... posset+ = _his candidature could not be considered_.]
+Propraetor in F. Spain.+ 'His governorship enabled him partly to rid himself of his debts partly to lay the foundation for his military repute.' --M.
B34
THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B.C. (1)
_Cicero declaims against the Audacity of Catiline._
Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiam furor iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit audacia? Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum {5} omnium, nihil hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque moverunt? Patere tua consilia non sentis? Constrictam iam horum omnium scientia teneri coniurationem tuam non vides? Quid proxima, quid superiore nocte egeris, {10} ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, quid consilii ceperis, quem nostrum ignorare arbitraris? O tempora! O mores! Senatus haec intellegit; consul videt: hic tamen vivit. Vivit? immo vero etiam in senatum venit: fit publici consilii particeps; notat at designat {15} oculis ad caedem unum quemque nostrum. . . . Castra sunt in Italia contra rem publicam in Etruriae faucibus collocata: crescit in dies singulos hostium numerus; eorum autem castrorum imperatorem ducemque hostium intra moenia atque {20} adeo in senatu videmus intestinam aliquam cotidie perniciem rei publicae molientem. Si te iam, Catilina, eomprehendi, si interfici iussero, credo, erit verendum mihi ne non hoc potius omnes boni serius a me quam quisquam crudelius factum esse dicat. {25}
CICERO, _in Catilinam_, i. §§ 1, 2, 5.
[Linenotes: 1. +Quo usque tandem abutere+ = _how long, pray, will you presume upon?_ Catiline had been declared _hostis patriae_, and yet dared to appear in the Senate. 4. +praesidium Palati+: in the case of any threatening danger the +Mons Palatinus+ was occupied as one of the most important military points in the city. 6-7. +senatus locus+, i.e. the temple of +Jupiter Stator+, on the N. slope of the Palatine, chosen as the safest meeting-place, and near Cicero's house. 17-18. +castra ... collocata+, the camp of Manlius (one of the veteran centurions of Sulla) was planted at Faesulae (Fiesole), a rocky fastness three miles N.E. of Florence. 19. +imperatorem:+ ironical, as though Catiline were the legally appointed general of the Republic.]
+In L. Catilinam Oratio i.+ 'This splendid oration, in its fiery vigour and mastery of invective, is unsurpassed except by the Second Philippic.' --Cruttwell.
+Its effect on Catiline.+ _Tum ille furibundus 'quoniam quidem circumventus' inquit 'ab inimicis praeceps agor, incendium meum ruina restinguam.'_ Sall. _Catil._ 31. That night Catiline left Rome for the camp of Manlius.
B35
THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B.C. (2)
_The End of Catiline._
Sed confecto proelio tum vero cerneres, quanta audacia quantaque vis animi fuisset in exercitu Catilinae. Nam fere, quem quisque vivus pugnando locum ceperat, eum, amissa anima, corpore tegebat. Pauci autem, quos medios cohors praetoria disiecerat, {5} paulo divorsius, sed omnes tamen advorsis volneribus conciderant. Catilina vero longe a suis inter hostium cadavera repertus est, paululum etiam spirans ferociamque animi, quam habuerat vivus, in voltu retinens. Postremo ex omni copia neque in {10} proelio neque in fuga quisquam civis ingenuus captus est. Ita cuncti suae hostiumque vitae iuxta pepercerant. Neque tamen exercitus populi Romani laetam aut incruentam victoriam adeptus erat; nam strenuissumus quisque aut occiderat in proelio, aut {15} graviter volneratus discesserat. Multi autem, qui de castris visundi aut spoliandi gratia processerant, volventes hostilia cadavera, amicum alii, pars hospitem aut cognatum reperiebant; fuere item, qui inimicos suos cognoscerent. Ita varie per omnem {20} exercitum laetitia, maeror, luctus atque gaudia agitabantur.
SALLUST, _Bellum Catilinae_, 61.
[Linenotes: 5. +cohors praetoria+: a _corps d'élite_, specially organised as a bodyguard of the general (_praetor_ = _praeitor_, _prae + eo_), dating from the time when the praetores was the older name of the consuls (= _colleagues_). 8. +etiam+ (= _adhuc_) = _still_. Cf. Verg. _Aen._ vi. 485 _etiam currus etiam arma tenentem_. 11. +civis ingenuus+, i.e. a free citizen born of free citizens. 12. +Ita cuncti ... pepercerant+ = _so unsparing had they all been alike of their own and their opponents' lives_. --Pollard. 21. +laetitia+ = joy manifested, +gaudia+ = joy felt. +luctus+ = grief shown by outward signs, e.g. by dress. +maeror+ = grief shown by inward signs, e.g. by tears, or a sad face.]
+The Battle of Pistoria+ (Pistoia, N.W. of Faesulae). 'Catiline showed on this day that nature had destined him for no ordinary things, and that he knew at once how to command and how to fight as a soldier. At length Petreius, with his bodyguard, broke the centre of the enemy, and then attacked the two wings from within. This decided the day.' --M.
+The character of Catiline.+ 'He was one of the most wicked men in that wicked age. He possessed in a high degree the qualities which are required in the leader of a band of ruined and desperate men--the faculty of enjoying all pleasures and of bearing all privations, courage, military talent, knowledge of men, indomitable energy.' --M. Cf. Sall. _Catil._ 5.
B36
GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (4).
_Forms the First Triumvirate: Consul, 60-59 B.C._
Hoc igitur consule inter eum et Cn. Pompeium et M. Crassum inita potentiae societas, quae urbi orbique terrarum nec minus diverso quoque tempore ipsis exitiabilis fuit. Hoc consilium sequendi Pompeius causam habuerat, ut tandem acta in {5} transmarinis provinciis, quibus, ut praediximus, multi obtrectabant, per Caesarem confirmarentur consulem, Caesar autem, quod animadvertebat se cedendo Pompei gloriae aucturum suam et invidia communis potentiae in illum relegata confirmaturum {10} vires suas, Crassus, ut quem principatum solus adsequi non poterat, auctoritate Pompei, viribus teneret Caesaris. Adfinitas etiam inter Caesarem Pompeiumque contracta nuptiis, quippe Iuliam, filiam C. Caesaris, Cn. Magnus duxit uxorem. In {15} hoc consulatu Caesar legem tulit, ut ager Campanus plebei divideretur, suasore legis Pompeio: ita circiter XX milia civium eo deducta et ius urbis restitutum post annos circiter CLII quam bello Punico ab Romanis Capua in formam praefecturae {20} redacta erat. Bibulus, collega Caesaris, cum actiones eius magis vellet impedire quam posset, maiore parte anni domi se tenuit: quo facto dum augere vult invidiam collegae, auxit potentiam. Tum Caesari decretae in quinquennium Galliae. {25}
VELL. PAT. ii. 44.
[Linenotes: 1-2. +inter eum ... societas+, the famous First Triumvirate. 'It was at first an expedient to secure, as we should say, a working majority for a vigorous democratic policy, but the bitterness of its enemies transformed the coalition itself from an honourable union into the semblance of a three-headed tyranny.' --Warde Fowler. 4-7. The ultra-senatorial party (after Pompeius' great act of renunciation, when he dismissed his victorious veterans in 62 B.C.) had checked and worried Pompeius by refusing to ratify his arrangements in the East, and by criticising and opposing his plans for rewarding his veterans. Thus they deliberately drove him once more into the arms of Caesar and the democracy. 10. +relegata+ = _attributed_, _imputed_, lit. _removed_ (_re_ + _lêgo_). 21. +Bibulus, collega Caesaris:+ cf. Suet. _Divus Iulius_ 20: _Non Bibulo quicquam, nuper sed Caesare factum est: Nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini._]
+Caesar's First Consulship.+ Among his other acts was the famous _Lex Iulia de pecuniis repetundis_ (against official extortion in the provinces), which won strong praise even from Cicero himself.
B37
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (1)
'_That day he overcame the Nervii_,' 57 B.C.
Caesar ab decimae legionis cohortatione ad dextrum cornu profectus, ubi suos urgeri signisque in unum locum collatis duodecimae legionis confertos milites sibi ipsos ad pugnam esse impedimento vidit--quartae cohortis omnibus centurionibus occisis, {5} signifero interfecto, signo amisso, reliquarum cohortium omnibus fere centurionibus aut vulneratis aut occisis, in his primipilo P. Sextio Baculo, fortissimo viro, multis gravibusque volneribus confecto, ut iam se sustinere non posset; reliquos esse tardiores et nonnullos {10} ab novissimis deserto proelio excedere ac tela vitare, hostes neque a fronte ex inferiore loco subeuntes intermittere et ab utroque latere instare, et rem esse in angusto vidit neque ullum esse subsidium quod submitti posset, scuto ab novissimis {15} militi detracto, quod ipse eo sine scuto venerat, in primam aciem processit; centurionibusque nominatim appellatis reliquos cohortatus milites signa inferre et manipulos laxare iussit, quo facilius gladiis uti possent. Cuius adventu spe illata militibus ac {20} redintegrato animo, cum pro se quisque in conspectu imperatoris etiam in extremis suis rebus operam navare cuperet, paulum hostium impetus tardatus est.
CAESAR, _de B. G._ ii. 25.
+Context.+ The Nervii, the bravest of the Belgae, surprised Caesar's men while at work on their camp. There was no time to think: they took station where they could. The 9th and 10th legions on the left broke and pursued the enemy in front of them, and the two legions in the centre stood firm. But on the right there was a gap, and the Nervii were rapidly surrounding the two legions huddled together here, and the fight threatened every moment to become a second Cannae, +when Caesar restored the fight+. Labienus sent back the victorious 10th, who took the enemy in their rear, and the cavalry completed the victory.
[Linenotes: 14-15. +neque ullum ... posset+: the rear guard, the 13th and 14th legions, had not yet come up. 18-19. +signa ... laxare+ = _to charge and_ (thus) _open out the ranks_. 22-23. +operam navare+ = _to do their very best_. +navo+ (orig. _gnavo_; cf. #gnôskô#) = lit. _to make known_, _to exhibit_.]
+The Battle of the Sambre.+ One of the most desperate that Caesar ever fought. The memory of it lived in Caesar's mind so vividly that he seems to fight the battle over again as he describes it, in language for him unusually strong and intense. --W. F.
+Result of the Battle+, the submission of North West Gaul.
B38
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (2)
_Naval Battle with the Veneti, 56 B.C._
Una erat magno usui res praeparata a nostris,--falces praeacutae insertae affixaeque longuriis non absimili forma muralium falcium. His cum funes qui antemnas ad malos destinabant comprehensi adductique essent, navigio remis incitato praerumpebantur. {5} Quibus abscisis antemnae necessario concidebant; ut, cum omnis Gallicis spes in velis armamentisque consisteret, his ereptis omnis usus navium uno tempore eriperetur. Reliquum erat certamen positum in virtute, qua nostri milites facile {10} superabant atque eo magis, quod in conspectu Caesaris atque omnis exercitus res gerebatur, ut nullum paulo fortius factum latere posset; omnes enim colles ac loca superiora, unde erat propinquus despectus in mare, ab exercitu tenebantur. Disiectis, ut diximus, {15} antemnis, cum singulas binae ac ternae naves circumsteterant, milites summa vi transcendere in hostium naves contendebant. Quod postquam barbari fieri animadverterunt, expugnatis compluribus navibus, cum ei rei nullum reperiretur auxilium, fuga {20} salutem petere contenderunt. Ac iam conversis in eam partem navibus quo ventus ferebat, tanta subito malacia ac tranquillitas exstitit ut se ex loco movere non possent. Quae quidem res ad negotium conficiendum maxime fuit opportuna; nam singulas {25} nostri consectati expugnaverunt, ut perpaucae ex omni numero noctis interventu ad terram pervenerint, cum ab hora fere quarta usque ad solis occasum pugnaretur.
CAESAR, _de B. G._ iii. 14, 15.
+Context.+ In the winter of 57-6 Roman officers, who came to levy requisitions of grain, were detained by the Veneti. Caesar's attack on their coast-towns failed to reduce them to submission: so he determined to wait for his fleet. This he entrusted to Decimus Brutus, an able and devoted officer. At first the Roman galleys were powerless against the high-decked strong sailing-vessels of the Veneti, but +the use of the murales falces, and the opportune calm, enabled Brutus to annihilate their fleet+.
[Linenotes: 11-12. +quod ... gerebatur.+ Napoleon (_Caesar_, vol. ii. p. 6) thinks that Caesar was encamped on the heights of Saint Gildas overlooking Quiberon Bay. 23. +malacia+ = _a calm_, but #malakia# = _softness_, L. _mollities_.]
+Result of the Victory+--the surrender of the Veneti and of all Brittany. +The earliest historical naval battle fought on the Atlantic Ocean.+--M.
B39
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (3)
_Caesar's Bridge across the Rhine, 55 B.C._
Rationem pontis hanc instituit. Tigna bina sesquipedalia paulum ab imo praeacuta, dimensa ad altitudinem fluminis, intervallo pedum duorum inter se iungebat. Haec cum machinationibus immissa in flumen defixerat fistucisque adegerat--non sublicae {5} modo derecte ad perpendiculum, sed prone ac fastigate, ut secundum naturam fluminis procumberent--eis item contraria duo ad eundem modum iuncta intervallo pedum quadragenum ab inferiore parte contra vim atque impetum fluminis conversa statuebat. {10} Haec utraque insuper bipedalibus trabibus immissis, quantum eorum tignorum iunctura distabat, binis utrimque fibulis ab extrema parte distinebantur; quibus disclusis atque in contrariam partem revinctis, tanta erat operis firmitudo atque {15} ea rerum natura ut, quo maior vis aquae se incitavisset, hoc artius illigata tenerentur. Haec derecta materia iniecta contexebantur ac longuriis cratibusque consternebantur; ac nihilo setius sublicae et ad inferiorem partem fluminis oblique agebantur, quae {20} pro ariete subiectae et cum omni opere coniunctae vim fluminis exciperent; et aliae item supra pontem mediocri spatio, ut, si arborum trunci sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbaris immissae, his defensoribus earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti {25} nocerent.
CAESAR, _de B. G._ iv. 17.
+Context.+ The year 55 B.C. appears to have been marked by a general movement in the migration of the German tribes. An advance, consisting of two tribes, the Usipetes and Tenctri, crowded forward by the more powerful Suevi, crossed the Lower Rhine into N. Gaul. Caesar drove them back across the Rhine, +bridged the river+, followed them up into their own territories, and fully established the supremacy of the Roman arms. --Allen and Greenough.
[Linenotes: 5. +fistucisque adegerat+ = _and had driven them home_ (+ad+-) _with rammers_. For Plan of Bridge see Allen's _Caesar_, p. 103. 11-14. +Haec ... distinebantur+ = _these two sets were held apart by two-feet timbers laid on above, equal_ (in thickness) _to the interval left by the fastening of the piles_ (+quantum ... distabat+), _with a pair of ties_ (+fibulis+) _at each end_. --A. & G. 17-18. +Haec ... contexebantur+ = _these_ (i.e. the framework of timber) _were covered over by boards_ (+materia+) _laid lengthwise_. +longuriis+ = _with long poles_.]
+The Bridge+ (prob. near Bonn). 'With extraordinary speed (in ten days) the bridge was completed. It was a triumph of engineering and industry.' --W. F.
B40
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (4)
_Cassivellaunus. Second Invasion of Britain, 54 B.C._
Cassivellaunus, omni deposita spe contentionis, dimissis amplioribus copiis, milibus circiter quattuor essedariorum relictis itinera nostra servabat: paulumque ex via excedebat locisque impeditis ac silvestribus sese occultabat, atque eis regionibus quibus {5} nos iter facturos cognoverat pecora atque homines ex agris in silvas compellebat; et cum equitatus noster liberius praedandi vastandique causa se in agros eiecerat, omnibus viis semitisque essedarios ex silvis emittebat; et magno cum periculo nostrorum {10} equitum cum eis confligebat atque hoc metu latius vagari prohibebat. Relinquebatur ut neque longius ab agmine legionum discedi Caesar pateretur, et tantum in agris vastandis incendiisque faciendis hostibus noceretur quantum in labore atque itinere {15} legionarii milites efficere poterant. . . . Cassivellaunus hoc proelio nuntiato, tot detrimentis acceptis, vastatis finibus, maxime etiam permotus defectione civitatum, legatos per Atrebatem Commium de deditione ad Caesarem mittit. {20}
CAESAR, _de B. G._ v. 19, 22.
+Context.+ The First Invasion of Britain (55 B.C.) was only a visit of exploration; but in the Second Invasion (54 B.C.) Caesar aimed at a
## partial conquest. He had been hearing of Britain ever since he came to
Gaul, and knew it to be a refuge for his Celtic enemies and a secret source of their strength. He set sail from the Portus Ittius (mod. Wissant, some twelve miles W. of Calais) and after drifting some way to the N.E., made his way to his former landing-place, probably near Romney. Some severe fighting followed, till at length Caesar crossed the Thames (apparently between Kingston and Brentford) and +entered the country of Cassivellaunus, who gave Caesar much trouble by his guerilla tactics. Deserted by his allies, Cassivellaunus offered his submission, which Caesar gladly accepted.+
[Linenotes: 1. +Contentionis+, i.e. of a general engagement with Caesar. 12. +Relinquebatur ut+ = _the consequence was that_ ... 17. +hoc proelio+, i.e. the storming by Caesar of his fortified camp, perh. St. Albans. 18-19. +defectione civitatum+, espec. of the Trinobantes (chief place _Camulodunum_, later _Colonia castrum_ = _Colchester_). 19. +Commium+, Caesar had made him King of the Atrebates (N.W. Gaul).]
+Caesar In Britain.+ 'What he tells us of the geography and inhabitants of the Island comprises almost all we know, except from coins, down to the time of its final conquest by Clodius 51 A.D.' --W. F.
B41
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (5)
_The Gallic uprising. Fabian tactics of Vercingetorix, 52 B.C._
Vercingetorix tot continuis incommodis acceptis suos ad concilium convocat. Docet 'longe alia ratione esse bellum gerendum atque antea gestum sit; omnibus modis huic rei studendum ut pabulatione et commeatu Romani prohibeantur: id esse {5} facile, quod equitatu ipsi abundent et quod anni tempore subleventur; pabulum secari non posse; necessario dispersos hostes ex aedificiis petere; hos omnes cotidie ab equitibus deleri posse. Praeterea, salutis causa rei familiaris commoda neglegenda; {10} vicos atque aedificia incendi oportere hoc spatio quoqueversus, quo pabulandi causa adire posse videantur. Harum ipsis rerum copiam suppetere, quod quorum in finibus bellum geratur eorum opibus subleventur: Romanos aut inopiam non laturos aut {15} magno cum periculo longius a castris processuros; neque interesse ipsosne interficiant an impedimentis exuant, quibus amissis bellum geri non possit. Praeterea, oppida incendi oportere quae non munitione et loci natura ab omni sint periculo tuta; ne {20} suis sint ad detrectandam militiam receptacula, neu Romanis proposita ad copiam commeatus praedamque tollendam. Haec si gravia aut acerba videantur, multo illa gravius aestimari debere, liberos, coniuges in servitutem abstrahi, ipsos interfici; {25} quae sit necesse accidere victis.'
CAESAR, _de B. G._ vii. 14.
+Context.+ On his return from Britain, Caesar found the N. Gauls in open revolt. The division of Sabinus (at Aduatuca, near Liège) was annihilated by Ambiorix, and Caesar was only just in time to relieve Q. Cicero at Charleroi. To prevent all further support to the Gauls from the Germans across the Rhine, Caesar again made a military demonstration across the river, and put an end to all the hopes of the Germans of breaking through this boundary. In the winter of 53-2 B.C., during his absence in Cisalpine Gaul, +a general uprising of the S. and Central Gauls took place under the Arvernian Vercingetorix, the hero of the whole Gallic race+.
[Linenotes: 6-7. +anni tempore+, i.e. scarcely yet spring, when no crops could be got off the land. 11-12. +hoc spatio quoqueversus, quo+ = _so far in every direction as_. 19. +oppida incendi:+ only Avaricum (Bourges) was to be spared. 22. +proposita+ = _offered_ to be captured by the Romans.]
+The tactics of Vercingetorix.+ 'He adopted a system of warfare similar to that by which Cassivellaunus had saved the Celts of Britain.' --M.
B42
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (6)
_Siege of Gergovia. Petronius dies to save his men, 52 B.C._
Cum acerrime comminus pugnaretur, hostes loco et numero, nostri virtute confiderent, subito sunt Aedui visi ab latere nostris aperto, quos Caesar ab dextra parte alio ascensu manus distinendae causa miserat. Hi similitudine armorum vehementer {5} nostros perterruerunt. Eodem tempore L. Fabius centurio quique una murum ascenderant circumventi atque interfecti de muro praecipitabantur. M. Petronius, eiusdem legionis centurio, cum portas excidere conatus esset, a multitudine oppressus ac sibi desperans, {10} multis iam volneribus acceptis, manipularibus suis qui illum secuti erant, 'Quoniam,' inquit, 'me una vobiscum servare non possum, vestrae quidem certe vitae prospiciam, quos cupiditate gloriae adductus in periculum deduxi. Vos data facultate vobis consulite.' {15} Simul in niedios hostes irrupit, duobusque interfectis reliquos a porta paulum submovit. Conantibus auxiliari suis, 'Frustra,' inquit, 'meae vitae subvenire conamini, quem iam sanguis viresque deficiunt. Proinde abite dum est facultas vosque ad {20} legionem recipite.' Ita pugnans post paulum concidit ac suis saluti fuit.
CAESAR, _de B. G._ vii. 50.
+Context.+ With a half-starved army Caesar stormed Avaricum after a most obstinate defence, and then laid siege to the Arvernian capital of Gergovia, in hope of destroying Vercingetorix and ending the war. As the town was too strong to be taken by storm, he resolved to try a blockade, but he failed, as at Dyrrachium in 49 B.C., from want of sufficient troops.
+A last desperate attack on the town was repulsed+, and Caesar, defeated for the first time, was forced to raise the siege.
[Linenotes: 3. +ab latere nostris aperto:+ as a soldier carries his shield on the left arm, leaving the sword hand free, this (right) side is called +latus apertum+.--Compton. 4. +manus distinendae causa+ = _for the purpose of diverting_ (+distinendae+, lit. _hold off_) _the enemy's force_. 6. +perterruerunt+: this was all the more natural, as the Aeduan contingent was only awaiting the result of the blockade, to openly join the insurgents. 9. +excidere+ = _to cut away_, _hew down_, i.e. from within.]
+Gergovia+, 4 miles S. of Clermont. This famous stronghold consists of a rectangular plateau nearly a mile in length, and some 1300 feet above the plain through which the Allier flows, and descending steeply on all sides but one to the ground.
+Caesar's failure.+ 'The fact was that chiefly owing to the nature of the ground and their own ardour, Caesar's men were not well in hand.' --W. F.
B43
THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B.C. (7)
_Siege of Alesia. The Last Fight of Vercingetorix, 52 B.C._
Vercingetorix ex arce Alesiae suos conspicatus ex oppido egreditur: crates, longurios, musculos, fasces, reliquaque quae eruptionis causa paraverat profert. Pugnatur uno tempore omnibus locis atque omnia temptantur; quae minime visa pars firma est huc {5} concurritur. Romanorum manus tantis munitionibus distinetur nec facile pluribus locis occurrit. . . . Labienus, postquam neque aggeres neque fossae vim hostium sustinere poterant, coactis XI cohortibus, quas ex proximis praesidiis deductas fors obtulit, {10} Caesarem per nuntios facit certiorem quid faciendum existimet. Accelerat Caesar ut proelio intersit. Eius adventu ex colore vestitus cognito (quo insigni in proeliis uti consuerat), turmisque equitum et cohortibus visis quas se sequi iusserat, ut de locis {15} superioribus haec declivia et devexa cemebantur, hostes proelium committunt. Utrimque clamore sublato excipit rursus ex vallo atque omnibus munitionibus clamor. Nostri omissis pilis gladiis rem gerunt. Repente post tergum equitatus cernitur: {20} cohortes aliae appropinquant. Hostes terga vertunt; fugientibus equites occurrunt: fit magna caedes: pauci ex tanto numero se incolumes in castra recipiunt.
CAESAR, _de B. G._ vii. 84, 87, 88.
+Context.+ After his successful defence of Gergovia, Vercingetorix allowed his judgment to be overruled, and attacked Caesar's army (now united to the division of Labienus) on the march. Caesar shook off the enemy with the help of his German cavalry, and turned their retreat into a rout. V. then threw himself with all his forces into Alesia. Caesar constructed an inner line of investment and an outer line of defence, and was thus able to wear out the besieged and +beat back the relieving host of the Gauls+.
[Linenotes: 1. +suos+, i.e. the host (some 250,000) of the relieving army of Gauls. 2. +musculos+ (dimin. of _mus_) = _pent-houses_ or _sheds_. 4. +omnibus locis+, i.e. along the whole length of Caesar's outer line of defence, _where it ran along the slope of Mont Réa_, to the N.W. of Alesia. This, as the relieving Gauls were quick to see, was the weakest point of the whole line. 13. +ex colore vestitus+, i.e. the purple or scarlet paludamentum.]
+Vercingetorix.+ The Celtic officers delivered up V. to Caesar, to be led in triumph five years later, and beheaded as a traitor. In 1865 a statue was erected on the summit of Alesia, in honour of the heroic Gaul.
+The fall of Alesia decided the fate of Gaul.+
B44
CICERO IN EXILE, MARCH 58 B.C.-AUGUST 57 B.C. (1)
_His Banishment._
Per idem tempus P. Clodius, homo nobilis, disertus, audax, quique dicendi neque faciendi ullum nisi quem vellet nosset modum, malorum propositorum exsecutor acerrimus, cum graves inimicitias cum M. Cicerone exerceret (quid enim inter tam {5} dissimilis amicum esse poterat?) et a patribus ad plebem transisset, legem in tribunatu tulit, qui civem Romanum non damnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni interdiceretur: cuius verbis etsi non nominabatur Cicero, tamen solus petebatur. Ita vir optime {10} meritus de re publica conservatae patriae pretium calamitatem exili tulit. Non caruerunt suspicione oppressi Ciceronis Caesar et Pompeius. Hoc sibi contraxisse videbatur Cicero, quod inter xx viros dividendo agro Campano esse noluisset. Idem intra {15} biennium sera Cn. Pompei cura, verum ut coepit intenta, votisque Italiae ac decretis senatus, virtute atque actione Anni Milonis tribuni pl. dignitati patriaeque restitutus est. Neque post Numidici exilium ac reditum quisquam aut expulsus invidiosius {20} aut receptus est laetius: cuius domus quam infeste a Clodio disiecta erat, tam speciose a senatu restituta est.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 45.
[Linenotes: 6-7. +a patribus ... transisset.+ When Cicero refused to throw in his lot with the Triumvirs, Publius Clodius was (by the aid of Caesar as Pontifex Maximus) hurriedly transferred from a patrician to a plebeian gens, and then chosen a tribune of the people for the year 58 B.C. Clodius was thus enabled to satisfy his private hatred of Cicero, and Caesar was enabled to get rid of the man who persisted in opposing him. 7-8. +qui ... interemisset:+ aimed at Cicero for his share in the summary execution of the Catilinarians 63 B.C. Mommsen calls it a judicial murder. Undoubtedly the Senate had not the power of sentencing _citizens_ to death. But Cicero argues that the legal effect of the _Senatus consultum ultimum_ was to _disenfranchise_ Lentulus and his associates, and to place them in the position of _outlaws_. 12-13. +Non caruerunt ... Pompeius:+ Caesar having in vain tried to win him over abandoned him to his fate, and Pompeius basely deserted him. 15. +dividendo agro Campano+, i.e. by Caesar's Agrarian Law of 59 B.C., to provide for Pompey's veterans. 18. +Anni Milonis:+ the bravoes of Milo protected from disturbance the voters engaged in sanctioning the decree for the recall of Cicero. 19. +Numidici+, i.e. Q. Caecilius Metellus, general against Jugurtha, superseded by Marius and forced to retire to Rhodes.]
B45
CICERO IN EXILE, MARCH 58 B.C.-AUGUST 57 B.C. (2)
_His Return._
Pr. Nonas Sextiles Dyrrachio sum profectus, ipso illo die, quo lex est lata de nobis; Brundisium veni Nonis Sextilibus: ibi mihi Tulliola mea fuit praesto natali suo ipso die, qui casu idem natalis erat et Brundisinae coloniae et tuae vicinae Salutis; quae {5} res animadversa a multitudine summa Brundisinorum gratulatione celebrata est. Ante diem vi Idus Sextiles cognovi, cum Brundisii essem, litteris Quinti, mirifico studio omnium aetatum atque ordinum, incredibili concursu Italiae legem comitiis {10} centuriatis esse perlatam: inde a Brundisinis honestissimis ornatus iter ita feci, ut undique ad me cum gratulatione legati convenerint. Ad urbem ita veni, ut nemo ullius ordinis homo nomenclatori notus fuerit, qui mihi obviam non venerit, praeter eos {15} inimicos, quibus id ipsum, se inimicos esse, non liceret aut dissimulare aut negare. Cum venissem ad portam Capenam, gradus templorum ab infima plebe completi erant, a qua plausu maximo cum esset mihi gratulatio significata, similis et frequentia {20} et plausus me usque ad Capitolium celebravit, in foroque et in ipso Capitolio miranda multitudo fuit. Postridie in senatu, qui fuit dies Nonarum Septembr., senatui gratias egimus.
CICERO, _Ep. ad Att._ iv. 1.
[Linenotes: 1. +Dyrrachio+ (formerly _Epidamnus_, mod. _Durazzo_), a town in Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic. It was the usual port of landing and departure from and for Brundisium (distant about 100 miles). 3. +Tulliola+, Cicero's dearly-loved daughter Tullia, the only one of his family of whose conduct he never complains, and his tender and sympathising companion in all his pursuits. 4-5. +qui casu ... coloniae.+ Brundisium was founded 244 B.C. The Via Appia terminated here. 5. +tuae vicinae Salutis+, the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal was near the house of Atticus. 9. +Quinti+ (sc. _Ciceronis_): Cicero's only brother, a gallant soldier (e.g. as legatus to Caesar in Gaul), but a man of violent temper. Proscribed by the Triumvirs, and put to death in 43 B.C. 11-12. +a Brundisinis ... ornatus+ = _having received attentions from the most respectable men of Brundisium_. 13. +legati+ = _deputations_, i.e. from the various towns en route. 14. +nomenclatori+ (= lit. _one who calls by name_, cf. #kal-eô#, _Cal-endae_): a confidential slave who attended his master in canvassing, and on similar occasions, and told him the names of the people he met. 18. +ad portam Capenam+ (_Porta S. Sebastiano_), by which the Via Appia led to Capua. 'Cicero, perhaps for effect, followed the line of triumphal procession.' --Impey.]
B46
CICERO'S RECANTATION, 56 B.C.
_In praise of Caesar._
Itaque cum acerrimis nationibus et maximis Germanorum et Helvetiorum proeliis felicissime decertavit: ceteras conterruit, compulit, domuit, imperio populi Romani parere assuefecit, et quas regiones, quasque gentes nullae nobis antea litterae, {5} nulla vox, nulla fama notas fecerat, has noster imperator nosterque exercitus et populi Romani arma peragrarunt. Semitam tantum Galliae tenebamus antea, patres conscripti; ceterae partes a gentibus aut inimicis huic imperio, aut infidis, aut {10} incognitis, aut certe immanibus et barbaris et bellicosis tenebantur; quas nationes, nemo umquam fuit, quin frangi domarique cuperet; nemo sapienter de republica nostra cogitavit iam inde a principio huius imperi, quin Galliam maxime timendam huic {15} imperio putaret; sed propter vim ac multitudinem gentium illarum numquam est antea cum omnibus dimicatum. Restitimus semper lacessiti. Nunc denique est perfectum, ut imperii nostri terrarumque illarum idem esset extremum. {20}
CICERO, _de Provinciis Consularibus_, § 33.
[Linenotes: 3. +compulit+ = _checked_, usu. = _to constrain_. 5. +nullae litterae+ = _no book_. 8. +Semitam tantum Galliae+ = _it was but a strip of Gaul._ --W. F. +Semita+ (_se + mi_ = _go aside_, cf. _meo_, _trames_) = lit. _a narrow way_, _path._ 13-14. +nemo ... cogitavit+ = _there never has been a prudent statesman_. --W. F. 17. +cum omnibus+, i.e. with the Gauls as a nation. 19-20. +ut imperi ... extremum+, i.e. that our Empire extends to the utmost limits of that land.]
+Cicero's Recantation+ (#palinôdia#). The time for the struggle between the Senatorial party (the Optimates) and the Triumvirs, weakened by their mutual jealousy, seemed to have come. Accordingly Cicero proposed in a full house to reconsider Caesar's Agrarian Law (of 59 B.C.) for the allotment of lands in Campania; while Domitius Ahenobarbus (candidate for next year's Consulship) openly declared his intention to propose Caesar's recall. Caesar acted with his usual promptness, and the Conference at Luca restored an understanding between the three regents. Pompeius then crossed to Sardinia, and informed Q. Cicero that he would be held reponsible for any act of hostility on the part of his brother. Cicero had no choice but to submit, and delivered in the Senate his oration _de Provinciis Consularibus_, a political manifesto on behalf of Caesar and Pompeius--the _Recantation_ alluded to in _Ep. ad Att._ iv. 5, and elaborately explained in _Ep. ad Fam._ i. 9 (to Lentulus Spinther).
B47
CARRHAE, 53 B.C. (1)
'_Quem deus vult perdere, prius dementat._'
Dum Gallos per Caesarem in septentrione debellat, ipse interim ad orientem grave volnus a Parthis populus Romanus accepit. Nec de fortuna queri possumus; caret solacio clades. Adversis et dis et hominibus cupiditas consulis Crassi, dum Parthico {5} inhiat auro, undecim strage legionum et ipsius capite multata est. Primum enim, qui solus et subvehere commeatus et munire poterat a tergo, relictus Euphrates, dum simulato transfugae cuidam Mazzarae Syro creditur. Tum in mediam camporum {10} vastitatem eodem duce ductus exercitus, ut undique hosti exponeretur. Itaque vixdum venerat Carrhas cum undique praefecti regis Silaces et Surenas ostendere signa auro sericisque vexillis vibrantia. Tunc sine mora circumfusi undique equitatus in {15} modum grandinis atque nimborum densa pariter tela fuderunt. Sic miserabili strage deletus exercitus. Ipse in colloquium sollicitatus signo dato vivus in hostium manus incidisset, nisi tribunis reluctantibus fugam ducis barbari ferro occupassent. Filium {20} ducis paene in conspectu patris eisdem telis operuerunt. Reliquiae infelicis exercitus, quo quemque rapuit fuga, in Armeniam Ciliciam Syriamque distractae vix nuntium cladis rettulerunt.
FLORUS, III. xi. 1-10 (sel.)
+Context.+ By the conference of the Triumvirs at Luca, it was arranged to secure the succession of Crassus to the government of Syria, in order to make war on the growing strength of the Parthian Empire beyond the Euphrates. Consul with Pompeius in 55 B.C. he set out for his province even before the expiration of his consulship 'eager to gather in the treasures of the East in addition to those of the West.'
[Linenotes: 7-14. +Primum enim ... vibrantia.+ The Arab prince Abgarus induced Crassus to leave the Euphrates, and cross the great Mesopotamian desert to the Tigris. When at length the enemy offered battle some 30 miles to the S. of Carrhae (Harran, not far from Edessa), by the side of the Parthian vizier stood prince Abgarus with his Bedouins. 15-17. +Tunc sine mora ... exercitus.+ The Roman weapons of close combat, and the Roman system of concentration yielded for the first time to cavalry and distant warfare (the bow). 20-21. +Filium ducis:+ his young and brave son Publius, who had served with the greatest distinction under Caesar in Gaul. 22. +Reliquiae:+ out of 40,000 Roman legionaries, who had crossed the Euphrates, not a fourth part returned: 20,000 fell, and 10,000 were taken prisoners.]
+Carrhae.+ 'The day of Carrhae takes its place side by side with the days of the Allia, and of Cannae.' --M.
B48
CARRHAE, 53 B.C. (2)
_After the Battle._
A.
Temporis angusti mansit concordia discors, Paxque fuit non sponte ducum; nam sola futuri Crassus erat belli medius mora. Qualiter undas 100 Qui secat et geminum gracilis mare separat Isthmos Nec patitur conferre fretum: si terra recedat, Ionium Aegaeo frangat mare: sic, ubi saeva Arma ducum dirimens miserando funere Crassus Assyrias Latio maculavit sanguine Carrhas, 105 Parthica Romanos solverunt damna furores. Plus illa vobis acie quam creditis actum est, Arsacidae: bellum victis civile dedistis.
LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 98-108.
[Linenotes: 98. +Temporis ... discors+ = _the short-lived concord endured, but it was a jarring_ (+discors+) _concord_. --Haskins. 101. +Isthmos+, sc. _of Corinth_: Caesar planned to cut it, and thus to secure a direct route by sea, connecting Italy and the East. 102. +Nec patitur ... fretum+ = _and suffers it_ (+mare+, l. 101) _not to join its waters_, i.e. the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs.]
B.
Milesne Crassi coniuge barbara Turpis maritus vixit, et hostium (Pro curia inversique mores!) Consenuit socerorum in armis 8 Sub rege Medo Marsus et Apulus, Anciliorum et nominis et togae Oblitus aeternaeque Vestae, Incolumi Iove et urbe Roma? 12
HORACE, _Odes_ III. v. 5-12.
Nearly 10,000 Roman prisoners were settled by the victors in the oasis of Merv, as bondsmen compelled after the Parthian fashion to render military service (+in armis+, l. 8).
[Linenotes: 8. +Consenuit:+ Carrhae (53 B.C.) was fought 26 years before this Ode was written (27 B.C.). 10-11. +Anciliorum, aeternae Vestae+, pledges of the immortality of Rome. 10. +togae+, i.e. the Roman people, the _gens togata_. 12. +Iove+, Jove's temple on the Capitol.]