C.
Ohe, iam satis est, ohe, libelle, Iam pervenimus usque ad umbilicos: Tu procedere adhuc et ire quaeris, Nec summa potes in schida teneri, Sic tamquam tibi res peracta non sit, 5 Quae prima quoque pagina peracta est. Iam lector queriturque deficitque; Iam librarius hoc et ipse dicit 'Ohe, iam satis est, ohe, libelle.'
MARTIAL, _Epig._ IV. lxxxix.
APPENDICES
PAGES
I. List of Important Conjunctions 274-276 II. List of Important Prefixes 277-281 III. List of Important Suffixes 282-286 IV. Groups of Cognate Words 287-288 V. How to Think in Latin 289-292 VI. Short Lives of Roman Authors 293-345 VII. Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature 347-363
[Transcriber's Note:
In Appendixes I-IV, most +boldface+ markup has been omitted for readability. In general, Latin words are unmarked, while English translations are _italicized_.]
APPENDIX I
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONJUNCTIONS
+I. CO-ORDINATE.+--These conjunctions join sentences of equal grammatical _rank_ (+ordo+), that is, each sentence is grammatically independent of the other.
They are generally divided into FIVE classes:--
(1) COPULATIVE (_link_) conjunctions are those which connect both the sentences and the meaning.
et, -qu[)e], ac, atque ... _and_. et ... et, -que ... -que (poet.) ... _both ... and_. [)e]t[)i]am, qu[)o]que ... _also_.
_Divide +et+ impera._ Divide +and+ control.
(2) DISJUNCTIVE conjunctions join together the sentence but they _disjoin_ or separate from each other the thoughts conveyed.
aut ... aut, v[)e]l ... v[)e]l (v[)e]) ... _either ... or_. s[)i]ve (seu) ... seu ... _whether ... or_. n[)e]c (n[)e]que) ... nec (neque) ... _neither ... nor_. _+aut+ vincemus +aut+ moriemur._ We will +either+ conquer +or+ die.
(3) ADVERSATIVE conjunctions _oppose_ two statements to each other.
s[)e]d, vêrum, vêrô, cêt[)e]rum ... _but_. autem, t[)a]men ... _however_. [)a]t ... _but_, _on the other hand_. _Ille quidem tardior: tu +autem+ ingeniosus, +sed+ in omni vita inconstans._ He is a little dull: +while+ you are clever, +but+ unstable in all your actions.
(4) INFERENTIAL.--The statement of one sentence _brings in_ (+infert+) or proves the other.
Ergo, [)i]g[)i]tur, [)i]t[)a]que ... _therefore_, _accordingly_.
'_Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem: +Ergo+ postque magisque viri nunc gloria claret_.'
ENNIUS.
(5) CAUSAL.
nam, namque, [)e]nim, [)e]t[)e]nim ... _for_. quâpropter, quârê, qu[)a]mobrem ... _wherefore_.
Ex.: '_+quamobrem+, Quirites, celebratote illos dies cum coniugibus ac liberis vestris: +nam+ multi saepe honores dis immortalibus iusti habiti sunt, sed profecto iustiores nunquam._'
+II. SUBORDINATE.+--These conjunctions attach to a sentence or clause another clause which holds (grammatically) a lower or _subordinate_ position, qualifying the principal clause just as an adverb qualifies a verb.
Thus in 'I will do this, _if_ you do,' the _if_ clause is equivalent to the adverb _conditionally_.
They are generally divided into EIGHT classes:--
(1) FINAL introduce a clause expressing a _purpose_.
[)u]t, quô ... _that_, _in order to_. nê, quôm[)i]nus ... _that not_, _lest_. qui ... _who_ (= ut is ...). _Edo +ut+ vivam._ _+Ne+ ignavum te putemus, fortiter pugna._ _Pauci mihi sunt +quos+ mittam._
(2) CONSECUTIVE introduce a clause expressing a _consequence_ or _result_.
[)u]t ... _so that_, _so as to_. [)u]t nôn, quîn ... _so as not to_. qui ... _who (of such a kind as to...)_. Ex.: _Tam fortis adest nemo ut solus muros ascendat._ _Tam fortis est +ut+ hostes +non+ timeat._ _Dignus erat +qui+ rex fieret._
(3) TEMPORAL.
cum, quandô ... _when_. [)u]b[)-i], [)u]t ... _when_, _as_. s[)i]m[)u]l, s[)i]m[)u]l atque (ac) ... _as soon as_. postquam ... _after that_. dum, dônec, qu[)o]ad ... _until_, _as long as_, _while_. pr[)i]us ... quam, ant[)e] ... quam ... _before that_.
_Discedere +prius+ noluit +quam+ ducem vidisset._ _Pompeius +ut+ equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit._
(4) CONDITIONAL.
sî, n[)i]s[)-i] (nî), si non, quod sî ... _if_, _unless_, _if not_, _but if_. m[)o]d[)o], dumm[)o]do, si m[)o]do ... _if only_, _provided that_. dumm[)o]do nê (dum nê, m[)o]do nê) ... _provided only not_.
_Ne promiseris unquam +nisi+ fidem praestare potes._ _Never promise +if+ you cannot keep your word._
(5) COMPARATIVE AND PROPORTIONAL.
ut, utî, sîcut, v[)e]lut ... _just as_, _as_. tanquam, qu[)a]s[)i] ... _as if_. quo ... [)e]o ... _the more ... the more_.
_Poenas dedit +sicut+ meritus est._ _E corpore +velut+ e carcere, evolat animus._ The soul flies forth from the prison-house of the body. _+quo+ difficilius +eo+ praeclarius._
(6) CONCESSIVE.
etsî, [)e]t[)i]amsi, t[)a]metsi ... _even if_. quamquam ... _although_. quamvîs, quaml[)i]bet ... _however much_. l[)i]cet, ut, cum ... _though_, _although_.
_+Cum+ liber esse posset, servire maluit._
(7) CAUSAL.
qu[)i][)a], qu[)o]d, qu[)o]n[)i]am, quandô ... _because_. cum ... _since_. propt[)e]r[)e]â ... quod ... _for this reason ... that_. quandôqu[)i]dem, quippe ... _since indeed_, _inasmuch as_.
_Quae +cum+ ita sint, ab urbe discedam._ _Socrates accusatus est +quod+ iuventutem corrumperet._
(8) INTERROGATIVE (with dependent clauses).
cûr, ûtrum ... [)a]n, num ... _why_, _whether ... or_, _if_. quemadm[)o]dum, ut ... _how_. [)u]b[)-i], quandô ... _when_.
_Caesar +utrum+ iure caesus fuerit, +an+ nefarie necatus, dubitari potest._ _Whether_ Caesar was rightfully put to death, +or+ foully murdered, is open to question.
APPENDIX II
LIST OF IMPORTANT PREFIXES
+I. PREPOSITIONS.+--In these compounds the Prepositions retain their original adverbial force.
A-, AB-, ABS-, = _away_, _from_ (of the starting-place)
(i) = _separation._
abire = _go away_. abscêdere = _go away_. âv[)o]care = _call away_.
(ii) = _consumption._ absûmere = _take away_, _consume_. [)a]bûti = _use up_.
AD-, AC-, A-, = to (of a person, place, or thing, as the goal of motion).
(i) = _to_, _at_ (local). accêdere = _approach_. adfâri = _speak to_. (ii) = _in addition._ acquîrere = _get in addition_.
ANTE = before (of place and time).
antecêdere = _come before_. anteferre = _prefer_.
CIRCUM = around.
circumd[)a]re = _surround_. circumdûcere } circumscrîbere } literally, and with secondary meaning, = _cheat_. circumv[)e]nire }
COM-, CON- (CUM), CO-, COL-, COR-, = together.
(i) = _collectively._
conclâmare = _shout together_. commiscêre = _mix together_.
(ii) = _completely_ (often apparently only pleonastic).
consectari = _follow persistently_. confirmare = _strengthen_.
DE-, = down, from.
(i) = _down_, _down off_, _down to._
dec[)i]dere = _fall down_, or _off_. dev[)e]nire = _come to_.
(ii) = _off_, _away_, _aside._
dêcêdere = _depart_. deflectere = _turn aside_. deterrêre = _frighten_.
(iii) = _completely._
dep[)o]p[)u]lari = _lay waste_. debellare = _bring a war to an end_.
(iv) = _un-_ (negative).
despêrare = _despair_. deesse = _be wanting_.
E-, EX-, EC-, EF-, = out of.
(i) = _out_, _forth._
excêdere = _go out_. effundere = _pour forth_.
(ii) = _throughout_, _to the end_, _thoroughly._
explêre = _fill to the brim_. exposcere = _earnestly ask_.
IN-, IM-, IR-, I-, = in, on, against.
(i) = _in_, _into_, _on._
inclûdere = _shut in_. inc[)i]dere = _fall on_. inv[)i]dere = _look at_ (with ill intent),_envy_.
(ii) = _intensive_, almost _pleonastic_.
inc[)i]pere = _take up_, _begin_. implêre = _fill_.
INTER = between.
(i) = _between_, _among._
intercêdere = _come between_. intell[)e]gere = _pick among_, _perceive_.
(ii) = _breaking a continuity._
interclûdere = _shut off_, _blockade_. interf[)i]cere = _destroy_ (lit. _put between_).
OB-, OBS-, OC-, OF-, OP-, O-, = against, on account of.
(i) = _over against_, _before_ (as an obstruction).
offendere = _strike against_. obl[)o]qui = _speak against_.
(ii) = _towards_, with the idea of _favour_ or _compliance_.
oboedire = _hearken to_. obs[)e]qui = _follow compliantly_.
PER-, = through, along.
(i) = _through_, _all over._
perrumpere = _break through_. persp[)i]cêre = _look through_.
(ii) = _thoroughly_, _to completion._
perdiscere = _learn thoroughly_. perfungi = _go through a duty_, _discharge_. permagnus = _very large_.
PRAE = in front.
(i) = (of place) _before_, _in front_.
praef[)i]cere = _put at the head of_. praeses (s[)e]deo) = _guardian_.
(ii) = (of time) _before_, _too soon_.
praediscere = _learn beforehand_. praev[)e]nire = _outstrip_.
(iii) = _before others_, _in comparison_, _greatly._
praecellens = _surpassing_.
PRO-, PROD-, = before, in front of, forth.
prod-ire = _come forth_. prov[)i]dêre = _look onwards or ahead_.
SUB-, SUF-, SUM-, SUP-, SUR-, SU-, SUS-, = beneath, under.
(i) = _under._
sub[)i]cere = _throw under_, _subject_. suppr[)i]mere = _press under_, _suppress_.
(ii) = _up._
succingere = _gird up_. sust[)i]nêre = _hold up_, _check_.
(iii) = _to the help of_, _close to._
subv[)e]nire = _come up to aid of_.
(iv) = _secretly._
subdûcere = _withdraw secretly_.
(v) = _slightly._
subrîdere = _laugh somewhat_, _smile_. sublustris = _giving some light_.
SUPER = over, upon.
(i) = _over_, _upon_ (of place).
superpônere_ = place upon_ or _over_.
(ii) = _metaphorically._
sûperesse = _remain_, _survive_, _abound_.
TRANS-, TRA-, = across.
(i) = _across._
transgr[)e]di = _step across_.
(ii) = _a change or transference._
trâdere = _hand over_, _surrender_.
(iii) = _through to the end._
trans[)i]gere = _complete_ a business.
II. SEPARABLE PARTICLES, which do not appear as Prepositions in Latin.
AMB-, AM-, AN-, = around, on both sides.
ambîre = _go around_, _canvass_. amplecti = _fold oneself round_, _embrace_.
DIS-, DI-, DIF-, DIR-, = in twain.
(i) = _asunder_, _apart._
discêdere = _part asunder_, _depart_. discernere = _separate_, _distinguish_. dîmittere = _send in different directions_.
(ii) = _un-_ (negative).
displ[)i]cêre = _displease_. diffîdere = _distrust_.
(iii) = _exceedingly._
differtus = _crammed to bursting_.
(iv) = _individually_, _separately_.
dîn[)u]m[)e]rare = _count up (singly)_.
IN- (cf. #an-#, #a-#) = UN-, usually with adjectives.
ignoscere = _not to know_, _forget_, _pardon_. inn[)o]cens = _not guilty_, _harmless_.
PER- (cf. #para#) = in a sense of wrong or injury.
perdere = _destroy_. perf[)i]dus = _faithless_.
RED-, RE-, = back.
(i) = _back_, _backwards._
r[)e]cumbere = _lie down_. r[)e]flectere = _bend back_.
(ii) = _in response_, or _return_.
reddere = _give in return_.
(iii) = _against_, _behind._
r[)e]pugnare = _fight against_. r[)e]linquere = _leave behind_.
(iv) = _again._
r[)e]f[)i]cere = _make again_, _repair_. r[)e]p[)e]rire = _find again_, _discover_.
(v) = _intensive action._
r[)e]vellere = _pluck by the roots_.
(vi) = _un-_ (negative).
r[)e]fîgere = _unfix_.
SED-, SE-, = apart.
sêcernere = _sift away_, _separate_. sêcêdere = _go aside_, _withdraw_. sêd-[)i]tio = _a going apart_, _secession_.
APPENDIX III
LIST OF IMPORTANT SUFFIXES
+I. DERIVATION OF NOUNS.+
(i.) TOR (-SOR), M. } +Agent+ or +doer+ of an action -TRIX, F. }
ac-tor = _doer_, formed from [Rt]ag = _do_. auc-tor = _maker_ " [Rt]aug = _increase_. vic-tor = _conqueror_ " [Rt]vic = _conquer_. petî-tor = _candidate_ " [Rt]pet = _seek_. ton-sor = _barber_ " [Rt]tem = _cut_.
(ii.) +Abstract+ Nouns and +Names+ of +Actions+.
-OR, -SUS (= -TUS), M. -ÊS, -IA (-IES), -TIA (-TIES), -IÔ, -TIÔ,} F. -TÂS, -TÛS, -TÛDÔ, -DÔ, -GÔ, -NIA, } -US, -IUM, -ITIUM, -NIUM, -LIUM, -CINIUM, N.
t[)i]m-or = _fear_ formed from t[)i]m-ere = _to fear_. sen-sus = _feeling_ " sent-ire = _to feel_. sêd-ês = _seat_ " s[)e]d-êre = _to sit_. audâc-ia = _boldness_ " audax = _bold_. segn[)i]t-ies = _laziness_ " segnis = _lazy_. trist[)i]-tia = _sadness_ " tristis = _sad_. l[)e]g-io = _a collecting_ } " l[)e]g-ere a legion_ } = _to collect_. s[)a]lûtâ-tio = _a greeting_ " salutare = _to greet_. b[)o]n[)i]-tas = _goodness_ " bonus = _good_. s[)e]nec-tûs = _age_ " senex = _old_. magni-tudo = _greatness_ " magnus = _great_. cupî-dô = _desire_ " cupere = _to desire_. vertî-go = _a turning_ } " vertere = _to turn_. _giddiness_ } p[)e]cû-nia = _money (chattels)_ " pecus = _cattle_. g[)e]n-us = _race_, _birth_ " [Rt]gen = _to be born_. ausp[)i]c-ium = an _omen_ " { auspex = _a soothsayer_. { avis + spicio gaud-ium = _joy_ " gaudêre = _to rejoice_. l[)-a]tro-cinium = _robbery_ " latro = _robber_. aux[)i]-lium = _help_ " augêre = _to increase_.
(iii.) +Nouns+ denoting +acts+, or +means+ and +results of acts+.
-MÔNIA, F.; -MEN, -MENTUM, -MÔNIUM, N.
qu[)e]ri-monia = _complaint_, formed from qu[)e]ri = _to complain_. ag-men = _line of march_} " agere [Rt]ag = _to lead_. _band_ } m[)o]n[)u]-mentum = a _memorial_, " mon-êre = _to remind_. nô-men = a _name_ " [Rt]gno = _to know_.
(iv.) Nouns denoting means or instrument.
-B[)U]LUM, -C[)U]LUM, -BRUM, -CRUM, -TRUM, N.
stâ-bulum = _stall_ formed from stare = _to stand_. v[)e]h[)i]-c[)u]lum = _wagon_ " vehere = _to carry_. s[)e]pul-crum = _tomb_ " sepelîre = _to bury_. [)a]râ-trum = _plough_ " arâre = _to plough_.
+II. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES.+
(i.) +Adjectives+ expressing +diminution+, and used as +Diminutive Nouns+.
-[)U]LUS, -[)O]LUS, -C[)U]LUS, -ELLUS, -ILLUS.
rîv-ulus = a _streamlet_ formed from rîvus = a _brook_. fîl[)i]-olus = a _little son_ " filius = a _son_. mûnus-culum = a _little gift_ " munus = a _gift_. côdic-illi = _writing tablets_ " codex = a _block of wood_. l[)i]b-ellus = a _little book_ " l[)i]ber = a _book_.
(ii.) +Patronymics+, indicating +descent+ or +relationship+.
-ADES, -[)I]DES, -ÎDES, -EUS, M.
-AS, -IS, -EIS, F.
Atlanti-adês = _Mercury_ } formed from Atlas. Atlant-id[)e]s = the _Pleiads_ } T[-y]d-îdês = _Diomedes_ " Tydeus. Cissê-is = _Hecuba_ " Cisseus.
(iii.) +Adjectives+ meaning +full of, prone to+.
-ÔSUS, -LENS, -LENTUS.
form-ôsus = _beautiful_ formed from forma = _beauty_. pesti-lens = _pestilent_ " pestis = _plague_. v[)i][)o]-lentus = _violent_ " vis = _force_.
(iv.) +Adjectives+ meaning +provided with+.
-TUS, -ÂTUS, -ÎTUS, -ÛTUS.
fûnes-tus = _deadly_ formed from funus (funer-) = _death_. barb-âtus = _bearded_ " barba = a _beard_. turr-îtus = _turreted_ " turris = a _tower_. corn-ûtus = _horned_ " cornu = a _horn_.
(v.) +Adjectives+ meaning +made of+ or +belonging to+, or +pertaining to+.
-EUS, -[)I]US, -ÂNEUS, -T[)I]CUS, -ÂLIS, -ÂRIS, -ÎLIS, -ÛLIS, -ÂNUS, -ÊNUS, -ÎNUS, -ENSIS, -TER (-TRIS), -ESTER (-ESTRIS), -T[)I]MUS, -ERNUS, -URNUS, -TURNUS (-TERNUS).
aur-eus = _golden_ formed from aurum = _gold_. patr-ius = _paternal_ " pater = a _father_. subterr-aneus = _subterranean_ " sub terrâ = _underground_. d[)o]mes-ticus = _domestic_ " domus = a _house_. nâtûr-âlis = _natural_ " natura = _nature_. p[)o]p[)u]l-aris = _fellow-countryman_ " populus = a _people_. v[)e]t[)e]r-ânus = _veteran_ " vetus (veter-) = _old_. s[)e]r-ênus = _calm_, _of " serus = _late_. evening stillness_ dîv-înus = _divine_ " divus = _god_. f[)o]r-ensis = _of the forum_ " forum = _a market-place_. lac-teus = _milky_ " lac (lacti-) = _milk_. subl-icius = _resting " sublica = a _pile_. on piles_ p[)a]lus-ter = _marshy_ " palûs = a _marsh_. silv-ester = _woody_ " silva = a _wood_. fîn[)i]-timus = _neighbouring_ " finis = a _boundary_. ver-nus = _vernal_ " vêr = _spring_. d[)i]-urnus = _daily_ " dies = _day_. diû-turnus = _lasting_ " diû = _long_ (time).
(vi.) +Adjectives+ expressing the action of the Verb as +a quality+ or +tendency+.
-AX, -[)I]DUS, -[)U]LUS, -VUS (-UUS, -ÎVUS, -TÎVUS).
pugn-ax = _pugnacious_ formed from pugnare = _to fight_. c[)u]p-idus = _eager_ " cupere = _to desire_. b[)i]b-ulus = _thirsty_ " bibere = _to drink_. (of sand etc.) n[)o]c-uus = _hurtful_ " nocêre = _to hurt_. cap-tivus = _captive_ " capere = _to take_.
(vii.) +Adjectives+ expressing +passive qualities+ but +occasionally
## active+.
-ILIS, -B[)I]LIS, -[)I]US, -TÎLIS.
fr[)a]g-ilis = _frail_ formed from frangere = _to break_. [Rt]frag nô-bilis = _well known_ " noscere = _to know_. [Rt]gno ex[)i]m-ius = _choice_, _rare_ " eximere = _take out_. tex-tilis = _woven_ " texere = _to weave_.
(viii.) +Adjectives originally gerundives.+
-NDUS, -BUNDUS, -CUNDUS.
s[)e]cu-ndus = _second (the } formed from sequi =_to follow_. following)_, } _favourable_ } m[)o]r[)i]-bundus = _dying_ " mori = _to die_. fâ-cundus = _eloquent_ " fa-ri = _to speak_.
+III. NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES.+
-ÂRIUS, denotes +person employed about+ anything.
argent-ârius = _silversmith_, formed from argentum = _silver_. _banker_
-ÂRIUM, denotes +place of+ a thing.
aer-arium = _treasury_ formed from aes = _copper_.
-ÎLE denotes +stall of an animal+.
b[)o]v-île = _cattle-stall_ formed from bôs (b[)o]v-) = _ox_. [)o]v-île = _sheep-fold_ " ovis = _sheep_.
-ÊTUM denotes +place where a tree or plant grows+.
querc-êtum = _oak-grove_ formed from quercus = _an oak_.
+IV. DERIVATION OF VERBS.+
(i.) +From Nouns and Adjectives.+
st[)i]m[)u]lo, -âre = _to goad_, formed from stimulus = _a goad_. _incite_ n[)o]vo, -âre = _to renew_ " novus = _new_. v[)i]g[)i]lo, -âre = _to watch_ " vigil = _awake_. albeo, -êre = _to be white_ " albus = _white_. m[)e]tuo, -ere = _to fear_ " metus = _fear_. [)a]cuo, -ere = _to sharpen_ " acus = _needle_. môlior, -îri = _to toil_ " moles = _mass_. custôdio, -îre = _to guard _ " custos (custod-) = _guardian_.
(ii.) +Verbs from other Verbs.+
-SCO denotes the +beginning+ of an action. (Third Conjugation.)
l[)a]bâ-sco = _begin to totter_ formed from labo = _totter_. mîtê-sco = _grow mild_ " mîtis = _mild_.
-TO, -[)I]TO, (rarely -SÔ), -ESSO, denote +forcible or repeated action+.
iac-to, -[)a]re = _hurl_ formed from iacio = _throw_. quas-so, âre = _shatter_ " quatio = _shake_. f[)a]c-esso, -[)e]re = _do_ " facio = _do_. (with energy)
-T[)U]RIO (-S[)U]RIO) denotes +longing or wishing+.
par-turio, -îre = { _to bring forth_ formed from pario { _produce_ = _bring forth_. ê-surio = _to be hungry_ " edo (= _ed-turio_) = _to eat_.
APPENDIX IV
GROUPS OF RELATED (COGNATE) WORDS
[Rt]AC = sharp. English derivative.
âc-er = _sharp_. eager (F. aigre). [)a]c-erbus = _harsh_, _cruel_. acerbity (= harshness). [)a]c-ervus = _a heap_. [)a]c-ies = _edge_, _keen look_. } Fr. acier (= steel). _army in battle array_. } [)a]c-idus = _sour_. acid. [)a]c-uo = _to sharpen_. [)a]c-utus = _sharpened_, _sharp_. acute (Fr. aigu). [)a]c-umen = _a point_, _acuteness_. acumen. [)a]c-us = _a needle_. Fr. aiguille.
[Rt]AUG = be active, strong.
aug-eo = _increase_. aug-mentum = _an increase_. augment. auc-tio = _a sale by increase of } auction. bids_, _an auction_ } auc-tor = _a maker_, _producer_. author. auc-toritas = _a producing_, _authority_. authority. aug-ustus = _majestic_, _august_. august. aux-ilium = _aid_, _help_. auxiliary.
[Rt]CAP = take hold of, seize.
c[)a]p-io = _take hold of_. captive. c[)a]p-ax = _capacious_. capacious. c[)a]p-ulus = _handle_, _hilt of a sword_. ac-c[)i]p-io = _take to_, _receive_. accept. (ad + capio) ex-c[)i]p-io = _take up_. exception. (ex_ +capio) man-c[)i]p-ium = _property_, _a slave_. emancipate. (manus + capio) muni-c[)i]p-ium = _a free town_. municipal. (munia + capio) prin-ceps = _first_, _chief_. { principal. (primus + capio) { prince.
[Rt]GEN-, [Rt]GNA- = beget, become, produce.
gi-gn-o = _to beget_. indigenous. (= gi-g[)e]n-o) g[)e]n-i-tor = _a father_. (pro)genitor. gen-s = _clan_, _house_, _race_. gentile. in-gens = _vast_. g[)e]n-us = _birth_, _race_. genus (Fr. genre). in-g[)e]n-ium = _innate quality_, _character_. in-g[)e]n-uus = _native_, _free-born_, ingenuous. _frank_. in-g[)e]n-iosus = _of good natural } ingenious. abilities_. } pro-g[)e]n-ies = _descent_, _descendants_. progenitor. g[)e]n-er = _son-in-law_. g[)e]n-ius = _the innate superior } genius. nature_, _tutelary } (protecting) deity_. } indi-g[)e]n-a = _nature_. indigenous. g[)e]n-erôsus = _of noble birth_, generous. _noble-minded_ g[)e]n-[)e]ro = _to beget_, _produce_. generate. g[)e]n-[)e]tivus = _of or belonging to } genitive. birth_, _genitive_. } na-scor = _to be born_. native. = gna-scor nâ-tûra = _nature_. nature. nâ-tio = _birth_, _a race_. nation.
APPENDIX V
HOW TO THINK IN LATIN
_Flaminius atones for his rashness._[44]
[Footnote 44: Cf. p. 126.] [[Selection C19]]
Tres ferme horas pugnatum est et ubique atrociter; circa consulem tamen acrior infestiorque pugna est. Eum et robora virorum sequebantur, et ipse, quacunque in parte premi ac laborare senserat suos, impigre ferebat opem; insignemque armis et hostes summa vi petebant {5} et tuebantur cives, donec Insuber eques (Ducario nomen erat) facie quoque noscitans consulem, 'En' inquit 'hic est' popularibus suis, 'qui legiones nostras cecidit agrosque et urbem est depopulatus. Iam ego hanc victimam manibus peremptorum foede civium dabo.' Subditisque calcaribus {10} equo per confertissimam hostium turbam impetum facit, obtruncatoque prius armigero, qui se infesto venienti obviam obiecerat, consulem lancea transfixit; spoliare cupientem triarii obiectis scutis arcuere.
LIVY, xxii. 6.
The heading and the author will at once suggest the stirring incident in the Battle of Lake Trasimene, when Flaminius atoned for his rashness by his gallant example and death.
You have seen how Analysis helps you to arrive at the main thought of the sentence, and you are familiar with the principles that govern the order of words in Latin, and the important part played by the emphatic position of words. So you may now try to +think in Latin+; that is, to take the thought in the Latin order, without reference to analysis or the English order. You will do well to follow closely this advice of experienced teachers:--'Read every word as if it were the last on the page, and you had to turn over without being able to turn back. If, however, you are obliged to turn back, begin again at the beginning of the sentence and proceed as before. Let each word of the Latin suggest some conception gradually adding to and completing the meaning of the writer. If the form of the word gives several possibilities, hold them all in your mind, so far as may be, till something occurs in the progress of the sentence to settle the doubt.'
1. +Tres ferme horas+ = _for nearly three hours_. This construction (Acc. of extent of time) will be familiar to you. Notice the emphatic position of the phrase.
+pugnatum est+ = _the battle was fought_. This use of the so-called impersonal passive is very frequent, and is generally best translated by taking the root-idea of the verb as a subject.
+et ubique atrociter+ = _and everywhere fiercely_.
2. +circa consulem tamen+ = _around the consul however_.
+acrior infestiorque pugna est+ = _the battle is more keen and more vehement_. This presents no difficulty; +acrior+ and +infestior+ must qualify +pugna+, which follows immediately.
3. +eum+ = _him_, plainly _consulem_ (i.e. Flaminius), for no one else has been mentioned. Notice the emphatic position of +eum+.
+et robora virorum sequebantur+ = _both the strongest of his troops followed_. You may know that +robur+ (lit. _hard wood_) is often used of _the toughest troops_, _the flower of an army_.
+et ipse+ = _and himself_, i.e. the consul (Flaminius).
3-4. +quacunque in parte+ = _in whatever part_.
4. +premi ac laborare senserat suos+ = _he had seen his men hard pressed and in distress_. No other meaning is possible, nor does the order present any difficulty, but notice the emphatic position of +suos+.
4-5. +impigre ferebat opem+ = _actively he bore help_.
5. +insignemque armis+ = _and distinguished by his arms_, clearly referring to +consulem+ (l. 2). Cf. +eum+ (l. 3).
+et hostes summa vi petebant+ = _both the enemy with all their might attacked_. +et+ might, of course, = _also_ (cf. +et+, l. 2), but the second +et+ which immediately follows determines the meaning _both_.
6. +et tuebantur cives+ = _and his fellow-citizens_ (Romans) _defended_ (him).
+donec Insuber eques+ = _until an Insubrian trooper_. +donec+ may mean _while_, but the context shows that _until_ or _at last_ is the right meaning here.
6-7. +Ducario nomen erat+ = (his) _name was Ducarius_, i.e. _ei nomen erat Ducario_, where +Ducario+ is possess. dat. in appos. to _ei_ understood. It is, however, possible that the trooper's name was Ducario, but cf. page 126, l. 2. [[Selection C19, line 645]]
7. +facie quoque noscitans consulem+ = _by his face also_ (i.e. as well as by his armour) _recognising the consul_.
7-8. +'En' inquit 'his est' popularibus suis+ = _See, said he, to his fellow-countrymen_ (comrades), _this is the man_.
8. +qui legiones nostras cecîdit+ = _who slaughtered our legions_. There is a slight difficulty here, but a moment's thought will remove it. It must be +cecîdit+, perf. of _caedo_, and not _cec[)i]dit_, perf. of _cado_, which is intransitive.
8-9. +agrosque et urbem est depopulatus+ = _and laid waste our fields and our city_.
9-10. +Iam ego hanc victimam mânibus peremptorum foede civium dabo+ = _now I will give this victim to the shades of our countrymen foully slain_. +Mânibus+ cannot = _hands_ (_m[)a]nibus_), for +peremptorum civium+, which immediately follows, fixes the right meaning.
10-11. +subditisque calcaribus equo+ = _and putting spurs to his horse_. You will not attempt to translate this Abl. Absol. literally.
11-12. +per confertissimam hostium turbam impetum facit+ = _through the closely packed crowd of the enemy he makes his charge_.
12. +obtruncatoque prius armigero+ = _and first cut down the armour-bearer_ (i.e. of Flaminius).
12-13. +qui se infesto venienti obviam obiecerat+ = _who had thrown himself in the way of him advancing at the charge_.
+infesto venienti+ is clearly dative with +obviam+.
13. +consulem lancea transfixit+ = _ran the Consul through with his lance_.
13-14. +spoliare cupientem+ = (him, i.e. Ducarius) _wishing to spoil_ (the consul).
14. +triarii obiectis scutis arcuere+ = _the triarii_ (veterans) _thrusting their shields in the way kept off_.
This passage is quite simple, but it will serve to show you how you may with practice learn to +take the thought in the Latin order+, and to grasp the writer's meaning. All that now remains for you to do is to write out a translation in good English, using short coordinate sentences, each complete in itself, in place of the more involved structure of the original. The following version by the late Professor Jebb will serve as a model:--
They fought for about three hours, and everywhere with desperation. Around the consul, however, the fight was peculiarly keen and vehement. He had the toughest troops with him; and he himself, whenever he saw that his men were hard pressed, was indefatigable in coming to the rescue. Distinguished by his equipment, he was a target for the enemy and a rallying-point for the Romans. At last a Lombard trooper, named Ducario, recognising the person as well as the guise of the consul, cried out to his people, 'Here is the man who cut our legions to pieces and sacked our city--now I will give this victim to the shades of our murdered countrymen.' Putting spurs to his horse, he dashed through the thick of the foe. First he cut down the armour-bearer, who had thrown himself in the way of the onset. Then he drove his lance through the consul. He was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.
APPENDIX VI
SHORT LIVES OF ROMAN AUTHORS
DECIMUS MAGNUS AUSONIUS, 309-392 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: AUSONIUS.]
Born at Burdigala (_Bordeaux_), and carefully educated. At the age of thirty appointed professor of rhetoric in his native University, where he became so famous that he was appointed tutor to Gratian, son of the Emperor Valentinian (364-375 A.D.), and was afterwards raised to the highest honours of the State (Consul, 379 A.D.). Theodosius (Emperor of the East, 378-395 A.D.) gave him leave to retire from court to his native country, where he closed his days in an honoured literary retirement.
2. Works.
A very voluminous writer both in prose and verse.
1. Prose: The only extant specimen is his _Gratiarum Actio_ to Gratianus for the Consulship.
2. Verse: Of this we have much: it has little value as poetry, but in point of contents and diction it is interesting and valuable. Some of his _Epigrammata_ and _Epitaphia_ are worth preserving, but his claim to rank as a poet rests on his _Mosella_, a beautiful description of the R. Moselle, which is worthy to be compared with Pliny's description of the R. Clitumnus (_Ep._ viii. 8).
'In virtue of this poem Ausonius ranks not merely as the last, or all but the last, of Latin, but as the first of French poets.' --Mackail.
GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR, 102 (or 100?)-44 B.C.
1. Important Events in Caesar's Life.
[Sidenote: CAESAR.]
B.C. 102. Gaius Julius Caesar, nephew of Marius, born July 12th. " 83. Marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, the friend of Marius. " 81-78. Served with distinction in Asia. " 76. Studies oratory at Rhodes. " 68. Begins his political career as Quaestor, partly at Rome,
## partly in Spain.
" 65. Curule Aedile. Incurs enormous debts by his splendid shows. " 61. Propraetor in Spain: conquers Lusitanians: amasses wealth. " 60. Coalition of Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus: First Triumvirate. " 59. Consul. The Leges Iuliae. " 58-50. Subjugation of Gaul and two invasions of Britain (55 and 54). " 56. Meeting of Triumvirate at Luca. " 50. The trouble with Pompeius begins. " 49. Crosses the Rubicon. Civil war with Pompeius. Dictator a first time. " 48. Pharsalus. Defeats Pompeius. Dictator a second time. " 46. Thapsus. Defeats Scipio, Sulla, and Afranius. Declared Dictator for ten years. " 45. Munda. Defeats Gn. Pompeius and Labienus. Dictator and Imperator for life. " 44. Assassinated in the Senate House on the Ides of March.
2. Works.
(1) +THE DE BELLO GALLICO.+--This work describes Caesar's operations in Gaul, Germany, and Britain during the years 58-52 B.C., the events of each year occupying a separate Book.
## BOOK I. B.C. 58. The Helvetii and Ariovistus the German defeated.
" II. " 57. The Nervii, the bravest Belgian tribe, almost exterminated. " III. " 56. Conquest of the coast tribes of Brittany (Veneti, &c.) and of the South-West (Aquitani). " IV. " 55. Inroad of Germans into Northern Gaul repulsed. Caesar crosses the Rhine a first time. First invasion of Britain. " V. " 54. Second invasion of Britain. Fresh risings of the Gauls put down by Labienus and Q. Cicero. " VI. " 53. Caesar crosses the Rhine a second time. Northern Gaul reduced to peace. " VII. " 52. Uprising of the Gauls under Vercingetorix. Siege and capture of Alesia. Surrender of Vercingetorix. He is taken in chains to Rome, to adorn Caesar's triumph. " VIII. " 51 (added by HIRTIUS). Final subjugation of Gaul.
Caesar's object was threefold:--
(i) To provide materials for professed historians.
(ii) To justify the conquest he describes.
(iii) To vindicate in the eyes of the world his opposition to the Senate and the Government.
(2) +DE BELLO CIVILI.+--This work, in three Books, is similar in plan to the _De Bello Gallico_. It describes the events of the Civil War during the years 49-48 B.C. Book III. ends abruptly with the words:
_Haec initia belli Alexandrini fuerunt._
## BOOK I. B.C. 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. Follows Pompeius to
Brundusium and conquers Afranius in Spain. " II. " 49. Caesar takes Massilia. Submission of Varro in Further Spain. Defeat and death of Curio before Utica.
" III. " 48. Caesar follows Pompeius into Illyria. The lines of Dyrrachium and the Battle of Pharsalus. The beginning of the Alexandrine War.
(3) +OTHER WORKS.+--All Caesar's other writings (Speeches, Poems, &c.) have been lost, with the exception of a few brief Letters to Cicero.
3. Style.
Remarkable for brevity, directness, and simplicity. The simplest facts told in the simplest way. _Ars est celare artem._
'Caesar's Commentaries are worthy of all praise; they are unadorned, straightforward, and elegant, every ornament being stripped off as if it were a garment.' --CICERO.
MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, 234-149 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: CATO.]
For his military and political career, his Consulship (195 B.C.), his famous Censorship (184 B.C.), and his social reforms, see some good history, e.g. Mommsen, vol, iii.
2. Works.
His chief works are:--
(1) His treatise +De Re Rustica+ or +De Agri Cultura+ (his only extant work).--A series of terse and pointed directions following one on another, somewhat in the manner of Hesiod, and interesting 'as showing the practical Latin style, and as giving the prose groundwork of Vergil's stately and beautiful embroidery in the _Georgics_.' --Mackail.
(2) +The Origines.+--'The oldest historical work written in Latin, and the first important prose work in Roman literature.' --Mommsen. Nepos, _Cato_, 3, summarises the contents of the seven books.
Cato struggled all his life against Greek influence in literature and in manners, which he felt would be fatal to his ideal of a Roman citizen. In a letter to his son Marcus he says _Quandoque ista gens suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet_. He was famous for his homely wisdom, which gained him the title of _Sapiens_, e.g. _Rem tene: verba sequentur_--'Take care of the sense: the words will take care of themselves.'
GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, circ. 84-54 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: CATULLUS.]
Born at Verona, of a family of wealth and position, as is seen from his having estates at Sirmio:--
_Salve, O venusta Sirmio, atque ero gaude_ (C. 31)
and near Tibur: _O funde noster seu Sabine seu Tiburs_ (C. 44). His father was an intimate friend of Caesar. He went to Rome early, where he spent the greater part of his short life,
_Romae vivimus: illa domus, Illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas_ (C. 68),
with the exception of an official journey to Bithynia, 57 B.C. to better his fortunes: cf. _Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ... Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi_ (C. 46). After a life of poetic culture and free social enjoyment he died at the early age of thirty, 'the young Catullus,' _hedera iuvenilia tempora cinctus_ (Ovid, _Am._ III. ix. 61).
2. Works.
116 poems written in various metres and on various subjects, Lyric, Elegiac, Epic.
'The event which first revealed the full power of his genius, and which made both the supreme happiness and supreme misery of his life, was his love for Lesbia (Clodia).'--Sellar.
'Catullus is one of the great poets of the world, not so much through vividness of imagination as through his singleness of nature, his vivid impressibility, and his keen perception. He received the gifts of the passing hour so happily that to produce pure and lasting poetry it was enough for him to utter in natural words something of the fulness of his heart. He says on every occasion exactly what he wanted to say, in clear, forcible, spontaneous language.' --Sellar.
'The most attractive feature in the character of Catullus is the warmth of his affection. If to love warmly, constantly, and unselfishly be the best title to the love of others, few poets in any age or country deserve a kindlier place in the hearts of men than "the young Catullus."'--Sellar.
MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, 106-43 B.C.
1. Important Events in Cicero's Life, and chief Works.
[Sidenote: CICERO.]
B.C. 106. Born at Arpinum. Birth of Pompeius. " 102. Birth of Quintus Cicero, and of Caesar. " 91. Assumes the _toga virilis_. Q. Mucius Scaevola the augur becomes his tutor in civil law. Writes an heroic poem in praise of Marius. " 89. Serves his first and only campaign under Pompeius Strabo. " 87. Studies Rhetoric at Rome under Apollonius Molo of Rhodes. " 81. Delivers his first speech (_causa privata_) +Pro P. Quinctio+. " 80. Delivers his first speech (_causa publica_) +Pro S. Roscio Amerino+. " 79-7. Studies at Athens and Rhodes. Marries Terentia. " 75-4. Quaestor at Lilybaeum in Sicily. " 70. The six speeches +In C. Verrem+. " 69. Curule Aedile. The +Pro Caecina+. " 68. Date of the earliest extant letter. " 67. Praetor. The Lex Gabinia. " 66. The De Imperio Cn. Pompeii (+Pro Lege Manilia+). " 64. Birth of his son Marcus. Marriage of Tullia to C. Piso Frugi. " 63. Consul. The four speeches +In Catilinam+. The +Pro Murena+. " 62. Cicero hailed 'pater patriae.' The +Pro Sulla+ and +Pro Archia+. " 60. Poem 'De consulatu meo.' " 59. The First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus). The +Pro Valerio Flacco+. " 58-7. Cicero in Exile. The four speeches +Post Reditum+. " 56. The +Pro Sestio+ and +De Provinciis Consularibus+ (his recantation). " 55. The +De Oratore+ and +De temporibus meis+. " 52. The +Pro Milone+. The +De Legibus+: the +De Republica+. " 51-50. Proconsul of Cilicia. Is granted a _supplicatio_. " 49. Joins Pompeius at Dyrrachium. " 47. Becomes reconciled to Caesar. " 46. The +Brutus+ and +Orator+. " 45. Death of Tullia. The +De Finibus+ and +Academics+. " 44. The +Tusculanae Disputationes+: the +De Natura Deorum+: +De Divinatione+: +De Amicitia+: +De Senectute+: +De Officiis+. +Philippics i-iv.+ " 43. +Philippics v-xiv.+ The Second Triumvirate (Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus). Murder of Cicero.
2. Works.
(1) +Speeches.+--We possess 57 speeches, and fragments of about 20 more, and we know of 33 others delivered by Cicero.
'As a speaker and orator Cicero succeeded in gaining a place beside Demosthenes. His strongest point is his style; there he is clear, concise and apt, perspicuous, elegant and brilliant. He commands all moods, from playful jest to tragic pathos, but is most successful in the imitation of conviction and feeling, to which he gave increased impression by his fiery delivery.' --Teuffel. Quintilian says of him that his eloquence combined the power of Demosthenes, the copiousness of Plato, and the sweetness of Isocrates.
(2) +Philosophical Works.+--The chief are the _De Republica_ (closed by the _Sommium Sciponis_): the _De Legibus_: the _De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum_: the _Academics_: _Tusculan Disputations_ with the _De Divinatione_: the _De Senectute_ and _De Amicitia_: _De natura Deorum_, and the _De Officiis_.
As a philosopher Cicero had no pretensions to originality. He found the materials for most of these works in the writings of the Greek philosophers. 'I have to supply little but the words,' he writes, 'and for these I am never at a loss.' It was however no small achievement to mould the Latin tongue to be a vehicle for Greek philosophic thought, and thus to render the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his own countrymen.
(3) +Rhetorical treatises.+--The chief are the _De Oratore_ (in 3 Books), perhaps the most finished example of the Ciceronian style: the _Brutus_ or _De Claris Oratoribus_, and the _Orator_ (or _De optime Genere Dicendi_).
(4) +Letters.+--Besides 774 letters written by Cicero, we have 90 addressed to him by friends. The two largest collections of his Letters are the _Epistulae ad Atticum_ (68-43 B.C.) and the _Epistulae ad Familiares_ (62-43 B.C.).
These letters are of supreme importance for the history of Cicero's time. 'The quality which makes them most valuable is that they were not (like the letters of Pliny, and Seneca, and Madame de Sévigné) written to be published. We see in them Cicero as he was. We behold him in his strength and in his weakness--the bold advocate, and yet timid and vacillating statesman, the fond husband, the affectionate father, the kind master, the warm-hearted friend.' --Tyrrell.
The style of the Letters is colloquial but thoroughly accurate. 'The art of letter-writing suddenly rose in Cicero's hands to its full perfection.' --Mackail.
(5) +Poems.+--The fragments we possess show that verse-writing came easily to him, but he never could have been a great poet, for he had not the _divinus afflatus_, so finely expressed by Ovid in the line _Est Deus in nobis, agitante calescimus illo_.
'Cicero stands in prose like Vergil in poetry, as the bridge between the ancient and the modern world. Before his time Latin prose was, from a wide point of view, but one among many local ancient dialects. As it left his hands it had become a universal language, one which had definitely superseded all others, Greek included, as the type of civilised expression.' --Mackail.
CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS, flor. 400 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: CLAUDIAN.]
Born probably at Alexandria, where he lived until, in the year of the death of Theodosius 395 A.D., he acquired the patronage of Stilicho, the great Vandal general, who, as guardian of the young Emperor Honorius, was practically ruler of the Western Empire. He remained attached to the Court at Milan, Rome and Ravenna, and died soon after the downfall of his patron Stilicho, 408 A.D.
2. Works.
In his historical epics he derived his subjects from his own age, praising his patrons Stilicho (_On the Consulate of Stilicho_) and Honorius (_on the Consulate of Honorius_), and inveighing against Rufinus and Eutropius, the rivals of Stilicho. Of poems on other subjects, 'his three books of the unfinished Rape of Proserpine are among the finest examples of the purely literary epic.' --Mackail.
'Claudian is the last of the Latin poets, forming the transitional link between the Classic and the Gothic mode of thought.' --Coleridge.
3. Style.
'His faults belong almost as much to the age as to the writer. In description he is too copious and detailed: his poems abound with long speeches: his parade of varied learning, his partiality for abstruse mythology, are just the natural defects of a lettered but uninspired epoch.' --North Pinder.
QUINTUS ENNIUS, 239-169 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: ENNIUS.]
He was born at Rudiae in Calabria (about 19 miles S. of Brundisium), a meeting-place of three different languages, that of common life (Oscan, cf. _Opici_), that of culture and education (Greek), that of military service (Latin). Here he lived for some twenty years, availing himself of those means of education which at this time were denied to Rome or Latium. We next hear of him serving as centurion in Sardinia, where he attracted the attention of Cato, then quaestor, and accompanied him to Rome, 204 B.C. Here for some fifteen years he lived plainly, supporting himself by teaching Greek, and making translations of Greek plays for the Roman stage, and so won the friendship of the elder Scipio. In 189 B.C. M. Fulvius Nobilior took Ennius with him in his campaign against the Aetolians, as a witness and herald of his deeds. His son obtained for Ennius the Roman citizenship (184 B.C.) by giving him a grant of land at Potentia in Picenum. _Nos sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini._ The rest of his life was spent mainly at Rome in cheerful simplicity and active literary work.
2. Works.
The chief are:--
(1) +Tragedies.+--Mainly translations, especially from Euripides. A few fragments only remain. 'It was certainly due to Ennius that Roman Tragedy was first raised to that pitch of popular favour which it enjoyed till the age of Cicero.' --Sellar.
(2) +Annales.+--An Epic Hexameter poem, in 18 books, which dealt with the History of Rome from the landing of Aeneas in Italy down to the Third Macedonian War (Pydna, 168 B.C.). About 600 lines are extant.
'In his Annals he unfolds a long gallery of national portraits. His heroes are men of one common aim--the advancement of Rome; animated with one sentiment, devotion to the State. All that was purely personal in them seems merged in the traditional pictures which express only the fortitude, dignity and sagacity of the Republic.' --Sellar.
3. Style.
For the first time Ennius succeeded in moulding the Latin language to the movement of the Greek hexameter. In spite of imperfections and roughness, his _Annals_ remained the foremost and representative Roman poem till Vergil wrote the _Aeneid_. Lucretius, whom he influenced, and to whom Vergil owes so much, says of him:
_Ennius ut noster cecinit, qui primus amoeno Detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam, Per gentes Italas honinum quae clara clueret;_
'As sang our Ennius, the first who brought down from pleasant Helicon a chaplet of unfading leaf, the fame of which should ring out clear through the nations of Italy.'
And later, Quintilian, X. i. 88: 'Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos adoremus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent speciem quantam religionem: Let us venerate Ennius like the groves, sacred from their antiquity, in which the great and ancient oak-trees are invested, not so much with beauty, as with sacred associations.' --Sellar.
FLAVIUS EUTROPIUS, fl. 375 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: EUTROPIUS.]
Very little is known of his life. He is said to have held the office of a secretary under Contanstine the Great (_ob._ 337 A.D.), and to have served under the Emperor Julian in his ill-fated expedition against the Persians, 363 A.D.
2. Works.
His only extant work is his
+Breviarium Historiae Romanae.+--A brief compendium of Roman History in ten books from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens, 364 A.D., to whom it is inscribed.
3. Style.
His work is a compilation made from the best authorities, with good judgment and impartiality, and in a simple style. Its brevity and practical arrangement made it very popular.
FLORUS, circ. 120 (or 140?) A.D. (temp. Hadrian).
1. Life.
[Sidenote: FLORUS.]
L. Julius (or Annaeus) Florus lived at Rome in the time of Trajan or Hadrian. Little else is known of his life.
2. Works.
An Epitome of the Wars of Livy, in two Books:--
## Book I. treats of the good time of Rome, 753-133 B.C. (the
Gracchi).
" II. treats of the decline of Rome, 133-29 B.C. (Temple of Janus closed).
3. Style.
A pretentious and smartly written work abounding in mistakes, contradictions, and misrepresentations of historical truth. It was, however, popular in the Middle Ages on account of its brevity and its rhetorical style. Florus is useful in giving us a short account of events in periods where we have no books of Livy to guide us.
S. JULIUS FRONTINUS, circ. 41-103 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: FRONTINUS.]
He was _praetor urbanus_ 70 A.D., and in 75 succeeded Cerealis as governor oi Britain, where, as Tacitus tells us, he distinguished himself by the conquest of the Silures: _sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Siturum gentem armis subegit_: 'Julius Frontinus was equal to the burden, a great man as far as greatness was then possible (i.e. under the jealous rule of Domitian), who subdued by his arms the powerful and warlike tribe of the Silures.'
In 97 he was nominated _curator aquarum_, administrator of the aqueducts of Rome: the closing years of his life were passed in studious retirement at his villa on the Bay of Naples. Cf. Mart. X. lviii.
2. Works.
Two works of his are extant:--
(1) +De Aquis Urbis Romae.+--A treatise on the Roman water-supply, published under Trajan, soon after the death of Nerva, 97 A.D.; a complete and valuable account.
(2) +Strategemata.+--A manual of strategy, in three books, consisting of historical examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy.
3. Style.
Simple and concise: 'he shuns the conceits of the period and goes back to the republican authors, of whom (and especially of Caesar's Commentaries) his language strongly reminds us.' --Cruttwell.
As a mark of his unaffected modesty, Pliny (_Ep._ ix. 19) tells us: _vetuit exstrui monimentum: sed quibus verbis? 'impensa monimenta supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit, si vita meruimus_.'
AULUS GELLIUS, circ. 123-175 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: GELLIUS.]
All that is known about his life is gathered from occasional hints in his own writings. He seems to have spent his early years at Rome, studying under the most famous teachers, first at Rome and afterwards at Athens, and then to have returned to Rome, where he spent the remaining years of his life in literary pursuits and in the society of a large circle of friends.
2. Works.
The +Noctes Atticae+ (so called because it was begun during the long nights of winter in a country house in Attica) in twenty books consists of numerous extracts from Greek and Roman writers on subjects connected with history, philosophy, philology, natural science and antiquities, illustrated by abundant criticisms and discussions. It is, in fact, a commonplace book, and the arrangement of the contents is merely casual, following the course of his reading of Greek and Latin authors. The work is, however, of special value to us from the very numerous quotations from ancient authors preserved by him alone.
3. Style.
His language is sober but full of archaisms, which he much affected (he gives, therefore, no quotations from post-Augustan writers). His style shows the defects of an age in which men had ceased to feel the full meaning of the words they used, and strove to hide the triviality of a subject under obscure phrases and florid expression. Yet, on the whole, he is a very interesting writer, and the last that can in any way be called classical.
'_Vir elegantissimi eloquii et multae ac facundae scientiae._' --St. Augustine, 400 A.D.
QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS, 65-8 B.C.
1. Important Events in the Life of Horace.
[Sidenote: HORACE.]
B.C. 65. Born at Venusia (_Venosa_) on the confines of Apulia and Lucania. " 53-46. Educated at Rome under the famous _plagosus_ Orbilius. " 46-44. At the University of Athens. " 44-42. Served under Brutus as _tribunus militum_: fought at Philippi. " 42-39. Pardoned by Octavianus and allowed to return to Rome. His poverty compelled him to write verses, prob. _Sat._ I, ii. iii. iv., and some _Epodes_. Through these he obtained the notice of Varius and Vergil, who became his fast friends and " 38. introduced him to Maecenas, the trusted minister of Augustus. " 35. +Satires, Book I+ published. (Journey to Brundisium described, _Sat._ I. v.) " 33. Maecenas bestowed upon him a Sabine farm (about 15 miles N.E. of Tivoli). For fullest description see _Epist._ I. xvi. " 31. +Satires, Book II+, and +Epodes+ published. " 23. +Odes, Books I-III+ published. " 20. +Epistles, Book I+ published. " 17. +Carmen Saeculare+ written at the request of Augustus for the _Ludi Saeculares_. " 13. +Odes, Book IV+ published. " 12. +Epistles, Book II+ published. " 8. Died in the same year as his friend and patron Maecenas.
3. Works.
(1) +Odes+, in four books, and +Epodes+.--The words of Cicero (_pro Archia_ 16) best describe the abiding value of the four Books of the Odes--_Adolescentiam alunt_ (strengthen), _senectutem oblectant, secundas res ornant, adversis perfugium ac solacium praebent, delectant domi, non impediunt foris, pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur_. In them we see a poet, as Quintilian says, _verbis felicissime audax_--most happily daring in his use of words and endowed, as Petronius says, with _curiosa felicitas_, a subtle happiness of expression--'what oft was thought but ne'er so well express'd.'
(2) +Satires (Sermones)+ in two Books.--Horace's chief model is Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. To touch on political topics was impossible; Horace employed satire to display his own individuality and his own views on various subjects. Book I (his earliest effort) is marred by faults in execution and is often wanting in good taste; but in Book II 'he uses the hexameter to exhibit the semi-dramatic form of easy dialogue, with a perfection as complete as that of Vergil in the stately and serious manner. In reading these Satires we all read our own minds and hearts.' --Mackail.
(3) +The Epistles (Sermones)+ in two Books, and +Ars Poetica+ (_Ep. ad Pisones_).--These represent his most mature production. As a poet Horace now stood without a rival. Life was still full of vivid interest for him, but years (_fallentis semita vitae_) had brought the philosophic mind. 'To teach the true end and wise regulation of life, and to act on character from within, are the motives of the more formal and elaborate epistles.' --Sellar.
The +Ars Poetica+ is a _résumé_ of Greek criticism on the drama.
3. Style.
'With the principal lyric metres, the Sapphic and Alcaic, Horace had done what Vergil had accomplished with the dactylic hexameter, carried them to the highest point of which the foreign Latin tongue was capable.' --Mackail.
'As Vergil is the most idealising exponent of what was of permanent and universal significance in the time, Horace is the most complete exponent of its actual life and movement. He is at once the lyrical poet, with heart and imagination responsive to the deeper meaning and lighter amusements of life, and the satirist, the moralist, and the literary critic of the age.' --Sellar.
JUSTINUS, circ. 150 A.D. (_temp._ Antoninus Pius).
1. Life.
[Sidenote: JUSTINUS.]
We know nothing positively about him, though probably he lived in the age of the Antonines. Teuffel says 'Considering his correct mode of thinking and the style of his preface, we should not like to put him much later than Florus, who epitomised Livy.'
2. Works.
+Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi+, in forty-four Books.--An abridgment of the Universal History of Pompeius Trogus (_temp._ Livy). The title _Historiae Philippicae_ was given to it by Trogus because its main object was to give the history of the Macedonian monarchy, with all its branches, but he allowed himself, like Herodotus, to indulge in such large digressions that it was regarded by many as a Universal History. It was arranged according to nations; it began with Ninus, the Nimrod of legend, and was brought down to about 9 A.D.
3. Style.
Justinus (as he tells us in his Preface) made it his business to form an attractive reading-book--_breve veluti florum corpusculum feci_ (an anthology)--and his chief merit is that he seems to have been a faithful abbreviator.
DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS, 55-138 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: JUVENAL.]
Of Juvenal's life very little is certainly known. Thirteen lives of him exist, which are confused and contradictory in detail. From the evidences of the Satires we learn that he lived from early youth at Rome, but went for holidays to Aquinum, a town of the Volscians (where perhaps he was born in the reign of Nero); that he had a small farm at Tibur, and a house in Rome, where he entertained his friends in a modest way; that he had been in Egypt; that he wrote Satires late in life; that he reached his eightieth year, and lived into the reign of Antoninus Pius. He complains frequently and bitterly of his poverty and of the hardships of a dependent's life. In short, the circumstances of his life were very similar to those of Martial, who speaks of Juvenal as a very intimate friend.
The famous inscription at Aquinum--which Duff considers does not refer to the poet but to a wealthy kinsman of his--indicates that he had served in the army as commander of a Dalmatian cohort, and, as one of the chief men of the town, was superintendent of the civic worship paid to Vespasian after his deification.
All the Lives assert that Juvenal was banished to Egypt--Juvenal himself never alludes to this--for offence given to an actor who was high in favour with the reigning Emperor (Hadrian according to Prof. Hardy), and that he died in exile.
2. Works.
+Saturae+, sixteen, grouped in five Books.
Books I-III (Satires 1-9) are sharply divided both in form and substance from Books IV-V (Satires 10-16), which are not satires at all, but moral essays, in the form of letters. The first nine satires present a wonderfully vivid picture of the seamy side of life at Rome at the end of the first century. We must, however, read side by side with them the contemporary Letters of Pliny, in which we find ourselves in a different world from that scourged by the satirist.
'His chief literary qualities are his power of painting lifelike scenes, and his command of brilliant epigrammatic phrase.' --Duff. Nothing, for instance, could surpass his picture of the fall of Sejanus (Sat. x. 56-97). His power of coining phrases is seen in these _sententiae_: _nemo repente fuit turpissimus--expende Hannibalem_: _quot libras in duce summo | invenies_: _maxima debetur puero reverentia_: _mens sana in corpora sano_--which are familiar proverbs among educated men.
Juvenal tells us that he takes all life, all the world, for his text:
_Quidquid agunt homines, Votum, Timor, Ira, Voluptas, Gaudia, Discursus, nostri est farrago libelli_ (the motley subject of my page).--_Sat._ i. 85-6.
TITUS LIVIUS PATAVINUS, circ. 59 B.C.-17 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: LIVY.]
Livy was born at Patavium (_Padua_) between the years 59 and 57 B.C. Little is known of his life, but his aristocratic sympathies, as seen in his writings, seem to suggest that he was of good family. Padua was a populous and busy place, where opportunities for public speaking were abundant and the public life vigorous; thus Livy was early trained in eloquence, and lived amid scenes of human activity. About 30 B.C. he settled at Rome, where his literary talents secured the patronage and friendship of Augustus. But though a courtier he was no flatterer. 'Titus Livius,' says Tacitus (_Ann._ iv. 34), 'pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such a panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship.' He returned to his native town before his death, 17 A.D., at the age of about 75.
2. Works.
+History of Rome+ (_Ab urbe condita Libri_), a comprehensive account in 142 Books of the whole History of Rome from the foundation of the City to the death of Drusus, 9 A.D. It is probable that he intended to continue his work in 150 Books, down to the death of Augustus in 14 A.D., the point from which Tacitus starts. The number of Books now extant is 35, about one fourth of the whole number, but we possess summaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of nearly the whole work. The division of the History into decades (sets of ten Books), though merely conventional, is convenient. According to this arrangement the Books now extant are:
Books I-X, 754-293 B.C., to nearly the close of the Third Samnite War.
Books XXI-XXX, 219-201 B.C., the narrative of the Second Punic War.
Books XXXI-XLV, 201-167 B.C., describe the Wars in Greece and Macedonia, and end with the triumph of Aemilius Paulus after Pydna, 168 B.C.
3. Style.
His style is characterised by variety, liveliness, and picturesqueness. 'As a master of style Livy is in the first rank of historians. He marks the highest point which the enlarged and enriched prose of the Augustan age reached just before it began to fall into decadence. . . . The periodic structure of Latin prose, which had been developed by Cicero, is carried by him to an even greater complexity and used with a greater daring and freedom. . . . His imagination never fails to kindle at great
## actions; it is he, more than any other author, who has impressed the
great soldiers and statesmen of the Republic on the imagination of the world.' --Mackail.
4. The Speeches.
'The spirit in which he writes History is well illustrated by the Speeches. These, in a way, set the tone of the whole work. He does not affect in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the colour of the time in which the speech is laid. He uses them rather as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character and motive.' --Mackail. 'Everything,' says Quintilian (X. i. 101), 'is perfectly adapted both to the circumstances and personages introduced.'
5. The Purpose of his History.
The first ten books of Livy were being written about the same time as the _Aeneid_; both Vergil and Livy had the same patriotic purpose, 'to celebrate the growth, in accordance with a divine dispensation, of the Roman Empire and Roman civilisation.' --Nettleship. Livy, however, brought into greater prominence the moral causes which contributed to the growth of the Empire. In his preface to Book I, § 9, he asks his readers to consider _what have been the life and habits of the Romans, by aid of what men and by what talents at home and in the field their Empire has been gained and extended_. Only by virtue and manliness, justice and piety, was the dominion of the world achieved.
'In ancient Rome he sees his ideal realised, and _romanus_ hence signifies in his language all that is noble. He thus involuntarily appears partial to Rome, and unjust to her enemies, notably to the Samnites and Hannibal.' --Teuffel.
'As the title of _Gesta Populi Romani_ was given to the _Aeneid_ on its appearance, so the _Historiae ab Urbe Condita_ might be called, with no less truth, a funeral eulogy--_consummatio totius vitae et quasi funebris laudatio_ (Sen. _Suas._ VI. 21)--delivered, by the most loving and most eloquent of her sons, over the grave of the great Republic.' --Mackail.
M. ANNAEUS LUCANUS, 39-65 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: LUCAN.]
+Important Events in the Life of Lucan.+
A.D. 39. Born at Corduba (_Cordova_) on the R. Baetis (_Guadalquivir_). " 40. His father migrates with his family to Rome. " 54-68. Nero Emperor. " 55. Lucan under Cornutus, the tutor also of Persius. " 57-9. At the University of Athens. " 60. Wins the favour of Nero, who begins to hate Seneca. " 61. Lucan quaestor: famous as a reciter and pleader. " 62. Disgrace of Seneca. +Pharsalia I.-III.+ published. Death of Persius. " 63. Marries Polla Argentaria, a marriage of affection. " 64. Nero, from jealousy, forbids Lucan to publish poems or to recite them. " 65. Pisonian conspiracy discovered. Lucan compelled to die.
Lucan was a nephew of M. Annaeus Novatus (the Gallio of Acts xviii. 12-17), and of Seneca, the philosopher and tutor of Nero. 'Rhetoric and Stoic dogma were the staple of his mental training. For a much-petted, quick-witted youth, plunged into such a society as that of Rome in the first century A.D., hardly any training could be more mischievous. Puffed up with presumed merits and the applause of the lecture-room and the _salon_, he became a shallow rhetorician, devoted to phrase-making and tinsel ornament, and ready to write and declaim on any subject in verse or prose at the shortest notice.' --Heitland. Silenced by Nero, in an enforced retirement--probably in the stately gardens spoken of by Juvenal vii. 79-80 _contentus fama iaceat Lucanus in hortis Marmoreis--Lucan may repose in his park adorned with statues and find fame enough_--he brooded over his wrongs, and despairing of any other way of restoration to public life, joined the ill-fated conspiracy of Piso.
2. Works.
The +Pharsalia+ (or _De Bello Civili_), an epic poem in ten Books, from the beginning of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar is besieged in Alexandria, 49-48 B.C. His narrative thus runs parallel to Caesar's De _Bello Civili_, but it contains some valuable additional matter and gives a faithful picture of the feeling general among the nobility of the day.
3. Style.
'To Lucan's rhetorical instincts and training, and the influence of the recitations which Juvenal _Sat._ iii. tells us were so customary and such a nuisance in his day, are due the great defects of the _Pharsalia_. We see the sacrifice of the whole to the parts, neglect of the matter in an over-studious regard for the manner, a self-conscious tone appealing rather to an audience than to a reader, venting itself in apostrophes, digressions, hyperbole (over-drawn description), episodes and epigrams, an unhappy laboriousness that strains itself to be first-rate for a moment, but leaves the poem second-rate for ever.' --Heitland.
The general effect of Lucan's verse is one of steady monotony, due to a want of variety in the pauses and in the ending of lines, and a too sparing use of elision, by which Vergil was able to regulate the movement of lines and make sound and sense agree.
'In spite of its immaturity and bad taste the poem compels admiration by its elevation of thought and sustained brilliance of execution; it contains passages of lofty thought and real beauty, such as the dream of Pompeius, or the character which Cato gives of Pompeius, and is full of quotations which have become household words; such as, _In se magna ruunt--Stat magni nominis umbra--Nil actum reputans si quid superesset agendum_ (a line which rivals Caesar's energy).'--Mackail.
The brief and balanced judgment of Quintilian (_Inst. Orat._ X. i. 90) sums up Lucan in words which suggest at once his chief merits and defects as a poet: _Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis clarissimus et magis oratoribus quam poetis imitandus--Lucan has fire and point, is very famous for his maxims, and indeed is rather a model for orators than poets_.
GAIUS LUCILIUS, circ. 170-103 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: LUCILIUS.]
Lucilius was born in the Latin town of Suessa of the Aurunci, in Campania, of a well-to-do equestrian family. Velleius tells us that the sister of Lucilius was grandmother to Pompeius, and that Lucilius served in the cavalry under Scipio in the Numantine war, 134 B.C. Lucilius lived on very intimate terms with Scipio Africanus Minor and Laelius, and died at Naples (103 B.C.), where he was honoured with a public funeral.
2. Works.
+Saturae+ in thirty Books, in various metres. Fragments only are extant.
'After Terence he is the most distinguished and the most important in his literary influence among the friends of Scipio. The form of literature which he invented and popularised, that of familiar poetry, was one which proved singularly suited to the Latin genius. He speaks of his own works under the name of _Sermones_ (talks)--a name which was retained by his great successor and imitator Horace; but the peculiar combination of metrical form with wide range of subject and the pedestrian style of ordinary prose received in popular usage the name _Satura_ (mixture).'--Mackail.
_Satura quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius._ --Quint. X. i. 93.
'The chief social vices which Lucilius attacks are those which reappear in the pages of the later satirists. They are the two extremes to which the Roman temperament was most prone: rapacity and meanness in gaining money, vulgar ostentation and coarse sensuality in using it.' --Sellar.
Juvenal says of him (_Sat._ i. 165-7):
'When old Lucilius seems to draw his sword and growls in burning ire, the hearer blushes for shame, his conscience is chilled for his offences, and his heart faints for secret sins.'
T. LUCRETIUS CARUS, circ. 99-55 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: LUCRETIUS.]
Very little is known of his life. The subiect of his poem prevented him from telling his own history as Catullus, Horace, and Ovid have done, and his contemporaries seldom refer to him. The name Lucretius suggests that he was descended from one of the most ancient patrician houses of Rome, famous in the early annals of the Republic. He was evidently a man of wealth and position, but he deliberately chose the life of contemplation, and lived apart from the ambitions and follies of his day. Donatus, in his life of Vergil, tells us that Lucretius died on the day on which Vergil assumed the _toga virilis_, Oct. 15, 55 B.C.
2. Works.
The +De Rerum Natura+, a didactic poem in hexameter verse in six Books. The poem was left unfinished at his death, and Munro supports the tradition that Cicero both corrected it and superintended its publication. The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear of death and the terrors of superstition by the new knowledge of Nature:
_Hunc igitur terrorem animi tenebrasque necessest Non radii solis neque lucida tela diei Discutiant, sed naturae species ratioque._
_This terror of the soul, therefore, and this darkness must be dispelled, not by the rays of the sun or the bright shafts of day, but by the outward aspect and harmonious plan of nature._ --S.
The source of these terrors is traced to the general ignorance of certain facts in Nature--ignorance, namely, of the constitution and condition of our minds and bodies, of the means by which the world came into existence and is still maintained, and, lastly, of the causes of many natural phenomena. Thus:
Books I and II uphold the principles of the Atomic Theory as held by Epicurus (_fl._ 300 B.C.).
## Book I states that the world consists of atoms and void. At line 694 is
stated the important doctrine that the evidence of the senses alone is to be believed--_sensus, unde omnia credita pendent, the senses on which rests all our belief_.
## Book II treats of the _motions_ of atoms, including the curious doctrine
of the _swerve_, which enables them to combine and makes freedom of will possible: then of their _shapes_ and _arrangement_.
## Book III shows the nature of mind (_animus_) and life (_anima_) to be
material and therefore mortal. Therefore death is nothing to us:
_Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum, Quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur. Death therefore to us is nothing, concerns us not a jot, Since the nature of the mind is proved to be mortal._ --(M.)
## Book IV gives Lucretius' theory of vision and the nature of dreams and
apparitions.
## Book V explains the origin of the heavens, of the earth, of vegetable
and animal life upon it, and the advance of human nature from a savage state to the arts and usages of civilisation.
## Book VI describes and accounts for certain natural
phenomena--thunderstorms, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, and the like. It concludes with a theory of disease, illustrated by a fine description of the plague at Athens.
Professor Tyrrell says: 'It is interesting to point to places in which Lucretius or his predecessors had really anticipated modern scientific research. Thus Lucretius recognises that in a vacuum every body, no matter what its weight, falls with equal swiftness; the circulation of the sap in the vegetable world is known to him, and he describes falling stars, aerolites, etc., as the unused material of the universe.' The great truth that matter is not destroyed but only changes its form is very clearly stated by Lucretius, and his account (Book V) of the beginnings of life upon the earth, the evolution of man, and the progress of human society is interesting and valuable.
3. Style.
'Notwithstanding the antique tinge (e.g. his use of archaism, assonance, and alliteration) which for poetical ends he has given to his poem, the best judges have always looked upon it as one of the purest models of the Latin idiom in the age of its greatest perfection.' --Munro.
'The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful, and in its way so perfect.' --Nettleship.
_Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti, Exitio terras cum dabit una dies._ --Ovid. _Am._ I. xv. 23.
'But till this cosmic order everywhere Shattered into one earthquake in one day Cracks all to pieces ... till that hour My golden work shall stand.' --Tennyson, _Lucretius_.
MARCUS MANILIUS, fl. 12 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: MANILIUS.]
Nothing is known of his life. That he was not of Roman birth (perhaps a native of N. Africa) is probable from the foreign colouring of his language at the outset, which in the later books becomes more smooth and fluent from increased practice.
2. Works.
The +Astronomica+ in five Books of hexameter verse. The poem should rather be called Astrology, as Astronomy is treated only in Book I. He is proud of being the first writer on this subject in Latin literature. A close study of Lucretius is obvious from several passages: he often imitates Vergil, and in the legends (e.g. of Perseus and Andromeda) Ovid.
3. Style.
He is not a great poet; but he is a writer of real power both in thought and style. In his introductions to each Book, and in his digressions, he shows sincere feeling and poetical ability.
M. VALERIUS MARTIALIS, circ. 40-102 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: MARTIAL.]
He was born at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis (E. Spain), a town situated on a rocky height overlooking the R. Salo:
_Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri Monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis._
X. ciii. 1-2.
His father gave him a good education, and at the age of twenty-three (63 A.D.) he went to Rome. After living there for thirty-five years, patronised by Titus and Vespasian, he returned to Bilbilis soon after the accession of Trajan (98 A.D.), where he died _circ._ 102 A.D.
At Rome he for a time found powerful friends in his great countrymen of the house of Seneca (Lucan and Seneca were then at the height of their fame), and from 79 to 96 (_temp._ Trajan and Domitian) he received the patronage of the Court, and numbered among his friends Pliny the Younger, Quintilian, Juvenal, Valerius Flaccus, and Silius Italicus. His complaints of his poverty are incessant. It is true that he lived throughout the life of a dependent, but it is probable that Martial was a poor man who contrived to get through a good deal of money, and who mistook for poverty a capacity for spending more than he could get.
2. Works.
+Epigrammata+ in fourteen Books (Books XIII and XIV, _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_, are two collections of inscriptions for presents at the Saturnalia); also a +Liber Spectaculorum+ on the opening of the grand Flavian amphitheatre (the Coliseum) begun by Vespasian and completed by Titus.
3. Style.
'Martial did not create the epigram. What he did was to differentiate the epigram and elaborate it. Adhering always to what he considered the true type of the literary epigram, consisting of i. the _preface_, or description of the occasion of the epigram, rousing the curiosity to know what the poet has to say about it; and, ii. the explanation or commentary of the poet, commonly called the _point_--he employed his vast resources of satire, wit, observation, fancy, and pathos to produce the greatest number of varieties of epigram that the type admits of. . . . What Martial really stands convicted of on his own showing is of laughing at that which ought to have roused in him shame and indignation, and of making literary capital out of other men's vices.' --Stephenson. Among his good points are his candour, his love of nature, and the loyalty of his friendships.
Pliny says of him: _Audio Valerium Martialem decessisse et moleste fero. Erat homo ingeniosus, acutus, acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo et sltis haberet et fellis, nec candoris minus--I hear with regret that V. Martial is dead. He was a man of talent, acuteness, and spirit: with plenty of wit and gall, and as sincere as he was witty._ --Pliny, _Ep._ iii. 21.
'The greatest epigrammatist of the world, and one of its most disagreeable literary characters.' --Merrill.
CORNELIUS NEPOS, circ. 100-24 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: NEPOS.]
Nepos was probably born at Ticinium on the R. Padus. He inherited an ample fortune, and was thereby enabled to keep aloof from public life and to devote himself to literature and to writing works of an historical nature. In earlier life he was one of the circle of Catullus, who dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull. _C._ i.): 'To whom am I to give my dainty, new-born little volume? To you, Cornelius.' He was also a friend and contemporary of Cicero, and after Cicero's death (43 B.C.) was one of the chief friends of Atticus.
2. Works.
Of his numerous writings on history, chronology, and grammar we possess only a fragment of his +De Viris Illustribus+ (originally in sixteen Books), a collection of Roman and foreign biographies. Of this work there is extant one complete section, +De Excellentibus Ducibus Exterarum Gentium+, and two lives, those of Atticus and Cato the Younger, from his +De Historicis Latinis+.
3. Style.
Nepos is a most untrustworthy historian, and his work possesses little independent value. But his style is clear, elegant, and lively, and he did much to make Greek learning popular among his fellow-citizens.
PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO, 43 B.C.-18 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: OVID.]
Ovid's own writings (espec. _Tr._ IV. x.) supply nearly all the information we possess regarding his life. He was born at Sulmo, a town in the cold, moist hills of the Peligni, one of the Sabine clans, situated near Corfinium, and about ninety miles E. of Rome. He was of an ancient equestrian family, and together with his elder brother received a careful education at Rome, and studied also at Athens. He was trained for the Bar, but in spite of his father's remonstrances preferred poetry to public life. 'An easy fortune, a brilliant wit, an inexhaustible memory, and an unfailing social tact soon made him a prominent figure in society; and his genuine love of literature and admiration for genius made him the friend of the whole contemporary world of letters.' --Mackail. Up to his fiftieth year fortune smiled steadily upon Ovid: his works were universally popular, and he enjoyed the favour and patronage of the Emperor himself. But towards the end of 8 A.D. an imperial edict ordered him to leave Rome on a named day and take up his residence at the small barbarous town of Tomi, on the Black Sea, at the extreme outposts of civilisation. Augustus proved deaf to all entreaties to recall him, Tiberius remained alike inexorable, and Ovid died of a broken heart at the ago of sixty, in the tenth year of his banishment.
2. Works.
(1) +Amores+, in three Books, poems in elegiac verse, nearly all on Corinna, who was probably no real person, but only a name around which Ovid grouped his own fancies, and wrote as the poet of a fashionable, pleasure-loving society. The _Mors Psittaci_ is pleasing and the _Mors Tibulli_ is a noble tribute to a brother poet.
(2) +Heroides+, twenty letters in elegiac verse, feigned to have been written by ladies or chiefs of the heroic age to the absent objects of their love (15-20 are in pairs, e.g. Paris to Helen and Helen to Paris, and are probably spurious). 'The Letters 1-14 are thoroughly modern: they express the feelings and speak the language of refined women in a refined age, and all exhibit an artificiality both in the substance and the manner of their pleading.' --Sellar.
(3) +Ars Amatoria+, in elegiac verse in three Books. This is an ironical form of didactic poetry in which Ovid teaches the art of lying quite as much as the art of loving.
(4) +Remedia Amoris+, in elegiac verse, while professing to be a recantation of the _Ars Amatoria_, shows, if possible, a worse taste.
(5) +Metamorphoses+, in hexameter verse in fifteen Books, containing versions of legends on transformations (_mutatae formae_) from Chaos down to Caesar's transformation into a star. In some respects this is his greatest poem: Ovid himself makes for it as strong a claim to immortality as Horace does for his Odes:
_Quaque patet domitis Romana potentia terris, Ore legar populi perque omnia saecula fama, Siquid habent veri vatum praesagia, vivam._
_Met._ XV. 877-end.
'The attractiveness of this work lies in its descriptions; but the attempt to divest it of the character of a dictionary of mythology by interweaving stories, after the fashion of the _Arabian Nights_, is only
## partially successful.' --Tyrrell.
(6) +Fasti+, in elegiac verse in six Books, a poetical calendar of the Roman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and Ovid probably sketched out Books vii-xii, but his exile made it impossible for him to complete the work. It contains much valuable information on Roman customs and some exquisitely told stories (_e.g._ the Rape of Proserpine), but leaves the impression of being an effort to produce on the reader the effect of a patriotism which the writer did not feel.
(7) +Poems Written in Exile.+
(i) +Tristia+, in elegiac verse in five Books: letters to Augustus, to Ovid's wife (for whom he had a deep affection) and to friends, praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome.
(ii) +Epistulae ex Ponto+: similar to the _Tristia_.
'These poems are a melancholy record of flagging vitality and failing powers.' --Mackail.
3. Style.
The real importance of Ovid in literature and his gift to posterity lay in the new and vivid life which he imparted to the fables of Greek mythology. 'No other classical poet has furnished more ideas than Ovid to the Italian poets and painters of the Renaissance, and to our own poets--from Chaucer to Pope, who, like Ovid,
'"Lisped in numbers, for the numbers came."'
AULUS PERSIUS FLACCUS, 34-62 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PERSIUS.]
He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman knight of wealth and rank. At twelve years of age Persius was removed to Rome, where he placed himself under the guidance of the Stoic Cornutus, who remained his close friend to the end of his short life. Persius (_Sat._ v.) touchingly describes his residence with Cornutus, and the influence of this beloved teacher in moulding his character:
_Pars tua sit, Cornute, animae, tibi, dulcis amice, Ostendisse iuvat:_
'_My delight is to show you, Cornutus, how large a share of my inmost being is yours, my beloved friend._'--C.
He was nearly related to Arria, daughter of that 'true wife' who taught her husband Paetus how to die (Mart. I. xiii.; Pliny _Epist._ i. 16). In the consistent life of Thrasea (the husband of Arria), who was a Cato in justice and more than a Cato in goodness, Persius had a noble example to follow. So during the short span of his life the poet lived and worked, a man of maidenly modesty, an excellent son, brother, and nephew, of frugal and moderate habits.
2. Works.
+Saturae+, six Satires in hexameter verse. The first, devoted to an attack upon the literary style of the day, is the only real Satire: the other five are declamations or dogmas of the Stoic system (e.g. Sat. ii., on right and wrong prayers to the gods), interspersed with dramatic scenes. It was to Lucilius that Persius owed the impulse that made him a writer of Satire, but his obligations to Horace are paramount. 'He was what would be called a plagiarist, but probably no writer ever borrowed so much and yet left on the mind so decided an impression of originality. Where he draws from his own experience, his portraits have an imaginative truth, minutely accurate yet highly ideal, which would entitle them to a distinguished place in any portrait gallery.' --Nettleship.
3. Style.
'The involved and obscure style of much of his work is the style which his taste leads him to assume for satiric purposes. He feels that a clear, straightforward, everyday manner of speech would not suit a subject over which the gods themselves might hesitate whether to laugh or weep. As the poet of Stoicism, using the very words of Vergil, he calls upon a benighted race to acquaint itself with the _causes_ of things: to an inquiry into the purpose of man's being, the art of skilful driving in the chariot-race of life, and the ordained position of each individual in the social system.' --Nettleship.
'Persius is the sole instance among Roman writers of a philosopher whose life was in accordance with the doctrines he professed.' --Cruttwell.
_Multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro Persius meruit._ --Quint. _Inst. Orat._ X. i. 94.
PETRONIUS ARBITER, obiit 66 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PETRONIUS.]
He is probably the Petronius of whose life and character Tacitus has given us a brilliant sketch in the _Annals_, xvi. 18. 19. 'His days were passed,' says Tacitus, 'in sleep, his nights in the duties or pleasures of life: where others toiled for fame he had lounged into it. Yet, as governor of Bithynia, and afterwards as consul, he showed himself a vigorous and capable administrator; then relapsing into the habit or assuming the mask of vice, he was adopted as +Elegantiae Arbiter+ (_the authority on taste_) into the small circle of Nero's intimate companions. No luxury was charming or refined till Petronius had given it his approval, and the jealousy of Tigellinus was roused against a rival and master in the science of pleasure.' Petronius anticipated his inevitable fate by committing suicide.
2. Works.
+Satirae+ (or +Satiricon+), a character-novel, often called, from its central and most entertaining incident, _The Supper of Trimalchio_. 'This is the description of a Christmas dinner-party given by a sort of Golden Dustman and his wife, people of low birth and little education, who had come into an enormous fortune. The dinner itself, and the conversation on literature and art that goes on at the dinner-table, are conceived in a spirit of the wildest humour.' --Mackail.
The chief interest of the _Satiricon_ for us is the glimpse which it affords of everyday manners and conversation under the Empire among all orders of society, from the highest to the lowest.
PHAEDRUS (_temp._ Augustus to Nero).
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PHAEDRUS.]
The Latin Fabulist, of whom we know nothing except what may be gathered or inferred from his fables. He was originally a slave, and was born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria. He was brought to Rome at an early age, and there became acquainted with Roman literature. His patron appears to have been Augustus, who gave him his freedom. After publishing two books of fables he incurred the resentment of Augustus and was imprisoned. This was due probably to the bold outspokenness of many of his fables. He survived the attacks made on him, and Book V was written in his old age.
2. Works.
+Fables+, in five Books, written in _iambic senarii_, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus. The full title of his work is _Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri_. 'Phaedrus constantly plumes himself on his superiority to his model Aesop, but his animals have not the lifelike reality of those of the latter. With Phaedrus the animals are mere lay-figures: the moral comes first, and then he attaches an animal to it.' --Tyrrell.
'The chief interest of the Fables lies in the fact that they form the last survival of the _urbanus sermo_ (the speech of Terence) in Latin poetry.' --Mackail.
'Phaedrus is the only important writer during the half-century of literary darkness between the Golden and the Silver Age.' --Tyrrell.
T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS, circ. 254-184 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PLAUTUS.]
Plautus was born in the little Umbrian town of Sarsina, of free but poor parents. He came to Rome and made a small fortune as a stage-carpenter, but lost it by rash investment. He was then reduced to working for some years in a corn-mill, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so until his death.
2. Works.
+Comedies.+ About 130 plays were current under the name of Plautus, but only 21 (_Fabulae Varronianae_) were, as Varro tells us, universally admitted to be genuine. Of these, all except one are extant.
Though his comedies are mainly free versions of Greek originals--of Philemon, Diphilus and Menander, the writers of the New Comedy 320-250 B.C.--the characters in them act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby secured the sympatliy of his audience more completely than Terence could ever have done.
'In point of language his plays form one of the most important documents for the history of the Latin language. In the freedom with which he uses, without vulgarising, popular modes of speech, he has no equal among Latin writers.' --Sellar.
For Horace's unfavourable judgment of Plautus see _Epist._ I. i. 170-176, and A. P. 270-272; Cicero's criticism is more just: _Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum illiberale petulans flagitiosum obscenum (vulgar, spiteful, shameful, coarse), alterum elegans urbanum ingeniosum facetum (in good taste, gracious, clever, witty). Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia_ (i.e. of Aristophanes), _sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt_. --_De Off._ I. civ.
GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, 23-79 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PLINY THE ELDER.]
Born at Comum (_Como_) in the middle of the reign of Tiberius, Pliny passed his life in high public employments, both military and civil, which took him successively over nearly all the provinces of the Empire. He had always felt a strong interest in science, and he used his military position to secure information that otherwise might have been hard to obtain. Vespasian (70-78 A.D.), with whom he was on terms of close intimacy, made him admiral of the fleet stationed at Misenum. It was while here that news was brought him of the memorable eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. 'In his zeal for scientific investigation he set sail for the spot in a man-of-war, and lingering too near the zone of the eruption was suffocated by the rain of hot ashes. The account of his death, given by his nephew, Pliny the Younger, in a letter to the historian Tacitus (_Ep._ vi. 16), is one of the best known passages in the classics.' --Mackail.
2. Works.
A +Natural History+, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant work. (For his numerous other writings see Pliny the Younger, _Ep._ iii. 5.) 'It is a priceless storehouse of information on every branch of natural science as known to the ancient world.' --Mackail.
His work has been called the first popular encyclopedia of natural science.
_Plinius Aetatis Suae Doctissimus._ --Gellius.
C. PLINIUS CAECILIUS SECUNDUS, 62-113 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PLINY THE YOUNGER.]
Pliny the Younger was the son of C. Caecilius and of Plinia, the sister of the elder Pliny. He was born at Comum (_Como_), also the birthplace of his celebrated uncle. His father died when he was eight years old, and he was placed under the care of a guardian, Verginius Rufus, one of the most distinguished Romans of the day, since he had held the crown within his grasp and had declined to wear it, 68 A.D. Verginius was not much of a student, but Pliny learned from him high ideals of duty and noble thoughts about the Rome of earlier days, and never lost his unbounded admiration and respect for his guardian (_Ep._ ii. 1). Under his uncle's watchful care he received the best education Rome could give, and studied rhetoric under the great Quintilian. His bachelor uncle on his death in 79 left him his heir, adopting him in his will. Gifted with wealth, enthusiasm, taste for publicity, and a wide circle of influential friends, Pliny could not be content with the career of a simple _eques_. Accordingly he began the course of office that led to the Senate and the Consulship, and finally in 111 A.D. was appointed by Trajan governor of Bithynia, where he discharged his duties with skill and ability. His service seems to have been terminated only with his death.
2. Works.
+Epistulae+, Letters in nine Books, to which is added Pliny's correspondence with Trajan during his governorship of Bithynia. These and his +Panegyricus+, in praise of Trajan, are his only extant works.
It is on his Letters that Pliny's fame now rests, and both in tone and style they are a monument that does him honour. In many cases they were written for publication, and thus can never have the unique and surpassing interest that belongs to those of Cicero, but they give a varied and interesting picture of the time. 'In the Letters the character of the writer, its virtues and its weakness, is throughout unmistakeable. Pliny, the patriotic citizen,--Pliny, the munificent patron,--Pliny, the eminent man of letters,--Pliny, the affectionate husband and humane master,--Pliny, the man of principle, is in his various phases the real subject of the whole collection.' --Mackail.
'Pliny is an almost perfect type of a refined pagan gentleman.' --Cruttwell.
SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, circ. 50-15 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PROPERTIUS.]
Of his life little or nothing is known, except what is recorded by himself. He was an Umbrian by birth, and probably a native of Asisium (_Assisi_), a town on the W. slope of the Apennines, not far from Perusia. Like Vergil and Tibullus, he lost his family property in the confiscation of lands by the Triumvirs in 42 B.C.; but his mother's efforts secured for him a good education, to complete which she brought him to Rome. He entered on a course of training for the Bar, but abandoned it in favour of poetry (IV. i. 131-4).
_Mox ubi bulla rudi dimissa est aurea collo, Matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga, Tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo Et vetat insano verba tonare foro._
His earliest poems (Book I, _Cynthia_), published at the age of about twenty, brought him into notice and gained him admission to the literary circle of Maecenas. He lived in close intimacy with Vergil, Ovid, and most of his other literary contemporaries, with the remarkable exception of Horace, to whom the sensitive vanity and passionate manner of the young elegiac poet were alike distasteful. He died young, before he was thirty-five, about 15 B.C.
2. Works.
+Elegies+, in four Books. (Some editors divide Book II into two Books, El. 1-9 Book II, and El. 10-34 Book III, so that III and IV of the MSS. and of Postgate become IV and V.)
Books I and II are nearly all poems on Cynthia.
## Book III contains, besides poems on Cynthia, themes dealing with
friendship (El. 7. 12. 22) and events of national interest (El. 4. 11. 18). The poet struggles to emancipate himself from the thraldom of Cynthia and to accomplish work more worthy of his genius.
## Book IV contains poems on Roman antiquities (El. 2. 4. 9. 10), written
at the suggestion of Maecenas, the paean on the great victory at Actium (El. 6), and the noblest of his elegiacs, the Elegy on Cornelia (El. 11).
3. Style.
The aim of Propertius was to be the Roman Callimachus: +Umbria Romani patria Callimachi+ (IV. i. 64).
The flexibility and elasticity of rhythm of the finest Greek elegiacs he made his own. The pentameter, instead of being a weaker echo of the hexameter, is the stronger line of the two, and has a weightier movement. In Book I he ends the pentameter freely with words of three, four, and five syllables, and we find long continuous passages in which there is scarcely any pause: e.g. in I. xx. 33-37:
_Hic erat Arganthi Pege sub vertice montis Grata domus Nymphis umida Thyniasin, Quam supra nullae pendebant debita curae Roscida desertis poma sub arboribus, Et circum irriguo surgebant lilia prato Candida purpureis mixta papaveribus._
'In some respects both Tibullus and Ovid may claim the advantage over Propertius: Tibullus for refined simplicity, for natural grace and exquisiteness of touch; Ovid for the technical merits of execution, for transparency of construction, for smoothness and polish of expression. But in all the higher qualities of a poet Propertius is as much their superior.' --Postgate.
AURELIUS PRUDENTIUS CLEMENS, 348-circ. 410 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: PRUDENTIUS.]
Prudentius (as he tells us in the brief metrical autobiography prefixed to his poems) was born in the N. of Spain, and, like so many of the Roman poets, began his public life as an advocate. He was afterwards appointed by Theodosius (379-395 A.D.) judge over a district in Spain. His active and successful discharge of this office induced Theodosius (or Honorius, 395-423 A.D.) to promote him to some post of honour about the Emperor's person. His later years he devoted to the composition of sacred poetry, and published his collected works 405 A.D., after which date we know no more of his history.
2. Works.
His best known works are his +Cathemerina+, a series of poems on the Christian's day and life, of which the most graceful and pathetic is the _Funeral Hymn_, e.g.
_Iam maesta quiesce querella, Lacrimas suspendite matres, Nullus sua pignora plangat, Mors haec reparatio vitae est_,
and his +Peristephanon+ (#peri stephanôn# _liber_) in praise of Christian martyrs. 'These represent the most substantial addition to Latin lyrical poetry since Horace.' --Mackail. We also have his +Contra Symmachum+ in two Books of indifferent hexameter verse, in which he combats Symmachus (Consul 391 A.D.), the last champion of the old faith, and claims the victories of the Christian Stilicho as triumphs alike of Rome and of the Cross.
'Prudentius has his distinct place and office in the field of Latin literature, as the chief author who bridged the gulf between pagan poetry and Christian hymnology.' --North Pinder.
MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS, circ. 35-95 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: QUINTILIAN.]
Quintilian is the last and perhaps the most distinguished of that school of Spanish writers (Martial, the two Senecas, and Lucan) which played so important a part in the literary history of the first century. Born at Calagurris, a small town on the Upper Ebro, he was educated at Rome, and afterwards returned to his native town as a teacher of rhetoric. There he made the acquaintance of the proconsul Galba (68-9), and was brought back by him to Rome in 68 A.D., where for twenty years he enjoyed the highest reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Among his pupils were numbered Pliny the Younger and the two sons of Flavius Clemens, grand-nephews of Domitian, destined for his successors. In 79 A.D. he was appointed by Vespasian professor of rhetoric, the first teacher who received a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. Domitian (81-96 A.D.) conferred upon him an honorary consulship, and the last ten years of his life were spent in an honoured retirement, which he devoted to recording for the benefit of posterity his unrivalled experience as a teacher of rhetoric.
2. Works.
+Institutio Oratoria+, the _Training of an Orator_, in twelve Books. This great work sums up the teaching and criticism of his life, and gives us the complete training of an orator, starting with him in childhood and leading him on to perfection.
Thus:--
## Book I gives a sketch of the elementary training of the child from the
time he leaves the nursery. Quintilian rightly attaches the greatest importance to early impressions.
## Book II deals with the general principles and scope of the art of
oratory, and continues the discussion of the aims and methods of education in its later stages.
Books III-VII are occupied with an exhaustive treatment of the _matter_ of oratory, and are highly technical. 'Now that the formal study of the art of rhetoric has ceased to be a part of the higher education these Books have lost their general interest.' --Mackail.
Books VIII-XI treat of the _manner_ (style) of oratory. In Book X, cap. i, in the course of an enumeration of the Greek and Latin authors likely to be most useful to an orator, Quintilian gives us a masterly sketch of Latin literature, 'in language so careful and so choice that many of his brief phrases have remained the final words on the authors, both in prose and verse, whom he mentions in his rapid survey.' --Mackail.
## Book XII treats of the moral qualifications of a great speaker. The good
orator must be a good man.
'Quintilian with admirable clearness insists on the great truth that bad education is responsible for bad life, and expresses with equal plainness the complementary truth that education, from the cradle upwards, is something which acts on the whole intellectual and moral nature, and that its object is the production of the _good man_.' --Mackail.
3. Style.
The style of Quintilian is modelled on that of Cicero, whom he is never tired of praising, and is intended to be a return to the usages of the best period. In spite of some faults characteristic of the Silver Age (e.g. his excessive use of antithesis) 'for ordinary use it would be difficult to name a manner that combines so well the Ciceronian dignity with the rich colour and high finish added to Latin prose by the writers of the earlier empire.' --Mackail.
For the death of his son, aged ten, a boy of great promise, for whose instruction he wrote the work, see Preface to Book VI.
_Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae, Gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae._
Mart. II. xc. 1-2.
_Nihil in studiis parvum est._ _Cito scribendo non fit ut bene scribatur, bene scribendo fit ut cito._
--Quintilian.
GAIUS SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, 86-35 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: SALLUST.]
A member of a plebeian family, Sallust was born 86 B.C. at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines. As tribune of the people in 52 B.C. he took an active part in opposing Milo (Cicero's client) and the Pompeian party in general. In 48 B.C. he commanded a legion in Illyria without distinction, and next year Caesar sent him to treat with the mutinous legions in Campania, where he narrowly escaped assassination. He afterwards followed Caesar to Africa, and apparently did good service there, for he was appointed in 46 the first governor of the newly formed province of Numidia. In 45 he returned to Rome a very rich man, and built himself a magnificent palace, surrounded by pleasure grounds (the famous Gardens of Sallust, in the valley between the Quirinal and the Pincius), which in after years emperors preferred to the palace of the Caesars. After Caesar's death Sallust retired from public life, and it is to the leisure and study of these ten years that we owe the works that have made him famous.
2. Works.
(1) +De Catilinae Coniuratione+ (or _Bellum Catilinae_), a monograph on the famous conspiracy, in which Sallust writes very largely from direct personal knowledge of men and events.
(2) +Bellum Iugurthinum+ (111-106 B.C.) The writing of this monograph involved wide inquiry and much preparation.
(3) +Historiae+, in five books, dealing with the events from 78 B.C. (death of Sulla) to 67 B.C., of which only a few fragments are extant.
3. Style.
'Sallust aimed at making historical writing a branch of literature. He felt that nothing had yet been done by any Roman writer which would stand beside Thucydides. It was his ambition to supply the want. That could only be done by offering as complete a contrast to the tedious annalist as possible, and Sallust neglected no means of giving variety to his work. From Thucydides he probably borrowed the idea of his introductions, the imaginary speeches and the character portraits; from Cato the picturesque descriptions of the scenes of historical events and the ethnographical digressions.' --Cook.
'The style of Sallust is characterised by the use of old words and forms (especially in the speeches). He makes use of alliteration, extensively employs the Historic Infinitive, and shows a partiality for conversational expressions which from a literary point of view are archaic. His abrupt unperiodic style of writing (rough periods without
## particles of connexion) has won for Sallust his reputation for brevity.
His style is, however, the expression of the writer's character, direct, incisive, emphatic, and outspoken; to have been a model for Tacitus is no slight merit.' --Cook.
_Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:_ 'Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis, Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae.'
Quint. VIII. iii. 29.
'The last of the Ciceronians, Sallust is also in a sense the first of the imperial prose-writers.' --Mackail.
_Primus Romana Crispus in Historia_ (Mart. XIV. cxci.)
L. ANNAEUS SENECA THE YOUNGER, circ. 4 B.C.-65 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: SENECA.]
The son of Seneca the Elder, the famous rhetorician, was born at Corduba (_Cordova_), in Spain, and brought to Rome by his parents at an early age. His life was one of singularly dramatic contrasts and vicissitudes. Under his mother Helvia's watchful care he received the best education Rome could give. Through the influence of his mother's family he passed into the Senate through the quaestorship, and his successes at the bar awakened the jealousy of Caligula (37-41 A.D.) By his father's advice he retired for a time and spent his days in philosophy. On the accession of Claudius (41-54 A.D.) he was banished to Corsica at the instance of the Empress Messalina, probably because he was suspected of belonging to the faction of Agrippina, the mother of Nero. After eight years he was recalled (49 A.D.) by the influence of Agrippina (now the wife of Claudius), and appointed tutor to her son Nero, then a boy of ten. When Nero became emperor, at the age of seventeen (54 A.D.), Seneca, in conjunction with his friend Burrus, the prefect of the praetorian guards, became practically the administrator of the Empire. 'The mild and enlightened administration of the earlier years of the new reign, the famous _quinquennium Neronis_, may indeed be largely ascribed to Seneca's influence; but this influence was based on an excessive indulgence of Nero's caprices, which soon worked out its own punishment.' --Mackail. His connivance at the murder of Agrippina (59 A.D.) was the death-blow to his influence for good, and the death of Burrus (63 A.D.) was, as Tacitus says (_Ann._ xiv. 52), 'a blow to Seneca's power, for virtue had not the same strength when one of its champions, so to speak, was removed, and Nero began to lean on worse advisers.' Seneca resolved to retire, and entreated Nero to receive back the wealth he had so lavishly bestowed. The Emperor, bent on vengeance, refused the proffered gift, and Seneca knew that his doom was sealed. In the year 65, on the pretext of complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, he was commanded to commit suicide, and Tacitus (_Ann._ xv. 61-63) has shown his love for Seneca, in spite of all his faults, by the tribute he pays to the constancy of his death.
2. Works.
His chief works are:--
(1) +Dialogorum Libri XII+, of which the most important are the +De Ira+ and the +Consolatio+ to his mother Helvia, whom he tenderly loved.
(2) +De Clementia+, in three Books, addressed to Nero, written in 55-6 A.D., to show the public what sort of instruction Seneca had given his pupil, and what sort of Emperor they had to expect.
(3) +De Beneficiis+, in seven Books. Seneca proves that a tyrant's benefits are not kindnesses, and sets forth his views on the giving and receiving of benefits.
(4) +Epistulae morales ad Lucilium.+ 124 letters are extant, and form the most important and most pleasing of his works.
(5) +Tragedies.+ Nine are extant, derived from plays by Sophocles and Euripides. The only extant Latin tragedies.
'As a moral writer Seneca stands deservedly high. Though infected with the rhetorical vices of the age his treatises are full of striking and often gorgeous eloquence, and in their combination of high thought with deep feeling have rarely, if at all, been surpassed.' --Mackail.
'Seneca is a lamentable instance of variance between precept and example.' --Cruttwell.
SILIUS ITALICUS, circ. 25-100 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: SILIUS.]
A letter of Pliny (iii. 7) is the chief source of our knowledge of the life of Silius. Pliny tells us that Silius had risen by acting as a _delator_ (informer) under Nero, who made him consul 68 A.D. He goes on to say 'He had gained much credit by his proconsulship in Asia (under Vespasian, _circ._ 77 A.D.), and had since by an honourable leisure wiped out the blot which stained the activity of his former years.' Martial also, who has the effrontery to speak of him as a combined Vergil and Cicero, tells us of his luxurious and learned retirement in Campania, and of his reverence for his master Vergil, 'whose birthday he kept more religiously than his own.' According to Martial (xi. 49) the tomb of Vergil had been practically forgotten, and was in the possession of some poor man when Silius bought the plot of ground on which it stood:
_Iam prope desertos cineres et sancta Maronis Nomina qui coleret, pauper et unus erat. Silius optatae succurrere censuit umbrae, Silius et vatem, non minor ipse, colit._
2. Works.
The +Punica+, an Epic poem in seventeen Books, on the Second Punic War, closes with Scipio's triumph, after the Battle of Zama, 202 B.C.
Silius closely followed the history as told by Livy, and without any inventive or constructive power of his own copies, with tasteless pedantry, Homer and Vergil. 'He cannot perceive that the divine interventions which are admissible in the quarrel of Aeneas and Turnus are ludicrous when imported into the struggle between Scipio and Hannibal. Who can help resenting the unreality when at Saguntum Jupiter guides an arrow into Hannibal's body, which Juno immediately withdraws, or when, at Cannae, Aeolus yields to the prayer of Juno and blinds the Romans by a whirlwind of dust?'--Cruttwell.
The _Punica_ is valuable for its historical accuracy, but it is one of the longest and one of the worst Epic poems ever written.
_Scribebat carmina maiore cura quam ingenio._
Pliny, _Epist._ iii. 7.
P. PAPINIUS STATIUS, circ. 60-100 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: STATIUS.]
Statius was born at Naples, but early removed to Rome, where he was carefully educated and spent the greater part of his life. His father was a scholar, rhetorician, and poet of some distinction, and acted for a time as tutor to Domitian. Statius had thus access to the Court, and repaid the patronage of Domitian by incessant and shameless flattery. After the completion of his +Thebais+ he retired to Naples, which was endeared to him by its associations with Vergil, and there satisfied his real love of nature.
2. Works.
(1) The +Thebais+, an Epic poem in twelve Books, on the strife between the brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the subsequent history of Thebes to the death of Creon.
The Thebaid became very famous: Juvenal (_Sat._ vii. 82-4) tells us
_Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem promisitque diem_ (i.e. for a public recitation of his poem).
'Its smooth versification, copious diction, and sustained elegance made it a sort of canon of poetical technique. Among much tedious rhetoric and cumbrous mythology there is enough imagination and pathos to make the poem interesting and even charming.' --Mackail.
(2) The +Silvae+, in five Books, are occasional poems, descriptive and lyrical, on miscellaneous subjects. These may well be considered his masterpiece. 'Genuine poetry,' says Niebuhr, 'imprinted with the character of the true poet, and constituting some of the most graceful productions of Roman literature.'
Among the best known are the touching poem to his wife Claudia (iii. 5), the marriage song to his brother-poet Arruntius Stella (i. 2), the _Propempticon Maecio Celeri_ (iii. 2), the _Epicedion_ (funeral song) on the death of his adopted son (v. 5), and the short poem (v. 4) on Sleep.
The greatest poet of the Decline.
GAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, circ. 75-160 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: SUETONIUS.]
The little we know of his life is chiefly gathered from the Letters of Pliny the Younger, and from scattered allusions in his own works. The son of an officer of the Thirteenth Legion, Suetonius in early life practised as an advocate, and subsequently became one of Hadrian's private secretaries (_magister epistularum_), but was dismissed from office in 121 A.D. After his retirement from the service of the Court he devoted the rest of his long life to literary research and compilation, and published a number of works on a great variety of subjects, so that he became famous as the Varro of the imperial period.
2. Works.
His extant works are:
(1) +De Vita Caesarum+, the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, in eight Books (I-VI Julius-Nero; VII Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; VIII Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). This is his most interesting and most valuable work. His Lives are not works of art: he is simply a gatherer of facts, collected from good sources with considerable care and judgment. 'He follows out with absolute faithfulness his own theory, which makes it necessary to omit no possible detail that can throw light upon the personality of his subject.' --Peck.
(2) +De Viris Illustribus+, a history of Latin literature up to his day. The greater part of the section +De grammaticis et rhetoribus+ is extant, as well as the Lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan (partly), from the section +De poetis+, and fragments of the Life of Pliny the Elder from the section +De historicis+.
Extracts made from this work by Jerome (_circ._ 400 A.D.) in his Latin version of Eusebius' Chronicles are the source from which much of our information as to Latin authors is derived.
'Suetonius is terse, and in that respect he resembles Tacitus; he is deeply interesting, and there he shows some likeness to Livy; but his style is one of his own creation. His chief desire is to present the facts stripped of any comment whatever, grouped in such a way as to produce their own effect without the adventitious aid of rhetoric; and then to leave the reader to his own conclusions.' --Peck.
_Probissimus, honestissimus, eruditissimus vir._
Pliny, _Epist. ad Trai._ 94.
PUBLILIUS SYRUS, circ. 45 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: SYRUS.]
All we know of him is that he was an enfranchised Syrian slave, a native of Antioch, and wrote for the stage _mimes_ (farces) which were performed with great applause. Mime-writing was also practised at this time by the Knight Laberius, and Caesar is said to have patronised these writers in the hope of elevating their art.
2. Works.
+Sententiae+ (_Maxims_). We possess 697 lines from his mimes (unconnected and alphabetically arranged), a collection made in the early Middle Ages, and much used in schools. As proverbs of worldly wisdom, and admirable examples of the terse vigour of Roman philosophy, they are widely known, e.g.
_Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest._
CORNELIUS TACITUS, circ. 54-120 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: TACITUS.]
The personal history of Tacitus is known to us only from allusions in his own works, and from the letters of his friend the younger Pliny. He was born early in the reign of Nero, probably in Rome; his education, political career, and marriage into the distinguished family of Agricola prove that he was a man of wealth and position. He studied rhetoric under the best masters (possibly under Quintilian), and had, as Pliny tells us (_Epist._ II. i. 6), a great reputation as a speaker. He passed through the usual stages of an official career and was appointed _consul suffectus_ under Trajan, 98 A.D., when he was a little over forty. From 89 to 93 A.D. he was absent from Rome, probably in some provincial command, and during these years he may have acquired some personal knowledge of the German peoples. In 100 A.D. he was associated with Pliny in the prosecution for extortion of Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, of whom Juvenal says (_Sat._ viii. 120):
_Cum tenues nuper Marius discinxerit Afros._
_Since Marius has so lately stripped to their girdles_ (i.e. thoroughly plundered) _the needy Africans_.
From this date Tacitus seems to have devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits and to have lived to or beyond the end of Trajan's reign, 116 A.D.
2. Works.
(1) +Dialogus de Oratoribus+, an inquiry into the causes of the decay of oratory, his earliest extant work. In the style of this work the influence of Quintilian and Cicero is strongly seen.
(2) +De Vita et Moribus Iulii Agricolae liber+, an account of the life of his father-in-law, particularly of his career in Britain, published shortly after the accession of Trajan, 98 A.D. 'The Sallustian epoch of Tacitus finds its expression in the _Agricola_ and _Germania_.' --Teuffel.
The _Agricola_ is perhaps the most beautiful biography in ancient literature.
(3) The +Germania+, or _Concerning the Geography, the Manners and Customs, and the Tribes of Germany_, published in 98 or 99. 'The motive for its publication was apparently the pressing importance, in Tacitus' opinion, of the "German question," and the necessity for vigorous action to secure the safety of the Roman Empire against the dangers with which. it was threatened from German strength.' --Stephenson.
'The +Germania+ is an inestimable treasury of facts and generalisations, and of the general faithfulness of the outline we have no doubt.' --Stubbs.
(4) +Historiae+, consisting originally of fourteen Books, is a narrative of the events of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 69-96 A.D. Only Books I-IV and the first half of Book V are extant, and give the history of 69 and most of 70 A.D.
'The style of the _Historiae_ still retains some traces of the influence of Cicero: it has not yet been pressed tight into the short _sententiae_ which were its final and most characteristic development, but shows in a marked degree the influence of Vergil.' --Cruttwell.
In the _Historiae_, as Tacitus himself says, 'the secret of the imperial system was divulged--that an emperor could be made elsewhere than at Rome'; or, in other words, that the imperial system was a military and not a civil institution.
(5) The +Annales, ab excessu divi Augusti+, in sixteen Books, containing the history of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, 14-68 A.D. There are extant only Books I-IV, parts of V and VI, and XI-XVI.
'The old criticism, tracing the characteristics of the style of Tacitus to poetic colouring (almost wholly Vergilian) and to the study of brevity and of variety, is well founded. They may be explained by the fact that he was the most finished pleader of an age which required above all that its orators should be terse, brilliant, and striking, and by his own painful consciousness of the dull monotony and repulsive sadness of great part of his subject, which needed the help of every sort of variety to stimulate the flagging interest of the reader.' --Furneaux.
His aim as an historian is best given in his own words: 'I hold it the chief office of history to rescue virtue from oblivion, and to hold out the reprobation of posterity as a terror to evil words and deeds' (_Ann._ iii. 65).
The greatest of Roman historians.
PUBLIUS TERENTIUS AFER, circ. 185-159 B.C.
1. Life
[Sidenote: TERENCE.]
Terence was born probably at Carthage, reached Rome as a slave-boy, and passed there into the possession of a rich and educated Senator, P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was educated and manumitted, taking from him the name of Publius Terentius the African. 'A small literary circle of the Roman aristocracy admitted young Terence to their intimate companionship; and soon he was widely known as making a third in the friendship of Gaius Laelius with the first citizen of the Republic, the younger Scipio Africanus. Six plays had been subjected to the criticism of this informal academy of letters and produced on the stage, when Terence undertook a prolonged visit to Greece for the purpose of further study. He died of fever in the next year, 159 B.C., at the early age of twenty-six.' --Mackail.
2. Works.
+Comedies.+--All the six plays written and exhibited at Rome by Terence are extant. They are the _Andria_ (exhibited 166 B.C., when the poet was only eighteen years of age), the _Heauton Timoroumenos_, _Eunuchus_, _Phormio_, _Hecyra_, _Adelphoe_.
'With Terence Roman literature takes a new departure. The Scipionic circle believed that the best way to create a national Latin literature was to deviate as little as possible, in spirit, form, and substance, from the works of Greek genius. The task which awaited Terence was the complete Hellenising of Roman comedy: accordingly his aim was to give a true picture of Greek life and manners in the purest Latin style. He was not a popular poet, in the sense in which Plautus was popular: he has none of the purely Roman characteristics of Plautus in sentiment, allusion, or style; none of his extravagance, and none of his vigour and originality.' --Sellar. Terence is, accordingly, in substance and form, as Caesar styles him, a _dimidiatus Menander (halved Menander)_:
_Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander, Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator._
A Roman only in language, but as _puri sermonis amator_ worthy to be ranked by the side of Caesar himself and the purest Latin authors.
ALBIUS TIBULLUS, circ. 54-19 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: TIBULLUS.]
Tibullus was a Roman _eques_, and was probably born at Pedum, a Latin town just at the foot of the Apennines, and a few miles north of Praeneste, where his father possessed an ample estate. Much of his inherited property was lost; and it is possible that, like Vergil, Horace, and Propertius, he was a victim to the confiscations of the Triumvirs in 42 B.C. He, however, retained or recovered enough to afford him a modest competence. In 31-30 B.C. he served on the staff of his life-long friend and patron M. Valerius Messalla, the eminent general and statesman, not less distinguished in literature than in politics. The rest of his short life the poet spent on his ancestral farm at Pedum, amid the country scenes and employments congenial to his nature and habits.
2. Works.
+Elegies+, in four Books (or three, Postgate). Tibullus published in his lifetime two Books of elegiac poems: after his death a third volume was published, containing a few of his own poems, together with poems by other members of the literary circle of Messalla. Books I and II consist mainly of poems addressed to Delia and to Nemesis (cf. Ov. _Am._ III. ix. 31-32):
_Sic Nemesis longum, sic Delia nomen habebunt; Altera cura recens, altera primus amor._
And to Messalla, e.g. _El._ I. vii. 55-6:
_At tibi succrescat proles, quae facta parentis Augeat et circa stet veneranda senem._
3. Style.
'Tibullus is pre-eminently Roman in his genius and poetry. He is the natural poet of warm, tender, and simple feeling. Neither Greek mythology nor Alexandrine learning had any attractions for his purely Italian genius. His language may be limited in range and variety, but it is terse, clear, simple, and popular. His constructions are plain and direct.' --North Pinder.
'To Tibullus belongs the distinction of having given artistic perfection to the Roman elegy.' --Sellar.
_Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans maxime videtur auctor Tibullus._
'_In elegy also we rival the Greeks, of which Tibullus appears to me the purest and finest representative._' --Quint. _Inst. Or._ X. i. 93.
'Tibullus might be succinctly and perhaps not unjustly described as a Vergil without the genius.' --Mackail.
'Tibullus and Vergil are alike in their human affection and their piety, in their capacity of tender and self-forgetful love, in their delight in the labours of the field and their sympathy with the herdsman and the objects of his care.' --Sellar.
_Quid voveat dulci nutricula maius alumno, Qui sapere et fari possit quae sentiat, et cui Gratia, fama valetudo contingat abunde, Et mundus victus, non deficiente crumena!_
Horace to Tibullus, _Epist._ I. iv. 8-11.
_Si tamen e nobis aliquid nisi nomen et umbra Restat, in Elysia valle Tibullus erit._ . . . . . _Ossa quieta, precor, tuta requiescite in urna, Et sit humus cineri non onerosa tuo._
Ovid, _Am._ III. ix. 59-60, 67-8.
C. VALERIUS FLACCUS, fl. 70 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: VALERIUS FLACCUS.]
He lived in the reign of Vespasian (70-78 A.D.), to whom he dedicated his poem, in which he refers to Vespasian's exploits in Britain and to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, 70 A.D. There are also references to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who mentions him (X. i. 90): _Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus_, which shows that he must have died _circ._ 90 A.D.
2. Works.
+The Argonautica+, an Hexameter poem in eight Books, apparently unfinished. The poem is in part a translation, in part a free imitation of the Alexandrine epic of Apollonius Rhodius (222-181 B.C.) 'His descriptive power, particularly shown in touches of natural scenery, his pure diction and correct style have inclined some critics to set Valerius Flaccus above his Greek model.' --North Pinder. The rhetorical treatment of the subject, so characteristic of the period of the decline, is, however, too prominent throughout his work. Both his rhythm and language are closely modelled on Vergil.
VALERIUS MAXIMUS, fl. 26 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: VALERIUS MAXIMUS.]
All that we know of him is that he visited Asia in company with Sextus Pompeius (the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus), _circ._ 27-30 A.D.
2. Works.
+Facta et Dicta Memorabilia+, in nine Books. Each Book is divided into chapters on separate subjects (e.g. _De Severitate_, _De Verecundia_, _De Constantia_), under each of which he gives illustrations from Roman history and from the history of other nations, in order to show the native superiority (as he thinks) of Romans to foreigners, and especially to Greeks. As an historian he is most untrustworthy, but there are many gaps in Roman history (e.g. owing to the lost books of Livy) which he helps to supply. His style shows all the faults of his age and rhetorical training; his work was probably intended to be a commonplace-book for students and teachers of rhetoric.
M. TERENTIUS VARRO, 116-27 B.C.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: VARRO.]
Born at Reate, in the Sabine territory, which was the nurse of all manly virtues, Varro was brought up in the good old-fashioned way. 'For me when a boy,' he says, 'there sufficed a single rough coat and a single under-garment, shoes without stockings, a horse without a saddle.' Bold, frank, and sarcastic, he had all the qualities of the country gentleman of the best days of the Republic. On account of his personal valour he obtained in the war with the Pirates, 67 B.C., where he commanded a division of the fleet, the naval crown. In politics he belonged, as was natural, to the constitutional party, and bore an honourable and energetic part in its doings and sufferings. On the outbreak of the Civil War he served as the legatus of Pompeius in command of Further Spain, but was compelled to surrender his forces to Caesar, 69 B.C. When the cause of the Republic was lost Caesar, who knew Varro's worth, employed him in superintending the collection and arrangement of the great library at Rome designed for public use. After Caesar's death Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius, whose drunken revels and excesses at Varro's villa at Casinum are vividly described by Cicero (_Phil._ ii. 103 sqq.) Through the influence of his many friends Varro obtained the protection of Octavianus, and was enabled to live at Rome in peace until his death, 27 B.C., in his ninetieth year.
2. Works.
Of all the works of Varro, embracing almost all branches of knowledge and literature, only two have come down to us:
(1) The +De Re Rustica+, in three Books, in the form of a dialogue, written in his eightieth year. It was a subject of which he had a thorough practical knowledge, and is the most important of all the treatises upon ancient agriculture now extant. Book I treats of agriculture; Book II of stock-raising; Book III of poultry, game, and fish.
(2) +De Lingua Latina+, in twenty-five Books, of which only V-X have been preserved. These contain much valuable information not found elsewhere, but Varro's notions of etymology are extremely crude.
Of his other works, we have much cause to regret the loss of his +Antiquities of Things Human and Divine+, the standard work on the religious and secular antiquities of Rome down to the time of Augustus, and his +Imagines+, biographical sketches, with portraits, of seven hundred famous Greeks and Romans, the first instance in history of the publication of an illustrated book.
'Varro belongs to the genuine type of old Roman, improved but not altered by Greek learning, with his heart fixed in the past, deeply conservative of everything national, and even in his style of speech protesting against the innovations of the day.' --Cruttwell.
_Omnium facile acutissimus, et sine ulla dubitatione doctissimus._ --Cicero.
_Studiosum rerum tantum docet, quantum studiosum verborum Cicero delectat._ --St. Augustine.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, circ. 19 B.C.-31 A.D.
1. Life.
[Sidenote: VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.]
All we know of him is derived from his own pages. He descended from a distinguished family in Campania, and his father was a Praefectus equitum. He accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, on his mission to the East, and was present at the interview with the Parthian king. Two years afterwards, 4 A.D., he served under Tiberius in Germany as Praefectus equitum. For the next eight years Paterculus served under Tiberius in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Tiberius' sterling qualities as a soldier gained him the friendship of many of his officers, and Velleius by his energy and ability secured that of Tiberius in return. The last circumstance of his life that he records is the election to the praetorship of his brother and himself as candidates of Caesar (Tiberius) in 14 A.D.
2. Works.
The +Historia Romana+ in two Books. The beginning of Book I is lost; chapters 1-8 in our text are occupied with a rapid survey of universal history, especially of the East and of Greece. Chapter 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great gap in the text before we reach in c. 9 the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 B.C. Chapters 9-13 carry the narrative down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth in 146 B.C. Book II continues the history and ends at the death of Livia 27 A.D.
'The pretentiousness of his style is partly due to the declining taste of the period, partly to an idea of his own that he could write in the manner of Sallust. It alternates between a sort of laboured sprightliness and a careless, conversational manner full of endless parentheses. Yet Velleius has two real merits: the eye of a trained soldier for character, and an unaffected, if not a very intelligent, interest in literature.' --Mackail.
P. VERGILIUS MARO, 70-19 B.C.
1. Important Events in Vergil's Life, and Chief Works.
[Sidenote: VERGIL.]
B.C. 70. Born at Andes, near Mantua. " 65. Birth of Horace. " 55. Assumes the _Toga Virilis_ at Cremona. Death of Lucretius. " 53. Studies philosophy at Rome under the Epicurean Siron. " 42. +Eclogues II, III, V+, and perhaps +VI+, written. " 41. Suffers confiscation of his estate. Takes refuge in _Siron's_ villa. Estates restored by Octavianus through Pollio. +Eclogue I+. " 40. Vergil evicted a second time. +Eclogues IV, VI, IX+. Becomes a member of the literary circle of Maecenas. " 39. +Eclogues VIII+ and +X+. " 38. Introduces Horace to Maecenas. " 37. Begins the +Georgics+ at the suggestion of Maecenas. " 29. +Completed Georgics+ read to Octavianus. +Aeneid+ begun. " 27. Augustus Emperor. " 26. Banishment and death of his friend Gallus. " 25. Marriage of Marcellus to Julia, daughter of Augustus. " 23. Death of Marcellus: +Aeneid, Book VI+, read to the Imperial family. " 19. Journey of Vergil to Greece: is taken ill, dies at Brundusium, and is buried at Naples:
_Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces._
2. Works.
(1) +Bucolica+ (Pastoral Poems), ten +Eclogues+ (selected pieces), written 42-39 B.C. These are closely modelled on Theocritus, and have all the weaknesses of imitative poetry. 'The Eclogues of Vergil have less of consistency but more of purpose than the Idylls of Theocritus. They are an advocacy of the charm of scenery and the pleasures of the country addressed to a luxurious and artificial society of dwellers in a town.' --Myers.
(2) +Georgica+, in four Books, written 37-30 B.C., at the suggestion of Maecenas, 'the Home Minister of Augustus, and public patron of art and letters in the interest of the new government.' --Mackail. 'The details of his subject Vergil draws mainly from his Greek predecessors, Hesiod, Xenophon, Aratus, and Nicander, but it is to Lucretius he is chiefly indebted. The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful, and in its way so perfect, is echoed a thousand times in the Georgics.' --Nettleship.
## Book I treats of agriculture, Book II of the cultivation of trees, Book
III of domestic animals, Book IV of bees (including the Myth of Aristaeus, ll. 315-558).
The _purpose of the Georgics_ is to ennoble the annual round of labour in which the rural life was passed and to help the policy of Augustus by inducing the people to go back to the land.
'The motto of the Georgics might well be said to be _Ora et labora_.' --Tyrrell.
'The Georgics represent the art of Vergil in its matured perfection, and in mere technical finish are the most perfect work of Latin literature.' --Mackail.
(3) The +Aeneid+, in twelve Books, written 29-19 B.C.
The _choice of the subject_ was influenced by the wish of Augustus to establish the legendary tradition of the connection of the gens Iulia with Aeneas through his son Iulus, and by Vergil's own desire to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of Homer. Thus 'the centre of the mythical background was naturally Aeneas, as Augustus was the centre of the present magnificence of the Roman Empire. _We surpass all other nations_, says Cicero (_De Nat. Deor._ ii. 8), _in holding fast the belief that all things are ordered by a Divine Providence_. The theme of the _Aeneid_ is the building up of the Roman Empire under this Providence. Aeneas is the son of a goddess, and his life the working out of the divine decrees.' --Nettleship.
_Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento; Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem._
_Aen._ vi. 851-2.
'At a verse from the _Aeneid_, the sun goes back for us on the dial; our boyhood is recreated, and returns to us for a moment like a visitant from a happy dreamland.' --Tyrrell.
'In merely technical quality the supremacy of Vergil's art has never been disputed. The Latin Hexameter, _the stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man_, was brought by him to a perfection which made any further development impossible.' --Mackail.
'As Homer among the Greeks, so Vergil among our own authors will best head the list; he is beyond doubt the second epic poet of either nation.' --Quint. X. i. 85.
'The chastest poet and royalest, Vergilius Maro, that to the memory of man is known.' --Bacon.
APPENDIX VII.
NOTE
The following Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature are intended to illustrate the passages selected for translation. Important events and writers in contemporary History and Literature are added, in order to emphasise the comparative method of treating History.
The names of those Latin authors from whose works passages have been selected are printed in capitals in the Literature Column.
A fuller outline of the Imperial Period will be given in a later volume.
PERIODS OF LATIN LITERATURE.
PERIOD I. The Growth of Latin Literature 250-80 B.C. PERIOD II. The Golden Age of Latin Literature 80 B.C.-14 A.D. PERIOD III. The Silver Age of Latin Literature 14-117 A.D. PERIOD IV. The Later Empire from 117 A.D.
CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINES OF ROMAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE
---------------------------------------- B.C. ROME. OTHER NATIONS. B.C. LITERATURE. B.C. ----------------------------------------
## PART I.--REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B.C.
---------------------------------------- +Foundation of Carthage+ 878 Amos _c._ 760
753 +Foundation of Rome+ Rise of Corinth 745 Isaiah _c._ 720
753-716 ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. _Spolia opima_ (1) Captivity of Israel 721 Hesiod _c._ 700
716-673 NUMA POMPILIUS. Religious Institutions Carentum founded 708
673-640 TULLUS HOSTILIUS. Destruction of _Alba_ Destruction of Sennacherib's host 701 Tyrtaeus (Sparta) _c._ 680 Legend of +Horatii+ and +Curiatii+ Cyrene founded 641 Archilochus. 650
640-616 ANCUS MARTIUS. Conquest of Latin Towns Josiah's reformation 625 Jeremiah _c._ 625 _Ostia_, first maritime colony Periander, tyrant of Corinth 625-585
616-578 TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. Public Works: the _Circus Maximus_, _Cloaca Maxima_, and Temple of Jupiter Draco, the law-giver at Athens 621 Alcaeus } Sappho } 600 Solon } +Massilia founded+ 600
578-534 SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of _Comitia Centuriata_. The Servian Wall includes the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills, i.e. Rome of Republican times. Captivity of Judah 606-536 Solon at Athens 594 Thales 590 Peisistratus at Athens 560-527 Ezekiel 585 Croesus in Lydia 560-546 Aesop _c._ 570
534-509 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of _Gabii_. Tyranny leading to expulsion of the Tarquins and abolition of the monarchy Cyrus enters Babylon 538 Theognis 540 Return of Jews under Zerubbabel 536 Pythagoras 530 Expulsion of Peisistratidae 510 Anacreon 530 ----------------------------------------
## PART II.--EARLY REPUBLIC, 509-366 B.C.
---------------------------------------- 509 +Two Consuls (Praetors) first appointed+ Darius Hystaspes 521-486 Aeschylus 525-456 _Lex Valeria_ establishes right of appeal Pindar 518-_c._ 443
507 Rome taken by Etruscans under Porsena Ionian Revolt 501-493 Heracleitus 500
498 +Latin War. Dictator first appointed.+ Miltiades at Athens 493-489 Simonides (Ceos) 490 Battle of _Lake Regillus_ Ionians defeated at Lade 494
494 First Session of the Plebs. _Tribuni Plebis_ Battle of Marathon 490
489 Volscian War (+Coriolanus+) Aristides and Themistocles 490-470 Parmenides 490
486-5 Agrarian Law. Spurius Cassius put to death Xerxes 485-465 Bacchylides 470
477 Destruction of the +Fabii+ at _Cremera_ Thermopylae. Salamis. Himera 480 Anaxagoras 460
458 War with Aequians--Battle of _Mt. Algidus_ Plataea (Pausanians). Mycale 479 Sophocles 496-406 Cincinnatus Dictator Hiero I at Syracuse 478-467 Euripides 480-406
451 +First Decemvirate. Ten Tables+ Pericles at Athens 469-429 Herodotus _c._ 484-425
450 Second Decemvirate. Two new Tables. (+Appius Claudius+) Cimon at Athens 466-449 _Phidias (Parthenon)_ 448
448 Second Secession of the Plebs, resulting in the _Valerio-Horatian_ Laws Athenian defeat at Coronea 447 Empedocles 445 Ezra and Nehemiah _c._ 444
445 Military tribunes with consular power appointed Athenian colony to Thurii 444 Era of the Sophists 440 (Gorgias, Protagoras)
443 Censors first appointed
439 Spurius Maelius killed
437 War with Etruscans. +Cossus+ wins _Spolia opima_ (2) War of Corinth and Corcyra 435 Antiphon _c._ 480-411
424 Capua taken by the Samnites Peloponnesian War 431-405 Thucydides _c._ 471-402 Sphacteria (Demosthenes, Cleon) 425 _Zeuxis_ } _Parrhasius_} _painters_ _c._ 420 Alcibiades at Athens 424-404 Syracusan Expedition 415-413 Lysias _c._ 445-378
+406-396+ +War with Veii. Camillus Dictator+ Battle of Aegospotami 405 Aristophanes _c._ 450-385
406 Roman soldiers first receive pay Lysander enters Athens 404 Cratinus 449 Critias and Thirty Tyrants 404 Eupolis 429 Democracy restored (Thrasybulus) 403
390 +Invasion of the Gauls+. Battle of the _Allia_ Artaxerxes II 405-359 Burning of Rome (+Brennus+) Expedition of Cyrus the Younger (The _Anabasis_ of Xenophon) 401 +Manlius Capitolinus+. +Camillus+ _Parens Patriae_ Xenophon _c._ 430-355 _History based on documents begins_ Socrates condemned 399 Socrates 468-399
389 Rome rebuilt Dionysius I of Syracuse, Wars of Syracuse and Carthage 405-368 Plato 420-348 Isocrates 436-338
376-366 +The Licinian Laws+ Pelopidas and Epaminondas (Thebes) 378-362 Isaeus 420-348 Supremacy of Thebes (Leuctra) 371 +First Plebeian Consul+ Death of Epaminondas (Mantinea) 362 First Praetor (Judge) appointed ----------------------------------------
## PART III.--THE CONQUEST OF ITALY, 366-266 B.C.
---------------------------------------- 361 Second Invasion of the Gauls Dionysius II of Syracuse 368-343 Diogenes (Cynic) _c._ 419-324 Legend of +Manlius Torquatus+ Battle of Mantinea 362 +Ludi Scenici at Rome+ 365
356 C. Marcius Rutilus, First Plebeian Dictator Philip of Macedon 359-336
349 War with Gauls. Legend of +M. Valerius Corvus+ Dion at Syracuse 357-353 _Praxiteles_ (_sculptor_) _fl._ 360
348 _Treaty of Rome with Carthage_ Olynthus taken by Philip 348 Aeschines 389-314
+343-341+ +First Samnite War+ Demosthenes 384-322 Battle of _Mt. Gaurus_ (M. Valerius Corvus) Aristotle 384-322
+340-338+ +The Latin War+. Devotion of +Decius Mus I+. Battle of Chaeronea 338 _Apelles_ (_painter_) 336 Battle of _Mt. Vesuvius_
339 _Leges Publiliae. Supremacy of Comitia Tributa_ +Alexander the Great+ 336-323
+326-304+ +Second Samnite War (C. Pontius)+ Battle of Issus 333 Menander 344-292
321 +Caudine Forks+. The Yoke Foundation of Alexandria 332
311 Appius Claudius, Censor. The _Via Appia_ Battle of Arbela 331
+311-309+ Etruscan War. First Battle at _Lake Vadimo_ Alexander's Successors } Battle of Ipsus (301) } 323-301
305 Battle of _Bovianum_
+298-290+ +Third Samnite War+ Ptolemy I (Soter) 323-285 Euclid _fl._ 300 Agathocles at Syracuse 317-289 Theophrastus _c._ 384-277
295 Battle of _Sentinum_. Devotion of +Decius Mus II+. Demetrius Poliorcetes 308-283 Zeno, the Stoic _c._ 366-264
287 Last Secession of the Plebs Rhodes powerful 300-200 Epicurus 341-270
287 _Lex Hortensia. Legislative power of Comitia Tributa finally established_ _Political distinction between the Patricians and Plebeians now at an end_ Aetolian League 284-167 Theocritus _fl._ 280
283 Renewed Etruscan and Gallic War Achaean League 280-146 Bion and Moschus _fl._ 270 Second Battle at _Lake Vadimo_
+281-275+ +War with Tarentines and Pyrrhus+
280 Battle of _Heraclea_. Victory of the phalanx Gauls in Greece 280-278
279 Battle of _Asculum_. +Fabricius the Just+ Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) 285-247 _Septuagint_ _c._ 277
278 +Rome and Carthage allied+
277 Pyrrhus masters nearly all Sicily
275 Battle near _Beneventum_ (+M'. Curius Dentatus+) Pyrrhus returns to Epirus
273 Treaty of Rome with Egypt. _Recognition of Rome as one of the great powers_ _Aratus_ (_astronomer_) _fl._ 270
272 Pyrrhus killed at Argos. Surrender of Tarentum
266 +All Italy (south of the Apennines) Roman+ ----------------------------------------
## PART IV.--THE CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C.
---------------------------------------- +264-241+ +First Punic War+
263 +Hiero of Syracuse+ joins Rome +Hiero of Syracuse+ 269-219
261 Romans build a fleet
260 Naval victory of +Duilius+ near _Mylae_ Aratus, General of Achaean League 245 Callimachus _fl._ 260 _Columna Rostrata_
256 Naval victory of +Regulus+ at _Ecnomus_ ---------------------------------------- LATIN LITERATURE. B.C. ---------------------------------------- PROSE. ---------------------------------------- VERSE. ---------------------------------------- PERIOD I.--THE GROWTH OF LATIN LITERATURE, 250-80 B.C. ---------------------------------------- 255 Regulus defeated by Xanthippus of Sparta
250 Roman victory at _Panormus_ (Metellus)
249 Carthaginian victory at _Drepana_ (Claudius)
248-241 +Hamilcar Barca+ in Sicily Ptolemy III (Euergetes) 247-222
241 Victory of Lutatius off the _Aegates Insulae_ _Peace with Carthage_ +Sicily made a Roman Province+ (1) Livius Andronicus (_fl._ 240)
241-238 War of Carthage with her Mercenaries +Corsica and Sardinia made a Roman Province+ (2) Naevius (_fl._ 235)
236-228 +Hamilcar in Spain. Hannibal's oath+
230-229 Illyrian War. (Queen Teuta) Athens joins Achaean League 229
228 Corinth admits the Romans to the Isthmian Games +Roman Embassy to Greece+ 228 +Hasdrubal+ succeeds Hamilcar in Spain _Founds New Carthage_. The _Iberus_ (_Ebro_) fixed as the Carthaginian boundary
225-223 Gallic rising (Boii and Insubres) Reforms of Cleomenes at Sparta 226-5 Great victory near _Telamon_
222 Victory over the Insubres at _Clastidium_ Aratus and Antigonus take Sparta 221 +M. Marcellus+ wins the _spolia opima_ (3) Subjugation of Gaul south of the Alps Antiochus the Great (Syria) 224-187
221 +Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal in Spain+
219 Hannibal takes _Saguntum_ (ally of Rome) Ptolemy IV (Philopator) 222-205
+218-202+ +Second Punic War+ Philip V (Macedon) 221-179 PLAUTUS (254-184)
218 Hannibal crosses the Alps Battles of the _Ticinus_ and _Trebia_
217 Battle of _Lake Trasimene_. Death of +Flaminius+ +Q. Fabius Maximus, Dictator+ +Philip allied with Hannibal+ 216 Fabius Pictor (_fl._ 216) ENNIUS (239-169)
216 Battle of _Cannae_. Death of +Paulus+
216-211 +Revolt of Capua+
215 Marcellus saves Nola First Macedonian War 214-205
214-212 +Siege and Capture of Syracuse by Marcellus+ +Death of Archimedes+ 212
212 P. & Cn. Scipio defeated by Hasdrubal Loss of Spain south of the Ebro Hannibal seizes Tarentum
211-206 +P. Cornelius Scipio+ (Africanus Maior) in Spain Rome allied with Aetolians 211
210 Scipio surprises New Carthage
208 +Hasdrubal+ (son of Hamilcar) eludes Scipio and crosses the Pyrenees to join Hannibal Philopoemen, General of Achaean League 208-183
207 +Defeat and Death of Hasdrubal at the Metaurus (Nero)+
204 Scipio goes to Africa: blockades _Utica_ +Peace of Rome with Philip+ 205
203 +Hannibal recalled: leaves Italy+
202 Battle of _Zama_. Peace made ----------------------------------------
## PART V.--FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY, 200-183 B.C.
---------------------------------------- +200-196+ +Second Macedonian War+
197 Battle of _Cynoscephalae_ (+Flaminius+)
196 _Proclamation of the Freedom of Greece_
195 Hannibal takes refuge with Antiochus Cato (234-149)
200-191 War with Insubrian and Boian Gauls +Gallia Cisalpina a Roman Province+ (3) Antiochus in Greece 192
+191-190+ +War with Antiochus of Syria+
191 Battle of _Thermopylae_ (+Cato+)
190 Battle of _Magnesia_. (L. Scipio and Domitius) Hannibal with Prusias, King of Bithynia 190-183 PACUVIUS (220-132)
184 +Censorship of Cato+
183 _Deaths of Hannibal, Scipio and Philopoemen_
179 T. Sempronius Gracchus in Spain War of Antiochus and Egypt 172-168
+171-168+ +Third Macedonian War (Perseus)+
168 Battle of _Pydna_ (+Aemilius Paulus+) Judas Maccabaeus (a treaty with Rome, 161) 166-161 TERENCE (185-159) Egypt accepts the protectorate of Rome
+149-146+ +Third Punic War (Scipio Africanus Minor)+ _Destruction of Carthage_ LUCILIUS (180-103)
148-146 War with Andriscus (the pseudo-Philip) and the Achaeans. _Destruction of Corinth_ (+Mummius+)
148 +Macedonia made a Roman Province+ (4) +Illyricum made a Roman Province+ (5)
149-140 War with +Viriathus+, the Lusitanian Hero Judaea free from Syrian control (Simon Maccabaeus) 142
143-133 +Numantine War+
133 _Destruction of Numantia_ (Scipio Africanus Minor) Accius (_c._ 170-90) +Roman Province in Spain+ (7) +Achaia made a Roman Province+ (8)
133 Attalus III bequeaths the Kingdom of Pergamum to Rome. This becomes the +Roman Province of Asia+ (9) ----------------------------------------
## PART VI.--PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, ETC. 133-44 B.C.
---------------------------------------- 133-121 Attempted reforms (_Leges Semproniae_) of the Gracchi
133 Agrarian Law of +Tiberius Gracchus+ John Hyrcanus subdues Idumea and Samaria 129 Murder of Tib. Gracchus (P. Scipio Nasica) First civil bloodshed in Rome
131 _Two plebeian Consuls_ (the first time)
129 Death of Scipio Africanus Minor (Carbo suspected)
123-2 +Tribunate of C. Gracchus+ _Roman Colony sent to Carthage_ 123
121 Death of C. Gracchus Conquest of S. Gaul. +Province of Narbonensis+ (10) +Mithridates (Pontus)+ 120-63 Afranius (_fl._ 100)
118 Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia
+111-106+ +The Jugurthine War (Metellus, Marius, Sulla)+ Conquests of Mithridates on the Black Sea 112-110
106 Jugurtha betrayed to Sulla
105 The Cimbrians defeat the Romans at _Arausio_
102 Marius defeats Teutones at _Aquae Sextiae_
101 Marius (with Catulus) defeats Cimbri at _Vercellae_
100 Marius Consul a sixth time Sulla on the Euphrates 92
91 +Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus+
91-81 +The Social or Marsic War+ +Tigranes+ (_Armenia_) 95-60
90 _Lex Iulia_, granting the _civitas_ to the Italian States not in rebellion
89 Battle of _Asculum_
+88-86+ +First Civil War (between Marius and Sulla)+ ---------------------------------------- PERIOD II.--THE GOLDEN AGE OF LATIN LITERATURE, 80 B.C.-14 A.D. ---------------------------------------- 88 Sulla occupies Rome. _First invasion of Rome by a Roman army_
87-84 +Cinnan revolution+. Marius' reign of terror
+88-84+ +First Mithridatic War. (Sulla)+
88 Massacre of Romans in Asia
86 Victory at _Chaeronea_. Sulla takes Athens Death of Marius
85 Victory at _Orchomenus_ Tigranes at war with Rome 86-85 LUCRETIUS (97-53)
84 _Peace of Dardanus with Mithridates_
+83-82+ +Second Civil War (between Marius and Sulla)+
82 Death of the younger Marius. _Sulla Felix_
83-81 _The Sullan Proscriptions_ Second Mithridatic War (Murena) Pompeius in Africa: triumphs as an Eques 81
81-79 Sulla Dictator. _Leges Corneliae_
80 +Cilicia made a Roman Province+ (11)
78 Death of Sulla
+78-72+ +War with Sertorius in Spain (Pompeius)+ Pharisees supreme in Judaea 78 Sisenna (_fl._ 78)
75 Mithridates in alliance with Sertorius
74 +Bithynia made a Roman Province+ (12) _Nicomedes leaves Bithynia to Rome_ 75 VARRO (116-27)
72 Betrayal and murder of Sertorius
+73-71+ +War with Spartacus and his gladiators+
71 Death of Spartacus (Crassus and Pompeius)
+74-63+ +Third Mithridatic War (Lucullus, Pompeius)+
72 Victory of _Cabira_ (Pontus). Lucullus reforms the province of Asia (hence unpopular with Equites) CATULLUS (84-54)
70 +First Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus+ Overthrow of the Sullan Constitution
69 Victory at _Tigranocerta_ (capital of Armenia) NEPOS (100-24)
67 Mutiny of Lucullus' soldiers. Mithridates recovers Pontus Rome interferes in Palestine 65 SALLUST (86-34) _Lex Gabinia_. Pompeius destroys the Pirates
66 _Lex Manilia_. Lucullus superseded by Pompeius Victory of _Nicopolis_ (Armenia). _Peace with Tigranes_ CICERO (106-43)
64 +Syria made a Roman Province+ (13)
63 Pompeius takes Jerusalem Death of Mithridates
63 +Cicero Consul+. Catiline's conspiracy crushed Cicero saluted as _Pater Patriae_
61 Pompeius' great Triumph
60 +First Triumvirate+ (Pompeius, Caesar, Crassus)
59 +Caesar's first Consulship+. The _Leges Iuliae_
+58-50+ +Caesar in Gaul+ (in Britain 55 and 54 B.C.) +Gaul divided into three Provinces+ (14, 15, 16) CAESAR (102-44)
58-57 Cicero's banishment and return A. Hirtius (ob. 43)
56 Conference of the Triumvirs at _Luca_
55 Second Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus
53 Disaster at _Carrhae_. Death of Crassus
52 +Pompeius sole Consul+ till August 1st
51-50 Cicero Governor of Cilicia
+49-45+ +Third Civil War (between Caesar and Pompeius)+
49 Caesar crosses the _Rubicon_
49 Caesar's successful campaign round _Lerida_ (Spain)
49 _Massilia_ surrenders to Caesar
49 Defeat and death of Curio in Africa
48 Caesar's unsuccessful investment of _Dyrrachium_ +Cleopatra+ 69-30
48 Battle of _Pharsalus_. Murder of Pompeius
47 Alexandrine War. Settlement of Asia
46 Battle of _Thapsus_. Death of Cato
45 Caesar sole Consul. Battle of _Munda_ (Spain) PUB. SYRUS (_fl._ 45)
44 +Murder of Caesar+ ---------------------------------------- IMPERIAL PERIOD. ---------------------------------------- 43 +Second Triumvirate+ (Lepidus, Antonius, Octavianus) Herod the Great in Judaea 37-4 Pollio (_fl._ 40) VERGIL (70-19)
42 Battle of _Philippi_ (Brutus and Cassius)
31 Battle of _Actium_ (Antonius and Cleopatra) +Egypt a Roman Province+ (17) HORACE (65-8) 27 B.C.-14 A.D. OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS TIBULLUS (54-19)
23 Death of +Marcellus+ LIVY (59 B.C.-18 A.D.) PROPERTIUS (49-15)
20 Parthians restore standards BIRTH OF CHRIST B.C. 4 OVID (43 B.C.-18 A.D.)
A.D. 9 Destruction of army under Varus (Arminius) ---------------------------------------- PERIOD III.--THE SILVER AGE, 14-117 A.D. ---------------------------------------- 14-37 TIBERIUS
37-41 CALIGULA
41-54 CLAUDIUS Pontius Pilate in Judaea 26-36 V. PATERCULUS (_fl._ 20) MANILIUS (_fl._ 12)
43-51 Conquest of Britain CRUCIFIXION 30 VAL. MAXIMUS (_fl._ 26) PHAEDRUS (_fl._ 30-40)
Boadicea in Britain 61 SENECA (4 B.C.-65 A.D.) PERSIUS (34-62)
54-68 NERO Rome burnt 64
68-69 GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS PETRONIUS (_ob._ 66) LUCAN (39-65)
70-78 VESPASIAN. (Colosseum built)
79-81 TITUS Titus destroys Jerusalem 70 PLINY I. (23-79) VAL. FLACCUS (_ob._ 90)
79 Eruption of Vesuvius (Herculaneum and Pompeii)
81-96 DOMITIAN Agricola subdues Britain 78-85
93 Death of +Agricola+ (father-in-law of Tacitus) QUINTILIAN (_c._ 35-95)
96-98 NERVA FRONTINUS (_c._ 41-103) STATIUS (_ob._ 95)
98-116 TRAJAN _Greatest extent of Roman Empire_ TACITUS (_c._ 55-120) PLINY II. (61-113) SILIUS (25-101) MARTIAL (_c._ 40-102)
117-138 HADRIAN Hadrian's wall 121 FLORUS (_fl._ 137) JUVENAL (_c._ 55-138)
138-160 ANTONINUS PIUS SUETONIUS (_c._ 75-160) JUSTINUS (_c._ 150)
161-180 MARCUS AURELIUS Wall of Antonine 140 A. GELLIUS (_fl._ 169) ---------------------------------------- PERIOD IV.--THE LATER EMPIRE, FROM 117 A.D. ----------------------------------------
274-337 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT Council of _Nicaea_ 325 NEMESIANUS (_fl._ 284) TER. MAURUS (_c._ 300) AUSONIUS (_fl._ 379)
395-1453 +Byzantine Empire+ Romans leave Britain 409-420
408-410 +Alaric+ the Goth at Rome (Stilicho) Hengist and Horsa (Kent) 449 EUTROPIUS (_fl._ 375) CLAUDIAN (_fl._ 400)
451 +Attila+ the Hun defeated at Chalons Constantinople taken by Turks 1453
455 +Genseric+ the Vandal at Rome Augustine (354-430) PRUDENTIUS (_fl._ 404)
476 +Odoacer+ at Rome. +Western Empire ends+ Rutilius (_fl._ 416)
INDEX
_The numbers refer to pages throughout._
Ablative Absolute, 12, 58 +Aegates Insulae+, battle off, 114 +Alban Lake+, its rise, 79 +Alesia+, siege of, 202 +Allia+, battle of the, 81, 82 Analysis, help through, 6, 23, 47 +Andriscus+, war with, 156 +Antiochus+, his overthrow, 149 +Antonius+, attacked by Cicero, 230; causes the murder of Cicero, 230, 232 +Appius Claudius+, his speech against peace with Pyrrhus, 102 +Aquae Sextiae+, Teutones annihilated at, 164 +Archelaus+, defeated at Chaeronea, 172; at Orchomenus, 173 +Archimedes+, his engineering skill, 137; the Tomb of Archimedes, 54 +Arpinum+, birthplace of Cicero and Marius, 163 +Asculum+ (Apulia), battle of, 103 +Asculum+ (Picenum), outbreak of Social War at, 108; battle near, 169
+Beneventum+, battle near, 103 +Bovianum+, battle of, 98
+Caesar+, personal appearance and physical powers, 186; captured by pirates, studies oratory at Rhodes, 187; curule aedile, propraetor, 192; first triumvirate, consul, 195; campaigns in Gaul and Britain, 196-202; civil war with Pompeius, 209-224; dines with Cicero, 225; his death, 226; his character, 227-229; life of, 293-296 +Camillus+, capture of Veii, 80; delivers Rome from the Gauls, 85; stays migration to Veii, 86 +Capua+, the revolt and punishment of, 133, 134 +Carrhae+, battle of, 206, 207 +Carthage+, its foundation, 109; the building of, 110; wars between Rome and, 108-146; destruction of, 155 +Cassivellaunus+, submission of, to Caesar, 199 +Catiline+, his conspiracy, 193; his end, 194 +Cato Major+, his character, 151, 152; life of, 296 +Cato Uticensis+, his character, 224; his death, 223 +Caudine Forks+, the Romans entrapped and sent under the yoke, 95, 96 +Chaeronea+, battle of, 172 +Cicero+, his first and only campaign, 169; impeaches Verres, 188; speech against Catiline, 193; his banishment and return, 203, 204; his recantation, 205; governor of Cilicia, 208; speech against Antonius, 230; his death, 232; his character, 231, 233; life of, 297-300 +Cincinnatus+, called from the plough, 74 +Claudius Pulcher+, his defeat off Drepana, 113 Cognates, 4, 5, 44, 45, 267-8 +Colline Gate+, battle at the, 174 Compound Words, 3-5 Conjunctions, 274-6 +Corinth+, destruction of, 156 +Coriolanus+ and his mother Veturia, 72 +Corvus, M. Valerius+, hero of Mt. Gaurus, 91 +Cossus, A. Cornelius+, wins _spolia opima_, 77 +Crassus+, member of First Triumvirate, 195; his defeat at Carrhae, 206, 207 +Cremera+ (River), Fabii destroyed at the, 73 +Cynoscephalae+, battle of, 147
+Dardanus+, peace of, 173 +Decius Magius+, his defiance of Hannibal, 133 +Decius Mus+ (the elder), his self-sacrifice at battle of Mt. Vesuvius, 92 +Decius Mus+ (the younger), his self-sacrifice at battle of Sentinum, 99 +Dentatus, M'. Curius+, an old-time Roman, 105 +Drepana+, battle off, 113 +Drusus, M. Livius+, his tribuneship, 167 +Duilius+, his naval victory near Mylae, 112 +Dyrrachium+, Caesar's lines of circumvallation, 216; plan of, _opposite_ 216
+Elissa+ (+Dido+), foundress of Carthage, 109 English Derivatives, help through, 1, 2, 21, 29, 30
+Fabii+, destruction of, 73 +Fabius Maximus Cunctator+, his character, 127; and his Master of the Horse, 128 +Fabricius+ the Just, 101 +Flamininus+ proclaims the freedom of Greece, 148 +Flaminius+, his defeat at Lake Trasimene, 124-126; his death, 126 +Floralia+, origin of, 88 French Derivatives, help through, 2, 3, 29, 30
+Gaurus+ (Mount), battle of, 91 +Gergovia+, siege of, 201 +Gracchi+, The, 160, 161
+Hannibal+, his oath, 115; his character, 116, 117; lays siege to Saguntum, 118; his dream and its interpretation, 119; his march from Spain to Italy, 120-122; his victory at the Trebia, 123; at Lake Trasimene, 124-126; at Cannae, 129, 130; the advice of Maharbal, 131; at Capua, 133, 134; leaves Italy, 144; his overthrow at Zama, 145, 146; his death, 150 +Hasdrubal+, his defeat and death at the Metaurus, 143 +Heraclea+, battle of, 100 +Horatius Cocles+, his defence of the Sublician bridge, 67, 68
+Jugurtha+, his betrayal, 162
+Lepidus, M. Aemilius+, speech against Sulla, 178 +Lerida+, campaign round, 213 +Liciuius+, first plebeian consul, 87 +Lucullus+, character and early career, 181; his wealth, 182; surnamed Ponticus, 184 +Lutatius+, his victory off the Aegates Insulae, 114
+Magnesia+, battle of, 149 +Maharbal+ urges Hannibal to advance on Rome, 131 +Manlius Capitolinus+, his fate, 84 +Manilus, L.+, and his son Torquatus, 89 +Marcellus+ saves Nola from Hannibal, 135; his lament over Syracuse, 138; his death, 139 +Marius+, Cicero on, 163; annihilates Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 164; seven times consul, 165; outlived his fame, 165 +Marius the Younger+, death of, 175 +Massilia+, siege of, 214 +Menenius Agrippa+, harangues the Plebs, 71 Metaphors, 13, 14 +Metaurus+, Nero's march to the, 142; battle of the, 143 +Mithridates+, his youth and early training, 171; his preparations for conquest, 171 +Mucius+ (Scaevola), loss of his right hand, 69 +Mummius Achaicus+ destroys Corinth, 156 +Mylae+, naval battle near, 112
+Nero+, his march to the Metaurus, 142; his victory over Hasdrubal, 143 +Nervii, The+, overthrown by Caesar, 196 +Numantia+ destroyed, 158 +Numa Pompilius+, 62
Order of words in Latin, 9, 10
+Papirius Cursor+ and his Master of the Horse, 94 Parallelism, use of, in Ovid, 27 Parataxis, use of, in Ovid, 26
## Participles, how to translate, 11, 12
Passive in English for Latin Active, 11 +Paulus L. Aemilius+, his victory at Pydna, 153, 154 Period, the, 7-9 +Perseus+, King of Macedon, his overthrow, 153, 154 +Pharsalus+, battle of, 217-219; plan of, _opposite_ 218 +Philip+, King of Macedon, his overthrow, 147 +Philopoemen+, death of, 150 Phrases for Latin Prose Composition, 45 +Pompeius+, character and career to 66 B.C., 185; campaign against the pirates and Mithridates, 189-191; coalition with Caesar, 195; civil war with Caesar, 209-222; dream on the eve of Pharsalus, 217; ill-advised at Pharsalus, 218; his death, 220; Cato's eulogy on, 221; his grave, 222 +Porsenna, Lars+, attack upon Rome, 67-69 Prefixes, 4, 22, 277-281 Punctuation a help to translation, 6 +Pydna+, battle of, 153, 154 +Pyrrhus+, his aims, 100; defeats the Romans at Heraclea, 100; victorious at Asculum but routed near Beneventum, 103; his death and eulogy, 104
+Regillus, Lake+, battle of, 70 +Regulus+, his embassy, 111 _Res_, different meanings of, 11, 33-34, 41 +Rome+, position of, 65 +Romulus+, the passing of, 61 +Rutilius+, defeat and death of, 169
+Sacriportus+, battle of, 174 +Saguntum+, siege of, 118 Scansion and Metre, a help to translation, 6 +Scipio Major+, prevents Nobles from abandoning Italy, 131; his character, 140; takes New Carthage, 141; his victory at Zama, 145, 146; his death, 150 +Scipio Minor+, destroys Carthage, 135; Numantia, 158 +Sentinum+, battle of, 99 +Sertorius+, and his Fawn, 179; his career and death, 180 +Spartacus+, war with, 183 Style, helps to, 13, 14 Suffixes, 4, 282-286 +Sulla+, his character and bearing, 170; his proscriptions, 175; his brilliant tactics at Chaeronea, 172; capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 173; victory at Orchomenus, 173; concludes peace with Mithridates, 173; defeats Marians at Sacriportus, 174; and at battle of the Colline Gate, 174; surnamed Felix, 175; dictator, abdication and death, 176; his legislation, 177 +Syracuse+, description of, 136; siege and fall of, 137, 138
+Tarentum+, Horace in praise of, 106 +Tarquinius Superbus+, purchase of the Sibylline books, 63 +Tarquinius, Sextus+, at Gabii, 64 +Teutones+, annihilated at Aquae Sextiae, 164 +Thermopylae+, battle of, 149 Translation, helps to, 5-12 +Trasimene+, battle of, 124-126 +Trebia+, battle at, 123
+Veii+, conquest of, 80 +Veneti+, naval battle with, 197 +Vercingetorix+, Gallic rising under, 200; his last fight, 202 +Verginia+, the consequences of her death, 76 +Verres+, prosecuted by Cicero, 188 +Vesuvius+, Mount, battle of, 92, 93 +Viriathus+, war with, 157 Vocabulary, helps to, 1-5 Vowel changes of Verbs, 3-4
+Zama+, battle of, 145, 146
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* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
_Format of E-Text_
In Appendixes I-IV, +boldface+ markup of Latin words and word elements was omitted for readability. English translations retain their _italic_ markup.
In the Demonstrations, sentence breaks were marked with || in the body text corresponding to Roman numerals in the margin. These numerals are shown _between_ paired lines as |IV|, or in braces {IV} when the lines were not used.
Internal references using page numbers are supplemented in double brackets as [[Selection C17]] or [[Introduction 6 (2)]].
_Line Numbers_
Reading passages were printed with marginal line numbers starting from 1 at the top of each page. A page might contain one or more selections, but readings never crossed page breaks. Line numbers have been variously handled:
All markings of line 1 were omitted.
In the six Demonstrations, line numbers are not used in the explanatory text, so they were omitted. In the Miscellaneous Passages, which have no linenotes, line numbers were omitted in all prose and in the shorter verse selections.
In prose passages labeled B, C, D, line numbers by multiples of 5 were printed in the margin. They are shown here in {braces} within the body text. Where a word was split at line break, the number comes after the complete word.
In verse passages, lines have been renumbered to match the actual line numbers as cited in the text. Selections from the Hallam edition of Ovid's _Fasti_ (see below) are numbered from 1 within each passage.
Any cross-references containing line numbers have been correspondingly changed.
_The Hallam Edition of Ovid's Fasti_
This expurgated edition was produced in 1882 for the use of boys at Harrow. Hallam's Preface says:
I have cut out all passages unfit for a boy to read, and renumbered all the lines in text and references, and it seemed best not to put the old numbering side by side with the new, except in the Grammatical Appendices. It has been necessary to alter the text, though very slightly, in about six places.
In some books, cuts are substantial: ii. 701-710 (reading D5B, page 64) is 543-552 in Hallam. For this e-text, the original line number is shown in double brackets after the cited Hallam number; when the original number was used, the Hallam number is shown in the same way.
_Errata_ (noted by transcriber)
CONTENTS
149 A. ... Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 4 [ii. 4.]
LIST OF AUTHORS
Livy, 32, 40 ... 246, 265 [265,]
INTRODUCTION
Satan exalted sat."' [final ' missing] +13. Additional Hints.+ [final . missing]
DEMONSTRATIONS
I: [Table] ... subsidio misit. [. missing] II: even although [text unchanged] III: P. Corn. Sulla, the Praetor, [final comma missing] +dimidia+ [Rt]+med-+, +mid-+ = _middle_ [+mid-+,] VI: +cylindro+ = _a cylinder_, #kulindros#. [. for ,] [Footnote 19: Also the birthplace of Marius. Cf. p. 163.] ["p" (for "page") invisible]
TRANSLATION PASSAGES
D9 Linenote 24. ... Plunged headlong in the tide. --Macaulay [mismatched close quote at end]
D23B Linenote 20 ... Cf. the Saxon Chronicle. [final . missing]
D24 Linenote 23. [32]
D30 Linenote 11. ... spectator, umpire. [final . missing]
D33A Linenote 4. +cui+, i.e. [final . missing]
D43 THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3). [closing ) missing]
C19 [Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note.] [p, 124]
C24B +Parallel Passage.+ [, for .]
C27B Linenote 19. ... Cf. our 'commercial travellers.' [closing ' missing]
C28 +Context.+ The plebs in Nola ... [extraneous open quote at 'The...]
C31 Linenote 22. +formis+ ... [line number missing]
C43 Linenote 18. ... (+in carcere+, l. 19) [l. 23]
B6 Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est [' for "] ... vanum depone furorem." [closing " missing]
B9A Linenote 7. ... the solemn festival [festvial]
B17B SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 77. [SEUTONIUS]
B36 Linenote 21. [19]
B40 +Caesar In Britain.+ [printed as if note to (nonexistent) line 24]
B46 Linenote 19-20. +ut imperi ... extremum+ [_spelling unchanged: body text has "imperii"_]
B51 qui si improbasset [_syllable "im" crossed out by hand: readings of this passage include both "probasset" and "in(im-)probasset"]
B63 +Cato Uticensis.+ ... 'Victrix causa ... Catoni.' --W. F. [opening ' missing]
MISCELLANEOUS PASSAGES
SENECA, _Medea_ 920. [_passage is more often numbered 931_] STATIUS, _Silvae_, III. ii. 1-20, 42-53, 61-66. [II. ii.] PERSIUS, _Sat._ v. 19-25, 30-40. [_text shown as printed: passage quoted is ll. 30-40_] ANDROMEDA (2) B. [. missing] Tibullus: _Birthday Wishes._ B. [final . missing] Trimalchio's Supper B. 'quod dixero ... "Numquid alius scit hanc condituram vitreorum?" Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus.' [_as printed:_ 'quod dixero ... 'Numquid alius scit hanc condituram vitreorum?' Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus.] MARTIALIS APOPHORETA (2). IX _Catella Gallicana._ [, for .]
APPENDIXES
V LIVY, xxii. 6: 'En' inquit 'hic ... foede civium dabo. [closing ' missing] VI Sallust: His style is, however ['His style]
APPENDIX VII (Chronological Outlines)
Carthaginian victory at _Drepana_ [Cathaginian]
149-146 B.C.: _Destruction of Carthage_ 148 B.C.: +Macedonia made a Roman Province+ (4) +Illyricum made a Roman Province+ (5) 133 B.C.: +Roman Province in Spain+ (7) +Achaia made a Roman Province+ (8)
[Province #6 is missing. By this text's numbering, Africa (146 BC) should have been #4, with Macedonia and Illyricum as #5 and #6.]
Wall of Antonine [_text unchanged_]
[Text shown in {braces} is conjectural. In the printed book, the rightmost part of some pages was lost in the gutter.]
ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. _Spolia opima_ {(1)} SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of _Com{itia} Centuriata_. The Servian Wall includes {the} Quirinal ... TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of _Gabii_. Tyran{ny} leading to expulsion of the Tarquins and aboli{tion} of the monarchy Two new Tables. (+Ap{pius} Claudius+) ... resulting in {the} _Valerio-Horatian_ Laws
INDEX
+Mummius Achaicus+ destroys Corinth, 156 [, missing]
End of Project Gutenberg's Helps to Latin Translation at Sight, by Edmund Luce