part C
. P. chrome green, medium.
Seal Brown.—Ten parts burnt umber; 2 parts golden ocher, light; 1 part burnt sienna.
Snuff Brown.—Equal parts burnt umber and golden ocher, light.
Terra Cotta.—Two parts white lead; 1 part burnt sienna; also 2 parts French ocher to 1 part Venetian red.
Turkey Red.—Strong Venetian red or red oxide.
Tuscan Red. Ordinary.—Nine parts Indian red to 1 part rose pink.
Brilliant.—Four parts Indian red to 1 part red madder lake.
Violet.—Three parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts rose lake; 1 part best ivory black.
Yellow.—Four and one-half parts tin ashes; 1 part crude antimony; 1
## part litharge; and 1 part red ocher.
Yellow, Amber.—Ten parts medium chrome yellow; 7 parts burnt umber; 3 parts burnt sienna.
Yellow, Canary.—Five parts white lead; 2 parts permanent yellow; 1 part lemon chrome yellow.
Yellow, Golden.—Ten parts lemon chrome yellow; 3 parts orange chrome, dark; 5 parts white lead.
Yellow, Brimstone.—Three parts white lead; 1 part lemon chrome yellow; 1 part permanent yellow. {558}
Azure Blue.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue.
Blue Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts Prussian blue; 1 part lampblack.
Bright Blue.—Twenty parts zinc white; 1 part imitation cobalt blue.
Blue Grass.—Seven parts white lead; 2 parts Paris green; 1 part Prussian blue.
Deep Blue.—Fifteen parts white lead; 1 part Prussian blue or Antwerp blue.
French Blue.—Five parts imitation cobalt blue; 2 parts French zinc white.
Green Blue.—One hundred parts white lead; 5 parts lemon chrome yellow; 3 parts ultramarine blue.
Hazy Blue.—Sixty parts white lead; 16 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part burnt sienna.
Mineral Blue.—Five parts white lead; 4 parts imitation cobalt blue; 2 parts red madder lake; 1 part best ivory or drop black.
Orient Blue.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 2 parts Prussian blue; 1
## part lemon chrome yellow.
Royal Blue.—Thirty-four parts white lead; 19 parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts Prussian blue; 1 part rose madder or rose lake.
Sapphire Blue.—Two parts French zinc white and 1 part best Chinese blue.
Sky Blue.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part Prussian blue.
Solid Blue.—Five parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue.
Turquoise Blue.—Twenty parts white lead; 3 parts ultramarine blue; 1
## part lemon chrome yellow.
«RED TINTS:»
Cardinal Red.—Equal parts of white lead and scarlet lake.
Carnation Red.—Fifteen parts white lead; 1 part scarlet lake.
Claret.—Twenty-one parts oxide of zinc; 4 parts crocus martis; 4 parts oxide of chrome; 3 parts red lead; 3 parts boracic acid.
Coral Pink.—Fifteen parts white lead; 2 parts bright vermilion; 1 part deep orange chrome.
Deep Rose.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part red lake.
Deep Purple.—Five parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1 part rose pink.
Deep Scarlet.—Fifteen parts bright vermilion; 2 parts red lake; 5 parts white lead.
Flesh Pink.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part orange chrome yellow; 1 part red lake.
Indian Pink.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part light Indian red.
Lavender.—Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part red lake.
Light Pink.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part bright vermilion.
Lilac.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part best rose pink.
Mauve.—Fifteen parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part carmine lake or red lake.
Orange Pink.—Two parts white lead; 1 part dark orange chrome or American vermilion.
Purple.—Five parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part red madder lake.
Royal Pink.—Five parts white lead; 1 part carmine lake or red madder lake.
Royal Rose.—Twenty parts white lead; 1 part rich rose lake.
Red Brick.—Ten parts white lead; 3 parts light Venetian red; 1 part yellow ocher.
Reddish Terra Cotta.—Two parts white lead; 1 part rich burnt sienna.
Salmon.—Fifty parts white lead; 5 parts deep orange chrome.
Shell Pink.—Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts bright vermilion; 1 part orange chrome; 1 part burnt sienna.
Violet.—Fifteen parts white lead; 4 parts ultramarine blue; 3 parts rose lake; 1 part drop black.
«GREEN TINTS:»
Apple Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part chrome green, light or medium shade.
Citrine Green.—One hundred parts white lead; 2 parts medium chrome yellow; 1 part drop black.
Citron Green.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts medium chrome yellow; 1 part lampblack.
Emerald Green.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part Paris (emerald) green.
Grass Green A.—Five parts white lead; 7 parts Paris green.
Grass Green B.—Ten parts oxide of chrome; 2 parts tin ashes; 5 parts whiting; 1 part crocus martis; 1 part bichromate potash.
Gray Green.—Five parts white lead; 1 part Verona green. {559}
Marine Green.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine green.
Nile Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 6 parts medium chrome green; 1 part Prussian blue.
Olive Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts medium chrome yellow; 3 parts raw umber; 1 part drop black.
Olive Drab.—Fifty parts white lead; 8 parts raw umber; 5 parts medium chrome green; 1 part drop black.
Pea Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part light chrome green.
Satin Green.—Three parts white lead; 1 part Milori green.
Sage Green.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts medium chrome green; 1 part raw umber.
Sea Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part dark chrome green.
Stone Green.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 2 parts dark chrome green; 3 parts raw umber.
Velvet Green.—Twenty parts white lead; 7 parts medium chrome green; 2 parts burnt sienna.
Water Green.—Fifteen parts white lead; 10 parts French ocher; 1 part dark chrome green.
«BROWN TINTS:»
Chocolate.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 3 parts burnt umber.
Cocoanut.—Equal parts white lead and burnt umber.
Cinnamon.—Ten parts white lead; 2 parts burnt sienna; 1 part French ocher.
Dark Drab.—Forty parts white lead; 1 part burnt umber.
Dark Stone.—Twenty parts white lead; 1 part raw umber.
Fawn.—Fifty parts white lead; 3 parts burnt umber; 2 parts French ocher.
Golden Brown.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 4 parts French ocher; 1 part burnt sienna.
Hazel Nut Brown.—Twenty parts white lead; 5 parts burnt umber; 1 part medium chrome yellow.
Mulberry.—Ten parts manganese; 2 parts cobalt blue; 2 parts saltpeter.
Purple Brown.—Fifty parts white lead; 6 parts Indian red; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part lampblack.
Red Brown.—Twelve parts hematite ore; 3 parts manganese; 7 parts litharge; 2 parts yellow ocher.
Seal Brown.—Thirty parts white lead; 5 parts burnt umber; 1 part medium chrome yellow.
Snuff Brown.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 1 part burnt umber; 1 part Oxford ocher.
«GRAY TINTS:»
Ash Gray.—Thirty parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part burnt sienna.
Cold Gray.—Five hundred parts white lead; 6 parts lampblack; 1 part Antwerp blue.
Dove Color.—Twelve parts manganese; 5 parts steel filings; 3 parts whiting; 1 part oxide of cobalt.
Dove Gray.—Two hundred parts white lead; 5 parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts drop black.
French Gray.—One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 1 part orange chrome yellow; 1 part chrome red (American vermilion).
Lead Color.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part lampblack (increase proportion of white lead for light tints).
Lustrous Gray.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part graphite (plumbago).
Olive Gray.—Two hundred parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 1 part medium chrome green.
Pure Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part drop black.
Pearl Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1
## part drop black.
Silver Gray.—One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 3 parts Oxford ocher.
Warm Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts drop black; 2 parts French ocher; 1 part light Venetian red.
NOTE.—For inside work and whenever desirable, the white lead may be replaced by zinc white or a mixture of the two white pigments may be used. Be it also remembered that pure colors, as a rule, will produce the cleanest tints and that fineness of grinding is an important factor. It will not be amiss to call attention to the fact that the excessive use of driers, especially of dark japans or liquid driers, with delicate tints is bad practice, and liable to ruin otherwise good effects in tints or delicate solid colors.
«COLOR TESTING.»
Expense and trouble deter many a painter from having a color examined, {560} although such an examination is often very necessary. For the practical man it is less important to know what percentage of foreign matter a paint contains, but whether substances are contained therein, which may act injuriously in some way or other.
If a pigment is to be tested for arsenic, pour purified hydrochloric acid into a test tube or a U-shaped glass vessel which withstands heat, add a little of the pigment or the colored fabric, wall paper, etc. (of pigment take only enough to strongly color the hydrochloric acid simply in the first moment), and finally a small quantity of stannous chloride. Now heat the test tube with its contents moderately over a common spirit lamp. If the liquid or mass has assumed a brown or brownish color after being heated, arsenic is present in the pigment or fabric, etc.
An effective but simple test for the durability of a color is to paint strips of thick paper and nail them on the wall in the strongest light possible. A strip of paper should then be nailed over one-half of the samples of color so as to protect them from the light. On removing this the difference in shade between the exposed and unexposed portions will be very apparent. Some colors, such as the vermilionettes, will show a marked difference after even a few weeks.
«Testing Body Colors for Gritty Admixtures.»—The fineness of the powdered pigment is not a guarantee of the absence of gritty admixtures. The latter differ from the pigment proper in their specific gravity. If consisting of metallic oxides or metallic sulphides the sandy admixtures are lighter than the pigments and rise to the surface upon a systematic shaking of the sample. In the case of other pigments, e. g., aluminas and iron varnish colors, they collect at the bottom. For carrying out the test, a smoothly bored metallic tube about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in diameter and 6 to 7 inches long is used. Both ends are closed with screw caps and at one side of the tube some holes about 1/6 of an inch in diameter are bored, closed by pieces of a rubber hose pushed on. The tube is filled with the pigment powder, screwed up and feebly shaken for some time in a vertical position (the length of time varying according to the fineness of the powder). Samples may now be taken from all parts of the tube. Perhaps glass tubes would be preferable, but lateral apertures cannot be so readily made. After the necessary samples have been collected in this manner, they must be prepared with a standard sample, which is accomplished either by feeling the powder between the fingers or by inspecting it under a microscope, or else by means of the scratching test, which last named is the usual way. The requisites for these scratch tests consist of two soft, well-polished glass plates (2 1/2 x 2 1/4 inches) which are fixed by means of cement in two stronger plates of hard wood suitably hollowed out. The surface of the glass must project about 1/2 inch over the wooden frame. If a sample of the pigment powder is placed on such a glass plate, another plate is laid on top and both are rubbed slowly together; this motion will retain a soft, velvety character in case the pigment is free from gritty admixtures; if otherwise, the glass is injured and a corresponding sound becomes audible. Next the powder is removed from the plate, rubbing the latter with a soft rag, and examining the surface with a microscope. From the nature of the scratches on the plate the kind of gritty ingredients can be readily determined. The human finger is sufficiently sensitive to detect the presence of gritty substances, yet it is not capable of distinguishing whether they consist of imperfectly reduced or badly sifted grains of pigment or real gritty admixtures.
«To Determine the Covering Power of Pigments.»—To determine the covering power of white lead, or any other pigment, take equal quantities of several varieties of white lead and mix them with a darker pigment, black, blue, etc., the latter also in equal proportions. The white lead which retains the lightest color is naturally the most opaque. In a similar manner, on the other hand, the mixing power of the dark pigments can be ascertained. If experiments are made with a variety of white lead or zinc white, by the admixture of dark pigments, the color which tints the white lead or zinc white most, also possesses the greatest covering or mixing power.
«To Detect the Presence of Aniline in a Pigment.»—Lay a little of the color upon letter paper and pour a drop of spirit on it. If it is mixed with aniline the paper is colored right through thereby, while a pure pigment does not alter the shade of the paper and will never penetrate it.
«Vehicle for Oil Colors.»—Petroleum, 20 to 30 pounds; tallow, 3 to 5 pounds; cotton-seed oil, 5 to 7 pounds; colophony, 5 to 7 pounds. The pigments {561} having been ground up with this mixture, the mixed paint can be made still better by adding to it about a sixth of its weight of the following mixture: Vegetable oil, 8 to 20 pounds; saponified rosin, 6 to 16 pounds; turpentine, 4 to 30 ounces.
«Frankfort Black.»—Frankfort black, also known as German black, is a name applied to a superior grade of lampblack. In some districts of Germany it is said to be made by calcining wine lees and tartar. The material is heated in large cylindrical vessels having a vent in the cover for the escape of smoke and vapors that are evolved during the process. When no more smoke is observed, the operation is finished. The residuum in the vessels is then washed several times in boiling water to extract the salts contained therein and finally is reduced to the proper degree of fineness by grinding on a porphyry.
«Paris Green.»—Emerald or Paris green is rather permanent to light, but must not be mixed with pigments containing sulphur, because of the tendency to blacken when so mixed. It will not resist acids, ammonia, and caustics.
PIGMENT PAPER: See Photography.
«PILE OINTMENTS.»
I.—“Extract” witch-hazel 2 fluidounces Lanum 2 ounces Petrolatum 6 ounces Glycerine 4 fluidounces Tannic acid 1 drachm Powdered opium 1 drachm
II.—Tannic acid 20 grains Bismuth subnitrate 1 drachm Powdered opium 10 grains Lanum 3 drachms Petrolatum 5 drachms
PINE SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.
PINEAPPLE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.
PINEAPPLE LEMONADE: See Beverages.
PING PONG FRAPPÉ: See Beverages, under Lemonades.
PINS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.
PINION ALLOY: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.
PINK SALVE: See Ointments.
PINKEYE: See Veterinary Formulas.
PIPE-JOINT CEMENT: See Cement.
PIPE LEAKS: See Leaks.
PIPES, RUST-PREVENTIVE FOR: See Rust Preventives.
PISTACHIO ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.
«PLANTS:»
«Temperature of Water for Watering Plants.»—Experiments were made several years ago at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station to determine whether cold water was detrimental to plants. Plants were grown under glass and in the open field, and in all cases the results were similar. Thus, coleus planted in lots of equal size and vigor were watered with water at 35°, 50°, 65°, and 86° F. At the end of 60 days it was impossible to note any difference, and when the experiment was repeated with water at 32°, 40°, 70°, and 100° F., the result was the same. Beans watered with water at 32°, 40°, 70°, and 100° F., were equally vigorous; in fact, water at 32° and 40° F. gave the best results. Lettuce watered with water at 32° F. yielded slightly more than the other lots. From these experiments it was concluded that for vegetable and flowering plants commonly grown under glass, ordinary well or spring water may be used freely at any time of the year without warming.
PLANT PRESERVATIVES: See Flowers.
«Plaster»
(See also Gypsum.)
«Therapeutic Grouping of Medicinal Plasters.»—The vehicle for medicated plasters requires some other attribute than simply adhesiveness. From a study of the therapy of plasters they may be put in three groups, similarly to the ointments with reference to their general therapeutic uses, which also governs the selection of the respective vehicles.
1.—Epidermatic: Supportive, protective, antiseptic, counter-irritant, vesicant. Vehicle: Rubber or any suitable {562} adhesive. Official plasters: Emp. adhesivum, E. capsici.
2.—Endermatic: Anodyne, astringent, alterative, resolvent, sedative, stimulant. Vehicle: Oleates or lead plaster, sometimes with rosins or gum rosins. Official plasters: Emp. Belladonnæ, E. opii, E. plumbi, E. saponis.
3.—Diadermatic: For constitutional or systemic effects. Vehicle: Lanolin or plaster-mull. Official plasters: Emp. hydrargyri.
«Methods of Preparing Rubber Plasters.—Mechanic Roller Pressure Method.»—This method of incorporating the rubber with certain substances to give it the necessary body to serve as a vehicle is at present the only one employed. But since it requires the use of the heaviest machinery—some of the apparatus weighing many tons—and enormous steam power, its application for pharmaceutical purposes is out of the question.
As is well known, the process consists in: 1. Purification of the rubber by mascerating and pressing it and removing foreign impurities by elutriating it with water. 2. Forming a homogeneous mass of the dried purified rubber by working it on heated revolving rollers and incorporating sufficient quantities of orris powder and oleoresins. 3. Incorporating the medicinal agent, i. e., belladonna extract, with the rubber mass by working it on warmed revolving rollers. 4. Spreading the prepared piaster.
Solution in Volatile Solvents.—This process has been recommended from time to time, the principal objection being the use of so relatively large quantities of inflammable solvents.
«The German Pharmacopœia Method.»—The following is the formula of “Arzneibuch fur das Deutsche Reich,” 1900: Emplastrum adhesivum: Lead plaster, waterfree, 40 parts; petrolatum, 2.5 parts; liquid petrolatum, 2.5 parts, are melted together, and to the mixture add rosin, 35 parts; dammar, 10 parts, previously melted. To the warm mixture is added caoutchouc, 10 parts; dissolved in benzine, 75 parts, and the mixture stirred on the water-bath until all the benzine is lost by evaporation.
The Coleplastrum adhesivum of the Austrian Society is still more complex, the formula containing the following: Rosin oil, empyreumatic, 150 parts; copaiba, 100 parts; rosin, 100 parts; lard, 50 parts; wax, 30 parts; dissolved in ether, 1,200 parts, in which caoutchouc, 250 parts, has been previously dissolved; to this is then added orris powder, 220 parts; sandarac, 50 parts; ether, 400 parts. The mixture, when uniform, is spread on cloth.
«Solution of Rubber in Fixed Solvent: Petrolatum and Incorporation with Lead Acetate.»—India rubber dissolves, though with difficulty, in petrolatum. The heat required to melt the rubber being comparatively high, usually considerably more than 212° F., as stated in the U. S. P., it is necessary to melt the rubber first and then add the petrolatum, in order to avoid subjecting the latter to the higher temperature. The mixture of equal parts of rubber and petrolatum is of a soft jelly consistence, not especially adhesive, but when incorporated with the lead oleate furnishes a very adhesive plaster. While at first 5 per cent of each rubber and petrolatum was used, it has been found that the petrolatum would melt and exude around the edges of the plaster when applied to the skin, and the quantity was therefore reduced to 2 per cent of each. This mass affords a plaster which is readily adhesive to the body, does not run nor become too soft. Plasters spread on cloth have been kept for months exposed to the sun in the summer weather without losing their stability or permanency.
The lead oleate made by the interaction of hot solution of soap and lead acetate, thoroughly washed with hot water, and freed from water by working the precipitated oleate on a hot tile, is much to be preferred to the lead plaster made by the present official process. The time-honored method of boiling litharge, olive oil, and water is for the requirements of the pharmacists most tedious and unsatisfactory. Since in the beginning of the process, at least, a temperature higher than that of 212° F. is required, the water bath cannot be employed, and in the absence of this limiting device the product is usually “scorched.” When the steam bath under pressure can be used this objection does not apply. But the boiling process requires from 3 to 4 hours, with more or less attention, while the precipitation method does not take over half an hour. Besides, true litharge is difficult to obtain, and any other kind will produce unsatisfactory results.
The following is the process employed:
Lead oleate (Emplastrum plumbi):
Soap, granular and dried 100 parts Lead acetate 60 parts Distilled water, a sufficient quantity.
{563}
Dissolve the soap in 350 parts hot distilled water and strain the solution. Dissolve the lead acetate in 250 parts hot distilled water and filter the solution while hot into the warm soap solution, stirring constantly. When the precipitate which has formed has separated, decant the liquid and wash the precipitate thoroughly with hot water. Remove the precipitate, let it drain, free from water completely by kneading it on a warm slab, form it into rolls, wrap in paraffine paper, and preserve in tightly closed containers.
Emplastrum adhesivum:
Rubber, cut in small pieces 20 parts Petrolatum 20 parts Lead plaster 960 parts
Melt the rubber at a temperature not exceeding 302° F., add the petrolatum, and continue the heat until the rubber is dissolved. Add the lead plaster to the hot mixture, continue the heat until it becomes liquid; then let it cool and stir until it stiffens.
«Court Plaster or Sticking Plaster.»—I.—Brush silk over with a solution of isinglass, in spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For the last application apply several coats of balsam of Peru. This is used to close cuts or wounds, by warming and applying it. It does not wash off until the skin partially heals.
II.—Isinglass, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, strain the solution, and gradually add to it of tincture of benzoin, 2 parts; apply this mixture gently warmed, by means of a camel’s-hair brush, to the surface of silk or sarcenet, stretched on a frame, and allow each coating to dry before applying the next one, the application being repeated as often as necessary; lastly, give the prepared surface a coating of tincture of benzoin or tincture of balsam of Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the unprepared side of the plaster, and others add to the tincture a few drops of essence of ambergris or essence of musk.
III. (Deschamps).—A piece of fine muslin, linen, or silk is fastened to a flat board, and a thin coating of smooth, strained flour paste is given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of colorless gelatin, made into size with water, quantity sufficient, are applied warm. Said to be superior to the ordinary court plaster.
«Coloring of Modeling Plaster.»—I.—If burnt gypsum is stirred up with water containing formaldehyde and with a little alkali, and the quantity of water necessary for the induration of the plaster containing in solution a reducible metallic salt is added thereto, a plaster mass of perfectly uniform coloring is obtained. The hardening of the plaster is not affected thereby. According to the concentration of the metallic salt solutions and the choice of the salts, the most varying shades of color, as black, red, brown, violet, pearl gray, and bronze may be produced. The color effect may be enhanced by the addition of certain colors. For the production of a gray-colored gypsum mass, for example, the mode of procedure is as follows: Stir 15 drachms of plaster with one-fourth its weight of water, containing a few drops of formaldehyde and a little soda lye and add 10 drops of a one-tenth normal silver solution, which has previously been mixed with the amount of water necessary for hardening the gypsum. The mass will immediately upon mixing assume a pearl-gray shade, uniform throughout. In order to produce red or copper-like, black or bronze-like shades, gold salts, copper salts or silver salts, bismuth salts or lead salts, singly or mixed, are used. Naturally, these colorings admit of a large number of modifications. In lieu of formaldehyde other reducing agents may be employed, such as solutions of sulphurous acid or hydrogen peroxide with a little alkali. Metals in the elementary state may likewise be made use of, e. g., iron, which, stirred with a little copper solution and plaster, produces a brown mass excelling in special hardness, etc. This process of coloring plaster is distinguished from the former methods in that the coloration is caused by metals in the nascent state and that a very fine division is obtained. The advantage of the dyeing method consists in that colorings can be produced with slight quantities of a salt; besides, the fine contours of the figures are in no way affected by this manner of coloring, and another notable advantage lies in the mass being colored throughout, whereby a great durability of the color against outside actions is assured. Thus a peeling off of the color or other way of becoming detached, such as by rubbing off, is entirely excluded.
II.—Frequently, in order to obtain colored plaster objects, ocher or powdered colors are mixed with the plaster. This method leaves much to be desired, because the mixture is not always perfect, and instead of the expected uniform color, blotches appear. Here is a more {564} certain recipe: Boil brazil wood, logwood, or yellow wood, in water, according to the desired color, or use extracts of the woods. When the dye is cold mix it with the plaster. The dye must be passed through a cloth before use. One may also immerse the plaster articles, medals, etc., in this dye, but in this case they must be left for some time and the operation repeated several times.
«Treatment of Fresh Plaster.»—Freshly plastered cement surfaces on walls may be treated as follows:
The freshly plastered surface first remains without any coating for about 14 days; then it is coated with a mixture of 50 parts water and 10 parts ammonia carbonate dissolved in hot water; leave this coat alone for a day, paint it again and wait until the cement has taken on a uniform gray color, which takes place as a rule in 12 to 14 days. Then prime the surface thus obtained with pure varnish and finish the coating, after drying, with ordinary varnish paint or turpentine paint.
«Plaster for Foundry Models.»—Gum lac, 1 part; wood spirit, 2 parts; lampblack in sufficient quantity to dye.
Plaster from Spent Gas Lime.—Spent lime from gas purifiers, in which the sulphur has been converted into calcium sulphate, by exposure to weather, if necessary, is mixed with clay rich in alumina. The mixture is powdered, formed into balls or blocks with water, and calcined at a temperature below that at which the setting qualities of calcium sulphate are destroyed. Slaked lime, clay, and sand are added to the calcined product, and the whole is finely powdered.
«Plaster Mold.»—Nearly all fine grades of metals can be cast in plaster molds, provided only a few pieces of the castings are wanted. Dental plaster should be used, with about one-half of short asbestos. Mix the two well together, and when the mold is complete let it dry in a warm place for several days, or until all the moisture is excluded. If the mold is of considerable thickness it will answer the purpose better. When ready for casting, the plaster mold should be warmed, and smoked over a gas light; then the metal should be poured in, in as cool a state as it will run.
«Cleaning of Statuettes and Other Plaster Objects.»—Nothing takes the dust more freely than plaster objects, more or less artistic, which are the modest ornaments of our dwellings. They rapidly contract a yellow-gray color, of unpleasant appearance. Here is a practical method for restoring the whiteness: Take finely powdered starch, quite white, and make a thick paste with hot water. Apply, when still hot, with a flexible spatula or a brush on the plaster object. The layer should be quite thick. Let it dry slowly. On drying, the starch will split and scale off. All the soiled parts of the plaster will adhere, and be drawn off with the scales. This method of cleaning does not detract from the fineness of the model.
«Hardening and Toughening Plaster of Paris.»—I.—Plaster of Paris at times sets too rapidly; therefore the following recipe for toughening and delaying drying will be useful. To calcined plaster of Paris add 4 per cent of its weight of powdered marshmallow root, which will keep it from setting for about an hour, and augment its hardness when set, or double the quantity of marshmallow root powder, and the plaster will become very firm, and may be worked 2 or 3 hours after mixing, and may be carved and polished when hard. It is essential that these powders, which are of different densities and specific gravities, should be thoroughly mixed, and the plaster of Paris be quite fresh, and it must be passed through fine hair sieves to ensure its being an impalpable powder. To ensure thorough mixing, pass the combined powders through the hair sieve three times. Make up with water sufficient for the required model or models. Should any of the powder be left over it may be kept by being put in an air-tight box and placed in a warm room.
The marshmallow root powder may be replaced by dextrin, gum arabic, or glue. The material treated is suitable while yet in a soft state, for rolling, glass-tube developing, making plates, etc.
II.—Plaster of Paris may be caused to set more quickly if some alum be dissolved in the water used for rendering it plastic. If the gypsum is first moistened with a solution of alum and then again burned, the resulting compound sets very quickly and becomes as hard as marble. Borax may be similarly employed. The objects may also be be treated with a solution of caustic baryta. But it has been found that no matter how deep this penetrates, the baryta is again drawn toward the surface when the water evaporates, a portion efflorescing on the outside, and only a thin layer remaining in the outer shell, where it is converted into carbonate. This at the same time {565} stops up the pores, rendering it impossible to repeat the operation. It was later found that the whole mass of the cast might be hardened by applying to it with a brush made of glass bristles, a hot solution of baryta. To prevent separation of the crystallized baryta at the surface, the object must be raised to a temperature of 140° to 175° F. To produce good results, however, it is necessary to add to the plaster before casting certain substances with which the baryta can combine. These are silicic acid in some form, or the sulphates of zinc, magnesium, copper, iron, aluminum, etc. With some of these the resulting object may be colored. As it is, however, difficult to insure the production of uniform tint, it is better when employing salts producing color, to mix the plaster with about 5 per cent of quicklime, or, better, to render it plastic with milk of lime, and then to soak the object in a solution of metallic sulphate.
«Preservation of Plaster Casts.»—Upon complete drying, small objects are laid for a short while in celluloid varnish of 4 per cent, while large articles are painted with it, from the top downward, using a soft brush. Articles set up outside and exposed to the weather are not protected by this treatment, while others can be readily washed off and cleaned with water. To cover 100 square feet of surface, 1 3/4 pints of celluloid varnish are required.
«To Arrest the Setting of Plaster of Paris.»—Citric acid will delay the setting of plaster of Paris for several hours. One ounce of acid, at a cost of about 5 cents, will be sufficient to delay the setting of 100 pounds of plaster of Paris for 2 or 3 hours. Dissolve the acid in the water before mixing the plaster.
«Weatherproofing Casts.»—I.—Brethauer’s method of preparing plaster of Paris casts for resisting the action of the weather is as follows: Slake 1 part of finely pulverized lime to a paste, then mix gypsum with limewater and intimately mix both. From the compound thus prepared the figures are cast. When perfectly dry they are painted with hot linseed oil, repeating the operation several times, then with linseed-oil varnish, and finally with white oil paint. Statues, etc., prepared in this way have been constantly exposed to the action of the weather for 4 years without suffering any change.
II.—Jacobsen prepares casts which retain no dust, and can be washed with lukewarm soap water by immersing them or throwing upon them in a fine spray a hot solution of a soap prepared from stearic acid and soda lye in ten times its quantity, by weight, of hot water.
«Reproduction of Plaster Originals.»—This new process consists in making a plaster mold over the original in the usual manner. After the solidification of the plaster the mass of the original is removed, as usual, by cutting out and rinsing out. The casting mold thus obtained is next filled out with a ceramic mass consisting of gypsum, 1 part; powdered porcelain, 5 parts; and flux, 1 part. After the mass has hardened it is baked in the mold. This renders the latter brittle and it falls apart on moistening with water while the infusion remains as a firm body, which presents all the details of the original in a true manner.
PLASTER ARTICLES, REPAIRING OF: See Adhesives and Lutes.
PLASTER GREASE: See Lubricants.
PLASTER, PAINTS FOR: See Paints.
PLASTER OF PARIS, MOLDS FOR CASTING: See Casting.
PLASTIC COMPOSITIONS: See Celluloid and Matrix Mass.
PLASTER, IRRITATING: See Ointments.
PLATES, CARE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.
PLATINA, BIRMINGHAM: See Alloys, under Brass.
«Plating»
The plating of metal surfaces is accomplished in four different ways: (1) By oxidation, usually involving dipping in an acid bath; (2) by electrodeposition, involving suspension in a metallic solution, through which an electric current is passed; (3) by applying a paste that is fixed, as by burning in; (4) by pouring on molten plating metal and rolling. For convenience the methods of plating are arbitrarily classified below under the following headings:
1. Bronzing. 2. Coloring of Metals. 3. Electrodeposition Processes. 4. Gilding and Gold-Plating. {566} 5. Oxidizing Processes. 6. Patina Oxidizing Processes. 7. Platinizing. 8. Silvering and Silver-Plating. 9. Tinned Lead-Plating. 10. Various Recipes.
«BRONZING:»
«Art Bronzes.»—These are bronzes of different tints, showing a great variety according to the taste and fancy of the operator.
I.—After imparting to an object a coating of vert antique, it is brushed to remove the verdigris, and another coat is applied with the following mixture: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; powdered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight. Finish with a waxed brush and a coat of white varnish.
II.—Cover the object with a mixture of vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; powdered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight. Finish as above.
«Antique Bronzes.»—In order to give new bronze castings the appearance and patina of old bronze, various compositions are employed, of which the following are the principal ones:
I.—Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate, 16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; mountain green (Sanders green), 70 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, 30 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight.
II.—Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate, 16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; mountain green, 70 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight.
III.—Dark Vert Antique: To obtain darker vert antique, add a little plumbago to the preceding mixtures.
IV.—Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 8 parts, by weight; potassium bioxalate, 1 part, by weight.
«Brass Bronzing.»—I.—Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease, into a cold solution of 10 parts of potassium permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate, 5 parts of hydrochloric acid, in 1,000 parts of water. Let remain 30 seconds; then withdraw, rinse off, and dry in fine, soft sawdust. If the articles have become too dark, or if a reddish-brown color be desired, immerse for about 1 minute into a warm (60° C. or 140° F.) solution of chromic acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 10 parts; potassium permanganate, 10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Treat as before. If the latter solution alone be used the product will be a brighter dark yellow or reddish-brown color. By heating in a drying oven the tone of the colors is improved.
II.—Rouge, with a little chloride of platinum and water, will form a chocolate brown of considerable depth of tone and is exceedingly applicable to brass surfaces which are to resemble a copper bronze.
«Copper Bronzing.»—I.—After cleaning the pieces, a mixture made as follows is passed over them with a brush: Castor oil, 20 parts; alcohol, 80 parts; soft soap, 40 parts; water, 40 parts. The day after application, the piece has become bronzed; and if the time is prolonged, the tint will change. Thus, an affinity of shades agreeable to the eye can be procured. The piece is dried in hot sawdust, and colorless varnish with large addition of alcohol is passed over it. This formula for bronzing galvanic apparatus imparts any shade desired, from Barbodienne bronze to antique green, provided the liquid remains for some time in contact with the copper.
II.—Acetate of copper, 6 parts; sal ammoniac, 7 parts; acetic acid, 1 part; distilled water, 100 parts. Dissolve all in water in an earthen or porcelain vessel. Place on the fire and heat slightly; next, with a brush give the objects to be bronzed 2 or 3 coats, according to the shade desired. It is necessary that each coat be thoroughly dry before applying another.
«Bronzing of Gas Fixtures.»—Gas fixtures which have become dirty or tarnished from use may be improved in appearance by painting with bronze paint and then, if a still better finish is required, varnishing after the paint is thoroughly dry with some light-colored varnish that will give a hard and brilliant coating.
If the bronze paint is made up with ordinary varnish it is liable to become discolored from acid which may be present in the varnish. One method proposed for obviating this is to mix the varnish with about 5 times its volume of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture dried slaked lime in the proportion of about 40 grains to the pint, agitate well, {567} repeating the agitation several times, and finally allowing the suspended matter to settle and decanting the clear liquid. The object of this is, of course, to neutralize any acid which may be present. To determine how effectively this has been done, the varnish may be chemically tested.
«Iron Bronzing.»—I.—The surface of a casting previously cleaned and polished is evenly painted with a vegetable oil, e. g., olive oil, and then well heated, care being taken that the temperature does not rise to a point at which the oil will burn. The cast iron absorbs oxygen at the moment when the decomposition of the oil begins, and a brown layer of oxide is formed which adheres firmly to the surface and which may be vigorously polished, giving a bronze-like appearance to the surface of the iron.
II.—To give polished iron the appearance of bronze commence by cleaning the objects, then subject them for about 5 minutes to the vapor of a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids; then smear them with Vaseline and heat them until the vaseline begins to decompose. The result is a fine bronzing.
«Liquid for Bronze Powder.»—Take 2 ounces gum animi and dissolve in 1/2 pint linseed oil by adding gradually while the oil is being heated. Boil, strain, and dilute with turpentine.
«Bronzing Metals.»—I.—The following composition is recommended for bronzing metal objects exposed to the air: Mix about equal parts of siccative, rectified oil of turpentine, caoutchouc oil, and dammar varnish, and apply this composition on the objects, using a brush. This bronze has been found to resist the influences of the weather.
II.—Cover the objects with a light layer of linseed oil, and then heat over a coal fire, prolonging the heat until the desired shade is reached.
III.—Expose the objects to be bronzed for about 5 minutes to the vapors of a bath composed of 50 parts of nitric acid and 50 parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Then rub the articles with vaseline and heat until the vaseline is decomposed. The objects to be bronzed must always be perfectly polished.
IV.—To bronze iron articles they should be laid in highly heated coal dust; the articles must be covered up in the glowing dust, and the heat must be the same throughout. The iron turns at first yellow, then blue, and finally rather black. Withdraw the objects when they have attained the blue shade or the black color; then while they are still hot, rub them with a wad charged with tallow.
V.—For electrolytic bronzing of metals the baths employed differ from the brass baths only in that they contain tin in solution instead of zinc. According to Elsner, dissolve 70 parts, by weight, of cupric sulphate in 1,000 parts of water and add a solution of 8 parts of stannic chloride in caustic lye. For a positive pole plate put in a bronze plate. The bath works at ordinary temperature.
VI.—A good bath consists of 10 parts of potash, 2 parts of cupric chloride, 1 part of tin salt, 1 part of cyanide of potassium dissolved in 100 parts of water.
VII.—Mix a solution of 32 parts of copper sulphate in 500 parts of water with 64 parts of cyanide of potassium. After the solution has become clear, add 4 to 5 parts of stannic chloride dissolved in potash lye.
VIII.—Precipitate all soda from a solution of blue vitriol by phosphate of sodium, wash the precipitate well, and dissolve in a concentrated solution of pyrophosphate of copper. Also, saturate a solution of the same salt with tin salt. Of both solutions add enough in such proportion to a solution of 50 parts, by weight, of pyrophosphate of sodium in 1,000 parts of water until the solution appears clear and of the desired color. A cast bronze plate serves as an anode. From time to time a little soda, or if the precipitate turns out too pale, copper solution should be added.
«Tin Bronzing.»—The pieces are well washed and all grease removed; next plunged into a solution of copperas (green vitriol), 1 part; sulphate, 1 part; water, 20 parts. When dry they are plunged again into a bath composed of verdigris, 4 parts; dissolved in distilled wine vinegar, 11 parts. Wash, dry, and polish with English red.
«Zinc Bronzing.»—The zinc article must be first electro-coppered before proceeding to the bronzing. The process used is always the same; the different shades are, however, too numerous to cover all of them in one explanation. The bronzing of zinc clocks is most frequently done on a brown ground, by mixing graphite, lampblack, and sanguine stirred in water in which a little Flanders Dutch glue is dissolved. The application is made by means of a brush. When it is dry a {568} spirit varnish is applied; next, before the varnish is perfectly dry, a little powdered bronze or sanguine or powdered bronze mixed with sanguine or with graphite, according to the desired shades. For green bronze, mix green sanders with chrome yellow stirred with spirit in which a little varnish is put. When the bronzing is dry, put on the varnish and the powdered bronze as above described. After all has dried, pass the brush over a piece of wax, then over the bronzed article, being careful to charge the brush frequently with wax.
«COLORING OF METALS:»
«Direct Coloration of Iron and Steel by Cupric Selenite.»—Iron precipitates copper and selenium from their salts. Immersed in a solution of cupric selenite, acidulated with a few drops of nitric acid, it precipitates these two metals on its surface in the form of a dull black deposit, but slightly adherent. But, if the object is washed with water, then with alcohol, and rapidly dried over a gas burner, the deposit becomes adherent. If rubbed with a cloth, this deposit turns a blue black or a brilliant black, according to the composition of the bath.
The selenite of copper is a greenish salt insoluble in water, and but slightly soluble in water acidulated with nitric or sulphuric acid. It is preferable to mix a solution of cupric sulphate with a solution of selenious acid, and to acidulate with nitric acid, in order to prevent the precipitation of the selenite of copper.
This process, originated by Paul Malherbe, is quite convenient for blackening or bluing small objects of iron or steel, such as metallic pens or other small pieces. It does not succeed so well for objects of cast iron; and the selenious acid is costly, which is an obstacle to its employment on large metallic surfaces.
The baths are quickly impoverished, for insoluble yellow selenite of iron is deposited.
Brilliant Black Coloration.—Selenious acid, 6 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts.
Blue-Black Coloration.—Selenious acid, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts.
By immersing the object for a short time the surface of the metal can be colored in succession yellow, rose, purple, violet and blue.
«Coloration of Copper and Brass with Cupric Selenite.»—When an object of copper or brass is immersed in a solution of selenite of copper acidulated with nitric acid, the following colors are obtained, according to the time of the immersion: Yellow, orange, rose, purple, violet, and blue, which is the last color which can be obtained. In general, the solution should be slightly acid; otherwise the color is fugacious and punctate.
_a._ _b._ Selenious acid 6.5 2.9 parts Sulphate of copper 12.5 20.0 parts Nitric acid 2.0 2.5 parts Water 1,000.0 1,000.0 parts
«Production of Rainbow Colors on Metals» (iron, copper, brass, zinc, etc.)—I.—The following process of irisation is due to Puscher. It allows of covering the metals with a thick layer of metallic sulphide, similar to that met with in nature—in galena, for example.
These compounds are quite solid and are not attacked by concentrated acids and alkalies, while dilute reagents are without action. In 5 minutes thousands of objects of brass can be colored with the brightest hues. If they have been previously cleaned chemically, the colors deposited on the surface adhere with such strength that they can be worked with the burnisher.
Forty-five parts of sodium hyposulphite are dissolved in 500 parts of water; a solution of 15 parts of neutral acetate of lead in 500 parts of water is poured in. The clear mixture, which is composed of a double salt of hyposulphite of lead and of sodium, possesses, when heated to 212° F., the property of decomposing slowly and of depositing brown flakes of lead sulphide. If an article of gold, silver, copper, brass, tombac, iron, or zinc is put into this bath while the precipitation is taking place, the object will be covered with a film of lead sulphide, which will give varied and brilliant colors, according to its thickness. For a uniform coloration, it is necessary that the pieces should be heated quite uniformly. However, iron assumes under this treatment only a blue color, and zinc a bronze color. On articles of copper the first gold color which appears is defective. Lead and tin are not colored.
By substituting for the neutral acetate of lead an equal quantity of cupric sulphate and proceeding in a similar way, brass or imitation gold is covered with a very beautiful red, succeeded by an imperfect green, and finally a magnificent brown, with iridescent points of greenish red. The latter coating is fairly permanent.
Zinc is not colored in this solution, and {569} precipitates in it a quantity of flakes of greenish brown (cupric sulphide), but if about one-third of the preceding solution of lead acetate is added, a solid black color is developed, which, when covered with a light coating of wax, gains much in intensity and solidity. It is also useful to apply a slight coating of wax to the other colors.
II.—Beautiful designs may be obtained, imitating marble, with sheets of copper plunged into a solution of lead, thickened by the addition of gum tragacanth, and heated to 212° F. Afterwards they are treated with the ordinary lead solution. The compounds of antimony, for example the tartrate of antimony and potash, afford similar colorations, but require a longer time for their development. The solutions mentioned do not change, even after a long period, and may be employed several times.
III.—By mixing a solution of cupric sulphate with a solution of sodium hyposulphite, a double hyposulphite of sodium and of copper is obtained.
If in the solution of this double salt an article of nickel or of copper, cleaned with nitric acid, then with soda, is immersed, the following colors will appear in a few seconds: Brilliant red, green, rose, blue, and violet. To isolate a color, it is sufficient to take out the object and wash it with water. The colors obtained on nickel present a moiré appearance, similar to that of silk fabrics.
IV.—Tin sulphate affords with sodium hyposulphite a double salt, which is reduced by heat, with production of tin sulphide. The action of this double salt on metallic surfaces is the same as that of the double salts of copper and lead. Mixed with a solution of cupric sulphate, all the colors of the spectrum will be readily obtained.
V.—Coloration of Silver.—The objects of copper or brass are first covered with a layer of silver, when they are dipped in the following solution at the temperature of 205° to 212° F.: Water, 3,000 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 300 parts; lead acetate, 100 parts.
VI.—Iron precipitates bismuth from its chlorhydric solution. On heating this deposit, the colors of the rainbow are obtained.
«Coloration by Electrolysis.»—I.—Colored Rings by Electrolysis (Nobili, Becquerel).—In order to obtain the Nobili rings it is necessary to concentrate the current coming from one of the poles of the battery through a platinum wire, whose point alone is immersed in the liquid to be decomposed, while the other pole is connected with a plate of metal in the same liquid. This plate is placed perpendicularly to the direction of the wire, and at about 0.04 inches from the point.
Solutions of sulphate of copper, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of manganese, acetate of lead, acetate of copper, acetate of potassium, tartrate of antimony and potash, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, carbonate of soda, chloride of manganese, and manganous acetate, may be employed.
II.—A process, due to M. O. Mathey, allows of coloring metals by precipitating on their surface a transparent metallic peroxide. The phenomenon of electro-chemical coloration on metals is the same as that which takes place when an object of polished steel is exposed to heat. It first assumes a yellow color, from a very thin coating of ferric oxide formed on its surface. By continuing the heating, this coating of oxide increases in thickness, and appears red, then violet, then blue. Here, the coloration is due to the increase in the thickness of a thin coating of a metallic oxide precipitated by an alkaline solution.
The oxides of lead, tin, zinc, chromium, aluminum, molybdenum, tungsten, etc., dissolved in potash, may be employed; also protoxide of iron, zinc, cadmium, cobalt, dissolved in ammonia.
Lead Solution.—Potash, 400 parts; litharge or massicot, 125 parts. Boil 10 minutes, filter, dilute until the solution marks 25° Bé.
Iron Solution.—Dissolve ferrous sulphate in boiling water, and preserve sheltered from air. When desired for use, pour a quantity into a vessel and add ammonia until the precipitate is redissolved. This solution, oxidizing rapidly in the air, cannot be used for more than an hour.
III.—Electro-chemical coloration succeeds very well on metals which are not oxidizable, such as gold and platinum, but not well on silver. This process is employed for coloring watch hands and screws. The object is placed at the positive pole, under a thickness of 1 1/4 inches of the liquid, and the negative electrode is brought to the surface of the bath. In a few seconds all the colors possible are obtained. Generally, a ruby-red tint is sought for.
IV.—Coloration of Nickel.—The nickel piece is placed at the positive pole in a solution of lead acetate. A netting {570} of copper wires is arranged at the negative pole according to the contours of the design, and at a short distance from the object. The coloration obtained is uniform if the distance of the copper wires from the object is equal at all points.
«Coloring of Brass.»—I.—(_a_) Brown bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of silver and bismuth or nitric acid. (_b_) Light bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of silver and of copper, (_c_) Black: Solution of nitrate of copper. In all cases, however, the brass is colored black, if after having been treated with the acid solution, it is placed for a very short time in a solution of potassium sulphide, of ammonium sulphydrate, or of hydrogen sulphide.
II.—The brass is immersed in a dilute solution of mercurous nitrate; the layer of mercury formed on the brass is converted into black sulphide, if washed several times in potassium sulphide. By substituting for the potassium sulphide the sulphide of antimony or that of arsenic, beautiful bronze colors are obtained, varying from light brown to dark brown.
III.—Clean the brass perfectly. Afterwards rub with sal ammoniac dissolved in vinegar. Strong vinegar, 1,000 parts; sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, 15 parts; arsenious anhydride, 8 parts.
IV.—A solution of chloride of platinum is employed, which leaves a very light coating of platinum on the metal, and the surface is bronzed. A steel tint or gray color is obtained, of which the shade depends on the metal. If this is burnished, it takes a blue or steel gray shade, which varies with the duration of the chemical action, the concentration, and the temperature of the bath. A dilute solution of platinum is prepared thus: Chloride of platinum, 1 part; water, 5,000 parts.
Another solution, more concentrated at the temperature of 104° F., is kept ready. The objects to be bronzed are attached to a copper wire and immersed for a few seconds in a hot solution of tartar, 30 parts to 5,000 parts of water. On coming from this bath they are washed 2 or 3 times with ordinary water, and a last time with distilled water, and then put in the solution of platinum chloride, stirring them from time to time. When a suitable change of color has been secured, the objects are passed to the concentrated solution of platinum chloride (40°). They are stirred, and taken out when the wished-for color has been reached. They are then washed 2 or 3 times, and dried in wood sawdust.
V.—To give to brass a dull black color, as that used for optical instruments, the metal is cleaned carefully at first, and covered with a very dilute mixture of neutral nitrate of tin, 1 part; chloride of gold, 2 parts. At the end of 10 minutes this covering is removed with a moist brush. If an excess of acid has not been employed, the surface of the metal will be found to be of a fine dull black.
The nitrate of tin is prepared by decomposing the chloride of this metal with ammonia and afterwards dissolving in nitric acid the oxide of tin formed.
VI.—For obtaining a deposit of bismuth the brass is immersed in a boiling bath, prepared by adding 50 to 60 parts of bismuth to nitric acid diluted with 1,000 parts of water, and containing 32 parts of tartaric acid.
VII.—The electrolysis of a cold solution of 25 to 30 parts per 1,000 parts of the double chloride of bismuth and ammonium produces on brass or on copper a brilliant adherent deposit of bismuth, whose appearance resembles that of old silver.
«Production of Rainbow Hues.»—Various colors.—I.—Dissolve tartrate of antimony and of potash, 30 parts; tartaric acid, 30 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Add hydrochloric acid, 90 to 120 parts; pulverized antimony, 90 to 120 parts. Immerse the object of brass in this boiling liquid, and it will be covered with a film, which, as it thickens, reflects quite a series of beautiful tints, first appearing iridescent, then the color of gold, copper, or violet, and finally of a grayish blue. These colors are adherent, and do not change in the air.
II.—The sulphide of tin may be deposited on metallic surfaces, especially on brass, communicating shades varying with the thickness of the deposit. For this purpose, Puscher prepares the following solutions: Dissolve tartaric acid, 20 parts, in water, 1,000 parts; add a salt of tin, 20 parts; water, 125 parts. Boil the mixture, allow it to repose, and filter. Afterwards pour the clear portion a little at a time, shaking continually, into a solution of hyposulphite of soda, 80 parts; water, 250 parts. On boiling, sulphide of tin is formed, with precipitation of sulphur. On plunging the pieces of brass in the liquid, they are covered, according to the period of immersion, with varied shades, passing from gold yellow to red, to crimson, to blue, and finally to light brown.
III.—The metal is treated with the {571} following composition: Solution A.—Cotton, well washed, 50 parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts, dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1,000 parts, and bichromate of potash, 100 parts. Solution B.—Brass, 20 parts; nitric acid, density 1.51, 350 parts; nitrate of soda, 10 parts. Mix the two solutions, and dilute with 1,500 parts of water. These proportions may be modified according to the nature of the brass to be treated. This preparation is spread on the metal, which immediately changes color. When the desired tint is obtained, the piece is quickly plunged in an alkaline solution; a soda salt, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The article is afterwards washed, and dried with a piece of cloth. Beautiful red tints are obtained by placing the objects between 2 plates, or better yet, 2 pieces of iron wire-cloth.
IV.—Put in a flask 100 parts of cupric carbonate and 750 parts of ammonia and shake. This liquid should be kept in well-stoppered bottles. When it has lost its strength, this may be renewed by pouring in a little ammonia. The objects to be colored should be well cleaned. They are suspended in the liquid and moved back and forth. After a few minutes of immersion, they are washed with water and dried in wood sawdust. Generally, a deep-blue color is obtained.
V.—Plunge a sheet of perfectly clean brass in a dilute solution of neutral acetate of copper, and at the ordinary temperature, and in a short time it will be found covered with a fine gold yellow.
VI.—Immerse the brass several times in a very dilute solution of cupric chloride, and the color will be deadened and bronzed a greenish gray.
A plate of brass heated to 302° F. is colored violet by rubbing its surface gently with cotton soaked with cupric chloride.
VII.—On heating brass, perfectly polished, until it can be no longer held in the hand, and then covering it rapidly and uniformly with a solution of antimony chloride by means of a wad of cotton, a fine violet tint is communicated.
VIII.—For greenish shades, a bath may be made use of, composed of water, 100 parts; cupric sulphate, 8 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts.
IX.—For orange-brown and cinnamon-brown shades: Water, 1,000 parts; potassium chlorate, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts.
X.—For obtaining rose-colored hues, then violet, then blue: Water, 400 parts; cupric sulphate, 30 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 20 parts; cream of tartar, 10 parts.
XI.—For yellow, orange, or rose-colored shades, then blue, immerse the objects for a longer or shorter time in the following bath: Water, 400 parts, ammoniacal ferrous sulphate, 20 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 40 parts; cupric sulphite, 30 parts; cream of tartar, 10 parts. By prolonging the boiling, the blue tint gives place to yellow, and finally to a fine gray.
XII.—A yellowish brown may be obtained with water, 50 parts; potassium chlorate, 5 parts; nickel carbonate, 2 parts; sal nickel, 5 parts.
XIII.—A dark brown is obtained with water, 50 parts; sal nickel, 10 parts; potassium chlorate, 5 parts.
XIV.—A yellowish brown is obtained with water, 350 parts; a crystallized sodium salt, 10 parts; orpiment, 5 parts.
XV.—Metallic moire is obtained by mixing two liquids: (_a_) Cream of tartar, 5 parts; cupric sulphate, 5 parts; water, 250 parts. (_b_) Water, 125 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 15 parts.
XVI.—A beautiful color is formed with one of the following baths: (_a_) Water, 140 parts; ammonia, 5 parts; potassium sulphide, 1 part. (_b_) Water, 100 parts; ammonium sulphydrate, 2 parts.
«Bronzing of Brass.»—The object is boiled with zinc grains and water saturated with ammoniacal chlorhydrate. A little zinc chloride may be added to facilitate the operation, which is completed as above.
It may also be terminated by plunging the object in the following solution: Water, 2,000 parts; vinegar, 100 parts; sal ammoniac, 475 parts; pulverized verdigris, 500 parts.
«ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES.»
The electrodeposition process is that used in electroplating and electrotyping. It consists in preparing a bath in which a metal salt is in solution, the articles to be plated being suspended so that they hang in the solution, but are insulated. The bath being provided with an anode and cathode for the passing of an electric current, and the article being connected with the cathode or negative pole, the salts are deposited on its surface (on the unprotected parts of its surface), and thus receive a coating or plating of the metal in solution. {572}
When a soft metal is deposited upon a hard metal or the latter upon a metal softer than itself, the exterior metal should be polished and not burnished, and for this reason: If silver is deposited upon lead, for instance, the great pressure which is required in burnishing to produce the necessary polish would cause the softer metal to expand, and consequently a separation of the two metals would result. On the other hand, silver being softer than steel, if the burnisher is applied to silver-coated steel the exterior metal will expand and separate from the subjacent metal.
Many articles which are to receive deposits require to have portions of their surfaces topped off, to prevent the deposit spreading over those parts; for instance, in taking a copy of one side of a bronze medallion, the opposite side must be coated with some kind of varnish, wax, or fat, to prevent deposition; or, in gilding the inside of a cream jug which has been silvered on the outside, varnish must be applied all around the outer side of the edge, for the same reason. For gilding and other hot solutions, copal varnish is generally used; but for cold liquids and common work, an ordinary varnish, such as engravers use for similar purposes, will do very well. In the absence of other substances, a solution of sealing wax, dissolved in naphtha, may be employed.
«Plating of Aluminum.»—The light metal may be plated with almost any other metal, but copper is most commonly employed. Two formulas for coppering aluminum follow:
I.—Make a bath of cupric sulphate, 30 parts; cream of tartar, 30 parts; soda, 25 parts; water, 1,000 parts. After well scouring the objects to be coppered, immerse in the bath. The coppering may also be effected by means of the battery with the following mixture: Sodium phosphate, 50 parts; potassium cyanide, 50 parts; copper cyanide, 50 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.
II.—First clean the aluminum in a warm solution of an alkaline carbonate, thus making its surface rough and porous; next wash it thoroughly in running water, and dip it into a hot solution of hydrochloric acid of about 5 per cent strength. Wash it again in clean water, and then place it in a somewhat concentrated acid solution of copper sulphate, until a uniform metallic deposit is formed; it is then again thoroughly washed and returned to the copper sulphate bath, when an electric current is passed until a coating of copper of the required thickness is obtained.
«Brassing.»—The following recipe is recommended for the bath: Copper acetate, 50 parts, by weight; dry zinc chloride, 25 parts, by weight; crystallized sodium sulphite, 250 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate, 35 parts, by weight; potassium cyanide, 110 parts, by weight. Dissolve in 3,000 parts of water.
«Coppering.»—I.—This is the Dessolle process for the galvanic application of copper. The special advantage claimed is that strong currents can be used, and a deposit obtained of 0.004 inch in 1 1/2 hours. After having cleaned the object to be coppered, with sand or in an acid bath, a first coat is deposited in an ordinary electrolytic bath; then the object is placed in a final bath, in which the electrolyte is projected on the electrode, so as to remove all bubbles of gas or other impurities tending to attach themselves to the surface. The electrolyte employed is simply a solution of cupric sulphate in very dilute sulphuric acid. For the preliminary bath the double cyanide of potassium and copper is made use of.
II.—Those baths which contain cyanide work best, and may be used for all metals. The amount of the latter must not form too large an excess. The addition of a sulphide is very dangerous. It is of advantage that the final bath contain an excess of alkali, but only as ammonia or ammonium carbonate. For a copper salt the acetate is preferable. According to this, the solution A is prepared in the warm, and solution B is added with heating. Solution A: Neutral copper acetate, 30 parts, by weight; crystallized sodium sulphite, 30 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate, 5 parts, by weight; water, 500 parts, by weight. Solution B: Potassium cyanide (98 to 99 per cent), 35 parts, by weight; and water, 500 parts, by weight.
«Coppering Glass.»—I.—Glass vessels may be coated with copper by electrolytic process, by simply varnishing the outer surface of the vessel, and when the varnish is nearly dry, brushing plumbago well over it. A conducting wire is then attached to the varnished surface, which may be conveniently done by employing a small piece of softened gutta percha or beeswax, taking care to employ the plumbago to the part which unites the wire to the plumbagoed surface.
II.—Dissolve gutta percha in essence of turpentine or benzine; apply a coat of the solution on the glass in the places to {573} be coppered and allow to dry; next rub it with graphite and place in the electric bath. The rubber solution is spread with a brush.
«Coppering Plaster Models, etc.»—Busts and similar objects may be coated by saturating them with linseed oil, or better, with beeswax, then well blackleading, or treating them with phosphorous, silver and gold solutions, attaching a number of guiding wires, connected with all the most hollow and distant parts, and then immersing them in the sulphate of copper solution and causing just sufficient copper to be deposited upon them, by the battery process, to protect them, but not to obliterate the fine lines or features.
«Coppering Zinc Plate.»—The zinc plate should first be cleaned with highly diluted hydrochloric acid and the acid completely removed with water. Then prepare an ammoniacal copper solution from 3 parts copper sulphate, 3 parts spirits of sal ammoniac, and 50 parts water. If possible the zinc articles are dipped into this solution or else the surface is coated a few times quickly and uniformly with a flat, soft brush, leaving to dry between the coats. When sufficient copper has precipitated on the zinc, brush off the object superficially.
«Cobaltizing of Metals.»—Following are various processes for cobaltizing on copper or other metals previously coppered: I.—Cobalt, 50 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 25 parts; liquid ammonia, 15 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the cobalt and the sal ammoniac in the distilled water, and add the liquid ammonia.
II.—Pure potash in alcohol, 50 parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the cobalt in half the distilled water and the potash in the other half and unite the two.
III.—Potassium sulphocyanide, 13 parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10 parts; pure potash in alcohol, 2 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Proceed as described above. All these baths are used hot and require a strong current.
«Nickel Plating with the Battery.»—The nickel bath is prepared according to the following formula:
I.—Nickel and ammonium sulphate 10 parts Boracic acid 4 parts Distilled water 175 parts A sheet of nickel is used as an anode.
Perfect cleanliness of the surface to be coated is essential to success. With nickel especially is this the case, as traces of oxide will cause it to show dark streaks. Finger marks will in any case render the deposit liable to peel off.
Cleansing is generally accomplished either by boiling in strong solution of potassium hydrate, or, when possible, by heating to redness in a blow-pipe flame to burn off any adhesive grease, and then soaking in a pickle of dilute sulphuric acid to remove any oxide formed during the heating. In either case it is necessary to subject the article to a process of scratch brushing afterwards; that is, long-continued friction with wire brushes under water, which not only removes any still adhering oxide, but renders the surface bright.
To certain metals, as iron, nickel, and zinc, metallic deposits do not readily adhere. This difficulty is overcome by first coating them with copper in a bath composed as follows:
II.—Potassium cyanide 2 parts Copper acetate, in crystals 2 parts Sodium carbonate, in crystals 2 parts Sodium bisulphite 2 parts Water 100 parts
Moisten the copper acetate with a small quantity of water and add the sodium carbonate dissolved in 20 parts of water. When reaction is complete, all the copper acetate being converted into carbonate, add the sodium bisulphite, dissolved in another 20 parts of water; lastly, add the potassium cyanide, dissolved in the remainder of the water. The finished product should be a colorless liquid.
If a dynamo is not available for the production of a current, a Daniell’s battery is to be recommended, and the “tank” for a small operation may be a glass jar. The jar is crossed by copper rods in connection with the battery; the metal to be deposited is suspended from the rod in connection with the positive pole, and is called the anode. The articles to be coated are suspended by thin copper wires from the rod in connection with the negative pole; these form the cathode. The worker should bear in mind that it is very difficult to apply a thick coating of nickel without its peeling.
«Replating with Battery.»—It is well known to electro-metallurgists that metals deposited by electricity do not adhere so firmly to their kind as to other metals. Thus gold will adhere more tenaciously {574} to silver, copper, or brass, than it will to gold or to a gilt surface, and silver will attach itself more closely to copper or brass than to a silver-plated surface. Consequently, it is the practice to remove, by stripping or polishing the silver from old plated articles before electroplating them. If this were not done, the deposited coating would in all probability “strip,” as it is termed, when the burnisher is applied to it—that is, the newly deposited metal would peel off the underlying silver. It must be understood that these remarks apply to cases in which a good, heavy deposit of silver is required, for, of course, the mere film would not present any remarkable peculiarity.
«Silver Plating.»—The term silver deposit designates a coating of silver which is deposited upon glass, porcelain, china, or other substances. This deposit may be made to take the form of any desired design, and to the observer it has the appearance (in the case of glass) of having been melted on.
Practically all of the plated articles are made by painting the design upon the glass or other surface by means of a mixture of powdered silver, a flux and a liquid to make the mixture in the form of a paint so that it may be readily spread over the surface. This design is then fired in a muffle until the flux melts and causes the silver to become firmly attached to the glass. A thin silver deposit is thus produced, which is a conductor of electricity, and upon which any thickness of silver deposit may be produced by electroplating in the usual cyanide silver-plating bath.
To be successful in securing a lasting deposit a suitable flux must be used. This flux must melt at a lower temperature than the glass upon which it is put, in order to prevent the softening of the articles by the necessary heat and the accompanying distortion. Second, a suitable muffle must be had for firing the glass articles upon which the design has been painted. Not only must a muffle be used in which the heat can be absolutely controlled, but one which allows the slow cooling of the articles. If this is not done they are apt to crack while cooling.
The manufacture of the flux is the most critical part of the silver deposit process. Without a good flux the operation will not be a success. This flux is frequently called an enamel or frit. After a series of experiments it was found that the most suitable flux is a borate of lead. This is easily prepared, fuses before the glass softens, and adheres tenaciously to the glass surface.
To make it, proceed as follows: Dissolve 1/4 pound of acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in 1 quart of water and heat to boiling. Dissolve 1/4 pound of borax in 1 quart of hot water and add to the sugar of lead solution. Borate of lead follows as a white precipitate. This is filtered out and washed until free from impurities. It is then dried.
The precipitated borate of lead is then melted in a porcelain or clay crucible. When in the melted condition it should be poured into a basin of cold water. This serves to granulate and render it easily pulverized. After it has been poured into water it is removed and dried. Before using in the paint it is necessary that this fused borate of lead be ground in a mortar as fine as possible. Unless this is done the deposit will not be smooth.
The silver to be used should be finely powdered silver, which can be purchased in the same manner as bronze powders.
The mixture used for painting the design upon the glass is composed of 2 parts of the powdered silver, and 1 part of the fused borate of lead. Place the parts in a mortar and add just enough oil of lavender to make the mass of a paint-like consistency. The whole is then ground with the pestle until it is as fine as possible. The amount of oil of lavender which is used must not be too great, as it will then be found that a thick layer cannot be obtained upon the glass.
The glass to be treated must be cleaned by scouring with wet pumice stone and washing soda. The glass should be rinsed and dried. The design is then painted on the glass with a brush, painting as thick as possible and yet leaving a smooth, even surface. The glass should be allowed to dry for 24 hours, when it is ready for firing.
When placed in the gas muffle, the glass should be subjected to a temperature of a very low red heat. The borate of lead will melt at this temperature, and after holding this heat a short time to enable the borate of lead to melt and attach itself, the muffle is allowed to cool.
After cooling, the articles are removed and scratch brushed and placed in a silver bath for an electro deposit of silver of a thickness desired.
Before the plating the glass article is dipped into a cyanide dip, or, if found necessary, scoured lightly with pumice {575} stone and cyanide, and then given a dip in the customary blue dip or mercury solution, so as to quickly cover all parts of the surface. It next passes to the regular cyanide silver solution, and is allowed to remain until the desired deposit is obtained.
A little potassium cyanide and some mono-basic potassium citrate in powder form is added from time to time to the bath generally used, which is prepared by dissolving freshly precipitated silver cyanide in a potassium cyanide solution. After this the glass is rinsed and dried, and may be finished by buffing.
«Steel Plating.»—The following is a solution for dipping steel articles before electroplating: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 part; nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.384), 4 parts; water, 120 parts. The article, free from grease, is dipped in the pickle for a second or two.
The following electroplating bath is used: Pure crystallized ferrous sulphate, 40 parts, by weight, and ammonium chloride, 100 parts, by weight, in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. It is of advantage to add to this 100 parts, by weight, of ammonium citrate, in order to prevent the precipitation of basic iron salts, especially at the anode.
«Tin Plating by Electric Bath.»—Most solutions give a dead-white film of tin, and this has to be brightened by friction of some sort, either by scratch brushing, burnishing, polishing, or rubbing with whiting. The bright tin plates are made bright by rolling with polished steel rollers. Small articles may be bright-tinned by immersion in melted tin, after their surfaces have been made chemically clean and bright, all of which processes entail much time and labor. Benzoic acid, boric acid, or gelatin may be tried with a well-regulated current and the solution in good working order, but all will depend upon the exact working of the solution, the same conditions being set up as are present in the deposition of other metals. These substances may be separately tried, in the proportion of 1 ounce to each gallon of the tin solution, by boiling the latter and adding either one during the boiling, as they dissolve much easier with the tin salts than in water separately. Tin articles are usually brightened and polished with Vienna lime or whiting, the first being used with linen rags and the latter with chamois leather. Tin baths must be used hot, not below 75° F., with a suitable current according to their composition. Too strong a current produces a bad color, and the deposit does not adhere well. A current of from 2 to 6 volts will be sufficient. Small tinned articles are brightened by being shaken in a leather bag containing a quantity of bran or by revolving in a barrel with the same substance; but large objects have to be brightened by other means, such as scratch brushing and mopping to give an acceptable finish to the deposited metal.
«GILDING AND GOLD PLATING:»
Genuine gilding readily takes up mercury, while imitation gilding does not or only very slowly. Any coating of varnish present should, however, be removed before conducting the test. Mercurous nitrate has no action on genuine gold, but on spurious gilding a white spot will form which quickly turns dark. A solution of neutral copper chloride does not act upon genuine gold, but on alloys containing copper a black spot will result. Gold fringe, etc., retains its luster in spirit of wine, if the gilding is genuine; if not, the gilding will burn and oxidize. Imitation gilding might be termed “snuff gilding,” as in Germany it consists of dissolved brass, snuff, saltpeter, hydrochloric acid, etc., and is used for tin toys. An expert will immediately see the difference, as genuine gilding has a different, more compact pore formation and a better color. There are also some gold varnishes which are just as good.
The effect of motion while an article is receiving the deposit is most clearly seen during the operation of gilding. If a watch dial, for instance, be placed in the gilding bath and allowed to remain for a few moments undisturbed and the solution of gold has been much worked, it is probable that the dial will acquire a dark fox-red color; but if it be quickly moved about, it instantly changes color and will sometimes even assume a pale straw color. In fact, the color of a deposit may be regulated greatly by motion of the article in the bath—a fact which the operator should study with much attention, when gilding.
The inside of a vessel is gilded by filling the vessel with the gilding solution, suspending a gold anode in the liquid, and passing the current. The lips of cream jugs and the upper parts of vessels of irregular outline are gilded by passing the current from a gold anode through a rag wetted with the gilding solution and laid upon the part.
Sometimes, when gilding the insides of mugs, tankards, etc., which are richly {576} chased or embossed, it will be found that the hollow parts do not receive the deposit at all, or very partially. When this is the case, the article must be rinsed and well scratch brushed, and a little more cyanide added to the solution. The anode must be slightly kept in motion and the battery power increased until the hollow surfaces are coated. Frequent scratch brushing aids the deposit to a great extent by imparting a slight film of brass to the surface.
In gilding chains, brooches, pins, rings, and other articles which have been repaired, i. e., hard soldered, sometimes, it is found that the gold will not deposit freely upon the soldered parts; when such is the case, a little extra scratch brushing applied to the part will assist the operation greatly and it has sometimes been found that dry scratch brushing for an instant—that is, without the stream of beer usually employed—renders the surface a better and more uniform conductor and consequently it will more readily receive the deposit. In fact, dry scratch brushing is very useful in many cases in which it is desirable to impart an artificial coating of brass upon an article to which silver or gold will not readily adhere. In scratch brushing without the employment of beer or some other liquid, however, great care must be taken not to continue the operation too long, as the minute particles of metal given off by the scratch brush would be likely to prove prejudicial to the health of the operator, were he to inhale them to any great extent.
The following solutions are for gilding without a battery: I.—In 1,000 parts of distilled water dissolve in the following order:
Crystalline sodium pyrophosphate 80 parts Twelve per cent solution of hydrocyanic acid 8 parts Crystalline gold chloride 2 parts
Heat to a boiling temperature, and dip the article, previously thoroughly cleaned, therein.
II.—Dissolve in boiling distilled water, 1 part of chloride of gold and 4 parts of cyanide of potassium. Plunge the objects into this solution, while still hot, and leave them therein for several hours, keeping them attached to a copper wire or a very clean strip of zinc. They will become covered with a handsome gold coating.
«Aluminum Gilding.»—I.—Dissolve 6 parts of gold in aqua regia and dilute the solution with distilled water; on the other hand, put 30 parts of lime in 150 parts of distilled water; at the end of 2 hours add the gold solution to the lime, shake all and allow to settle for 5 to 6 hours, decant and wash the precipitate, which is lime aurate. Place this aurate of lime in 1,000 parts of distilled water, with 20 parts of hyposulphite of soda; put all on the fire for 8 to 10 minutes, without allowing to boil; remove and filter. The filtered liquor serves for gilding in the cold, by plunging into this bath the aluminum articles previously pickled by passing through caustic potash and nitric acid. This gilding is obtained without the aid of the battery.
II.—The gold bath is prepared with gold dissolved in the usual way, and the addition of salts, as follows: Gold, 20 parts, by weight; sulphate of soda, 20 parts; phosphate of soda, 660 parts; cyanuret of potassium, 40 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The bath ought to be of the temperature of 68° to 77° F.
«Amalgam Gold Plating.»—Gold amalgam is chiefly used as a plating for silver, copper, or brass. The article to be plated is washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared chalk, to remove any tarnish or rust that might prevent the amalgam from adhering. After having been polished perfectly bright, the amalgam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine scratch brush. It is then set upon a grate over a charcoal fire, or placed into an oven and heated to that degree at which mercury exhales. The gold, when the mercury has evaporated, presents a dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of pulverized niter and alum in equal parts, mixed to a paste with water, and heat again till it is melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up with a steel or bloodstone burnisher.
«Brass Gilding.»—On brass, which is an electropositive metal, an electromagnetic metal, such as gold, can be deposited very cheaply from the dilute solutions of its salts. The deposit is naturally very thin, but still quite adhesive. In preparing it, the proportions stated below have to be accurately observed, otherwise no uniform, coherent coating will result, but one that is uneven and spotted.
I.—In 750 parts, by weight, of water dissolve: Phosphate of soda, 5 parts, and caustic potash, 3 parts, and in 250 parts of water, gold chloride, 1 part, and potassium cyanide, 16 parts. Mix both {577} solutions well and cause the mixture to boil, whereupon the brass articles to be gilded are immersed. The gold in the mixture can be utilized almost entirely. When the solution does not gild well any more a little potassium cyanide is added, and it is used for pre-gilding the articles, which can then be gilded again in a fresh solution. This solution is very weak. A stronger one can be prepared mechanically by dissolving 2 to 3 parts of gold chloride in very little water to which 1 part of saltpeter is added. Into this solution dip linen rags, let them dry in a dark place, and cause them to char into tinder, which is rubbed up in a porcelain dish. Into the powder so made, dip a soft, slightly charred cork, moistened with a little vinegar, or else use only the finger, and rub the gold powder upon the brass articles.
II.—To Give Brass a Golden Color, it is dipped until the desired shade is obtained into a solution of about 175° F., produced as follows: Boil 4 parts of caustic soda, 4 parts of milk sugar, and 100 parts of water for 15 minutes; next add 4 parts of blue vitriol, dissolved in as little water as possible.
«Copper and Brass Gilding.»—The solutions used to gild copper can be generally used also for brass articles. Copper gilding acquires importance because in order to gild iron, steel, tin, and zinc, they must first be coated with copper, if the boiling method is to be employed. Following is Langbein’s bath for copper and brass:
Dissolve 1 part, by weight, of chloride of gold and 16 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide in 250 parts, by weight, of water; dissolve also and separately, 5 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate and 3 parts, by weight, of caustic potash in 750 parts, by weight, of cold water. Mix these solutions and bring them to a boil. If the action subsides, add from 3 to 5 parts, by weight, more potassium cyanide. The polished iron and steel objects must first be copper-plated by dipping them into a solution of 5 parts, by weight, of blue vitriol and 2 parts, by weight, of sulphuric acid in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. They may now be dipped into a hot solution containing 6 parts, by weight, of gold chloride and 22 1/2 parts, by weight, of soda crystals in 75 parts, by weight, of water. This coating of gold may be polished.
«Cold Chemical Gilding.»—The chemical gilding by the wet process is accomplished by E. E. Stahl with the aid of three baths: A gold bath, a neutralization bath, and a reduction bath. The gold bath is prepared from pure hydrochloric acid, 200 parts; nitric acid, 100 parts; and pure gold. The gold solution evaporated to crystallization is made to contain 1 1/2 per cent of gold by diluting with water. The neutralization bath consists of soda lye of 6°, of pure sodium hydroxide, and distilled water. The reduction bath contains a mixture of equal parts of 90 per cent alcohol and distilled water, wherein pure hydrogen has been dissolved. The gilding proper is conducted by first entering the article in the gold bath, next briskly moving it about in the neutralization bath, and finally adding the reducing bath with further strong agitation of the liquid. The residues from the gilding are melted with 3 parts each of potash, powdered borax, and potash niter, thus recovering the superfluous gold. The gilding or silvering respectively produces a deposit of gold or silver of very slight thickness and of the luster of polishing gold. Besides the metal solution an “anti-reducer” is needed, consisting of 50 grams of rectified and rosinified turpentine oil and 10 grams of powdered roll sulphur. From this is obtained, by boiling, a syrupy balsam, to which is added, before use, lavender oil, well-ground basic bismuth nitrate, and the solution for gilding or silvering. The last takes place by a hydrochloric solution of aluminum with the above balsam.
«Colored Gilding.»—A variety of shades of green and red gold can be obtained by the electro-chemical process, which method may be employed for the decoration of various objects of art. In order to produce red gold in the different shades, a plate of pure copper is hung into a rather concentrated gold bath (5 to 6 parts, by weight, per 1,000 parts of liquid), which is connected with the battery in such a manner that gold is deposited on the article immersed in the bath. By the action of the electric current copper is dissolved as well from the copper plate and is separated simultaneously with the gold, so that, after a certain time, a deposit containing a gold copper alloy, conforming in color to the quantities of gold and copper contained in it, is obtained by the electric process. When the desired shade of color of the deposit is reached the copper plate is taken out and replaced by another consisting of the copper gold alloy, likewise produced by electrodeposition, and the articles are now gilt in this liquid. In some large manufactories of gold articles this last coloring is used even for pure {578} gold articles, to give them a popular color. To produce green gold (alloy of gold and silver), a silver plate is first employed, which is dipped into the gold bath and from which enough silver is dissolved until the separating alloy shows the desired shade. The silver plate is then exchanged for a gold-silver plate of the respective color, and the articles are gilt with green gold.
«Gilding German Silver.»—In gilding German silver the solution may be worked at a low temperature, the solution being weakened and a small surface of anode exposed. German silver has the power of reducing gold from its solution in cyanide (especially if the solution be strong) without the aid of the battery; therefore, the solution should be weaker, in fact, so weak that the German silver will not deposit the gold _per se_; otherwise the deposit will take place so rapidly that the gold will peel off when being burnished or even scratch brushed.
«Gilding of Glass.»—I.—In order to produce a good gilding on glass, the gold salt employed must be free from acid. Prepare three solutions, viz.:
_a._ 20 parts acid-free gold chloride in 150 parts of distilled water.
_b._ 5 parts dry sodium hydrate in 80 parts of distilled water.
_c._ 2 1/2 parts of starch sugar in 30 parts distilled water; spirit of wine, 20 parts; and commercial pure 40 per cent aldehyde, 20 parts. These liquids are quickly mixed together in the proportion of 200, 50, and 5 parts, whereupon the mixture is poured on the glass previously cleaned with soda solution, and the gilding will be effected in a short time. The gold coating is said to keep intact for years.
II.—Coat the places to be gilded thinly with a saturated borax solution, lay the gold leaf on this and press down well and uniformly with cotton-wool. Heat the glass over a spirit flame, until the borax melts, and allow to cool off. If the glass is to be decorated with gilt letters or designs, paint the places to be gilded with water-glass solution of 40° Bé.; lay on the gold leaf, and press down uniformly. Then heat the object to 86° F., so that it dries a little, sketch the letters or figures on with a lead pencil, erase the superfluous gold, and allow the articles to dry completely at a higher temperature.
«Green Gilding.»—This can be obtained conveniently by the galvanic process, by means of anodes of sheet platinum with the following composition: Water, 10,000 parts, by weight; sodium phosphate, 200 parts; sodium sulphate, 35 parts; potassium carbonate, 10 parts; 1 ducat gold from gold chloride, potassium cyanide (100 per cent), 20 parts. Dissolve the first three salts in 10,000 parts of cold water and add, with stirring, the gold chloride and potassium cyanide. Before the first use boil down the solution thoroughly about one-half, replacing the evaporating water and filter after cooling, in case a sediment should appear. To this gold bath very carefully add some silver bath. The platinum sheets which are to serve as anodes are employed 1 3/4 inches long, 1/3 inch broad, and 1/100 of an inch thick. With these anodes the gold tone can be somewhat regulated by hanging more or less deeply into the solution during the gilding. The current should have a tension of 3 to 4 volts. In the case of batteries three Busen elements are connected for current tension. It is difficult to produce old gold on silver, especially if the raised portions are to appear green. It is most advantageous first to lightly copper the silver goods, taking the copper off again on the high places by brushing with pumice stone. After that hang at once in the above gold bath. If the embossed portions should be too mat, brighten slightly by scratching with a very fine brass wire brush. In this manner a handsome brown shade is obtained in the deep places and a green color on the raised portions. This process requires practice. Since this method will produce only a very light gilding, a coating of white varnish will protect the articles from tarnishing.
«Incrusting with Gold.»—The article is first made perfectly bright, and those places which are to be gilt are covered with a matt consisting of white lead ground with gum water, made into a paste which can be applied like a thick paint by means of a pen or brush. Those places of the metal surface not covered by the paint are coated with asphalt varnish—a solution of asphaltum in benzine to which oil of turpentine is added to render it less volatile. After this is done lay the article in water, so that the white lead paint comes off, and put it into a gilding bath. By the electric current gold is precipitated on the bright parts of the metal. When the layer of gold is thick enough lift the object from the bath, wash, let dry and lay it into a vessel filled with benzol. The asphalt dissolves in the benzol, and the {579} desired design appears in gold on the bronze or silver ground. This operation may also be performed by coating the whole article with asphalt varnish and executing the design by means of a blunt graver which only takes away the varnish covering without scratching the metal itself. On the parts thus bared gold is deposited by the electric current and the varnish coating is then removed.
«Ivory Gilding.»—I.—The pattern is painted with a fine camel’s-hair pencil, moistened with gold chloride. Hold the ivory over the mouth of a bottle in which hydrogen gas is generated (by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc waste). The hydrogen reduces the auric chloride in the painted places into metallic gold, and the gold film precipitated in this manner will quickly obtain a considerable luster. The gold film is very thin, but durable.
II.—This is especially suitable for monograms. Take gold bronze and place as much as can be taken up with the point of a knife in a color-cup, moistening with a few drops of genuine English gold paint. Coat the raised portions sparingly with gold, using a fine pencil; next, coat the outer and inner borders of the design. When the work is done, and if the staining and gilding have been unsuccessful, which occurs frequently at the outset, lay the work for 5 or 10 minutes in warmed lead water and brush off with pumice stone. By this process very fine shades are often obtained which cannot be produced by mere staining. Since the gold readily wears off on the high places of the work, it is well to lightly coat these portions with a thin shellac solution before gilding. This will cause the gilding to be more permanent.
«Mat Gilding.»—To obtain a handsome mat gilding the article, after having been neatly polished, is passed through a sand-blast, such as is found in glass-grinding and etching establishments; next, the object is carefully cleansed of fine sand (if possible, by annealing and decocting), whereupon it is gilt and subsequently brushed mat with the brass brush. Where there is no sand-blast, the article is deadened with the steel wire brush, which will produce a satisfactory result, after some practice. After that, treatment is as above. The above-mentioned applies in general only to silver articles. In case of articles of gold, brass, or tombac, it is better to previously silver them strongly, since they are too hard for direct treatment with the steel wire brush, and a really correct mat cannot be attained. The brushes referred to are, of course, circular brushes for the lathe.
«Dead-Gilding of an Alloy of Copper and Zinc.»—The parts which are to be deadened must be isolated from those which are to be polished, and also from those which are to be concealed, and which therefore are not to be gilded. For this purpose they are coated with a paste made of Spanish white mixed with water. The articles prepared in this manner are then attached by means of iron wire to an iron rod and suspended in a furnace constructed for this process. The floor of this furnace is covered on four sides with plates of enameled earthenware for receiving the portions spattered about of the salt mixture given off later.
In the middle is an oven constructed like a cooking stove, on which is an iron tripod for carrying the deadening pan; this latter is cemented into a second pan of cast iron, the intervening space being filled up with stove cement. In the middle of the pan is the bottom or sill, provided with a thick cast-iron plate, forming the hearth. On all four sides of the latter are low brick walls, connecting with the floor of the furnace, and the whole is covered with thick sheet metal. On the side of the furnace opposite the side arranged for carrying the pans, is a boiler in which boiling water is kept. On the same side of the furnace, but outside it, is a large oval tub of a capacity of about 700 or 800 quarts, which is kept filled with water. The upper portions of the staves of this tub are covered with linen to absorb all parts that are spattered about.
«Powder for Gilding Metals.»—I.—In a solution of perchloride of gold soak small pieces of linen which are dried over the solution so that the drops falling therefrom are saved. When the rags are dry burn them, carefully gathering the ashes, which ashes, stirred with a little water, are used for gilding either with pumice stone or with a cork. For the hollows, use a small piece of soft wood, linden, or poplar.
II.—Dissolve the pure gold or the leaf in nitro-muriatic acid and then precipitate it by a piece of copper or by a solution of iron sulphate. The precipitate, if by copper, must be digested with distilled vinegar and then washed by pouring water over it repeatedly and dried. This precipitate will be in the form of very fine powder; it works better and is {580} more easily burnished than gold leaf ground with honey.
«Gilding Pastes.»—I.—A good gilding paste is prepared as follows: Slowly melt an ounce of pure lard over the fire, add 1/2 a teaspoonful of juice of squills, and stir up the mixture well, subsequently adding 10 drops of spirit of sal ammoniac. If the mixture is not stiff enough after cooling, the firmness may be enhanced by an admixture of 1/3 to 1/2 ounce of pure melted beef-tallow. A larger addition of tallow is necessary if the white of an egg is added. After each addition the mixture should be stirred up well and the white of egg should be added, not to the warm, but almost cold, mixture.
II.—Alum, 3 parts, by weight; saltpeter, 6 parts; sulphate of zinc, 3 parts; common salt, 3 parts. Mix all into a thick paste, dip the articles into it, and heat them, until nearly black, on a piece of sheet iron over a clear coke or charcoal fire; then plunge them into cold water.
«Red Gilding.»—This is obtained by the use of a mixture of equal parts of verdigris and powdered tartar, with which the article is coated; subsequently burning it off on a moderate coal fire. Cool in water, dip the article in a pickle of tartar, scratch it, and a handsome red shade will be the result, which has not attacked the gilding in any way.
«Regilding Mat Articles.»—In order to regenerate dead gold trinkets without having to color them again—which is, as a rule, impossible, because the gold is too weak to stand a second coloring—it is advisable to copper these articles over before gilding them. After the copper has deposited all over, the object, well cleaned and scratched, is hung in the gilding. By this manipulation much time and vexation is saved, such as every jeweler will have experienced in gilding mat gold articles. The article also acquires a faultless new appearance. Here are two recipes for the preparation of copper baths:
I.—Distilled boiling water, 2,000 parts, by weight; sodium sulphate, 10 parts; potassium cyanide, 15 parts; cupric acetate, 15 parts; sodium carbonate, 20 parts; ammonia, 12 parts.
II.—Dissolve crystallized verdigris, 20 parts, by weight, and potassium cyanide, 42 parts, in 1,000 parts of boiling water.
«Silk Gilding.»—This can only be accomplished by the electric process. The fiber is first rendered conductive by impregnation with silver nitrate solution and reduction of same with grape sugar and diluted alkali, or, best of all, with Raschig’s reduction salt. In place of the silver nitrate, a solution of lead acetate or copper acetate may be employed. The silk thus impregnated is treated in the solution of an alkaline sulphide, e. g., sodium sulphide, ammonium sulphide, or else with hydrogen sulphide, thus producing a conductive coating of metallic sulphide. Upon this gold can be precipitated by electrodeposition in the usual way.
«Spot Gilding.»—Gilding in spots, producing a very fine appearance, is done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal where the gilding is not to appear; the gold will then be deposited in those spots only where there is no oil, and the oil is easily removed when the work is finished.
«Gilding Steel.»—Pure gold is dissolved in aqua regia; the solution is allowed to evaporate until the acid in excess has gone. The precipitate is placed in clean water, 3 times the quantity of sulphuric acid is added and the whole left to stand for 24 hours in a well-closed flask, until the ethereal gold solution floats on top. By moistening polished steel with the solution a very handsome gilding is obtained. By the application of designs with any desired varnish the appearance of a mixture of gold and steel may be imparted to the article.
«Wood Gilding.»—I.—The moldings, ledges, etc., to be gilded are painted with a strong solution of joiners’ glue, which is left to harden well, whereupon 8 to 10 coatings of glue mixed with whitening are given. Each coat must, of course, be thoroughly dry, before commencing the next. After this has been done, paint with a strong mixture of glue and minium, and while this is still wet, put on the gold leaflets and press them down with cotton. To impart the fine gloss, polish with a burnishing agate after the superfluous gold has been removed.
II.—Proceed as above, but take silver leaf instead of gold leaf, and after all is thoroughly dry and the superfluous silver has been removed, apply a coating of good gold lacquer. The effect will be equally satisfactory.
«Zinc Gilding.»—I.—Gilding by means of zinc contact may be accomplished with the following formula: Two parts, by weight, of gold chloride; 5 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide; 10 parts, {581} by weight, of sulphite of soda; and 60 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water. When used the bath must be hot. A cold bath without the addition of potassium cyanide may also be used for gilding, and this consists of 7 parts, by weight, of gold chloride; 30 parts, by weight, of yellow prussiate of potash; 30 parts, by weight, of potash; 30 parts, by weight, of common salt in 1,000 parts of water.
II.—To gild zinc articles, dissolve 20 parts of gold chloride in 20 parts of distilled water, and 80 parts of potassium cyanide in 80 parts of water, mix the solutions, stir a few times, filter, and add tartar, 5 parts, and fine chalk, 100 parts. The resulting paste is applied with a brush. Objects of copper and brass are previously coated with zinc. This is done in the following manner: Heat a concentrated sal ammoniac solution to the boiling point with addition of zinc dust and immerse the thoroughly cleaned objects until a uniform zinc coating has formed. Or boil the articles in a concentrated caustic soda solution with zinc dust.
«OXIDIZING PROCESSES:»
«Aluminum Plating.»—I.—To plate iron and other metals with pure aluminum, deoxidize the pieces with a solution of borax and place them in an enameling oven, fitted for receiving metallic vapors. Raise the temperature to 1,832° to 2,732° F. Introduce the aluminum vapors generated by heating a quantity of the metal on the sand bath. When the vapors come in contact with the metallic surfaces, the aluminum is deposited. The vapors that have not been used or are exhausted may be conducted into a vessel of water.
«To Copper Aluminum», take
II.—Sulphate of copper 30 parts Cream of tartar 30 parts Soda 25 parts Water 1,000 parts
The articles to be coppered are merely dipped in this bath, but they must be well cleaned previously.
«Antimony Baths.»—I.—By dissolving 15 parts, by weight, of tartar emetic and 15 parts of prepared tartar in 500 parts of hot water and adding 45–60 parts of hydrochloric acid and 45–60 parts of powdered antimony, brass becomes coated in the boiling liquid with beautiful antimony colors. In this manner it is possible to impart to brass golden, copper-red, violet, or bluish-gray shades, according to a shorter or longer stay of the objects in the liquid. These antimony colors possess a handsome luster, are permanent, and never change in the air.
II.—Carbonate of soda, 200 parts, by weight; sulphide of antimony, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Heat the whole in a porcelain capsule for 1 hour, keeping constantly in ebullition; next, filter the solution, which, on cooling, leaves a precipitate, which boil again with the liquid for one-half hour, whereupon the bath is ready for use.
«To Coat Brass Articles with Antimony Colors.»—Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of tartar emetic and 15 parts, by weight, of powdered tartar in 500 parts, by weight, of hot water and add 50 parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid, and 50 parts, by weight, of powdered antimony. Into this mixture, heated to a boil, the immersed articles become covered with luster colors, a golden shade appearing at first, which is succeeded by one of copper red. If the objects remain longer in the liquid, the color passes into violet and finally into bluish gray.
«Brassing.»—I.—To brass small articles of iron or steel drop them into a quart of water and 1/2 ounce each of sulphate of copper and protochloride of tin. Stir the articles in this solution until desired color is obtained.
II.—Brassing Zinc, Steel, Cast Iron, etc.—Acetate of copper, 100 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 250 parts; bisulphite of soda, 200 parts; liquid ammonia, 100 parts; protochloride of zinc, 80 parts; distilled water, 10,000 parts. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium and the bisulphite of soda. On the other hand, dissolve the ammonia in three-fourths of the water and the protochloride of zinc in the remaining water; next, mix the two solutions. This bath is excellent for brassing zinc and is used cold.
III.—Acetate of copper, 125 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 400 parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts; liquid ammonia, 100 parts; distilled water, 8,000 to 10,000 parts. Proceed as above described.
IV.—Acetate of copper, 150 parts, by weight; carbonate of soda, 1,000 parts; cyanide of potassium, 550 parts; bisulphite of soda, 200 parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts. Proceed as above. This bath serves for iron, cast iron, and steel, and is used cold. {582}
«Colored Rings on Metal.»—Dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of caustic potash in 2,000 parts of water and add 50 parts of litharge. Boil this solution for half an hour, taking care that a little of the litharge remains undissolved. When cold, pour off the clear fluid; it is then ready for use. Move the object to and fro in the solution; a yellow-brown color appears, becoming in turn white, yellow, red, and finally a beautiful violet and blue. As soon as the desired color is obtained, remove the article quickly from the solution, rinse in clean water, and dry in sawdust.
«Green or Gold Color for Brass.»—French articles of brass, both cast and made of sheet brass, mostly exhibit a golden color, which is produced by a copper coating. This color is prepared as follows: Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda and 40 parts of milk sugar in 1,000 parts of water and boil a quarter of an hour. The solution finally acquires a dark-yellow color. Now add to the mixture, which is removed from the fire, 40 parts of concentrated cold blue vitriol solution. A red precipitate is obtained from the vitriol, which falls to the bottom at 167° F. Next a wooden sieve, fitted to the vessel, is put into the liquid with the polished brass articles. Toward the end of the second minute the golden color is usually dark enough. The sieve with the articles is taken out and the latter are washed and dried in sawdust. If they remain in the copper solution they soon assume a green color, which in a short time passes into yellow and bluish green, and finally into the iridescent colors. These shades must be produced slowly at a temperature of 133° to 135° F.
«To Give a Green Color to Gold Jewelry.»—Take verdigris, 120 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 120 parts; nitrate of potassium, 45 parts; sulphate of zinc, 16 parts. Grind the whole and mix with strong vinegar. Place on the fire and boil in it the articles to be colored.
«Nickeling by Oxidation.»—I.—Nickeling may be performed on all metals cold, by means of nickelene by the Mitressey process, without employing electrical apparatus, and any desired thickness deposited. It is said to be more solid than nickel.
First Bath.—Clean the objects and take 5 parts, by weight, of American potash per 25 parts, by weight, of water. If the pieces are quite rusted, take 2 parts, by weight, of chlorhydric acid per 1 part, by weight, of water. The bath is employed cold.
Second Bath.—Put 250 parts, by weight, of sulphate of copper in 25,000 parts, by weight, of water. After dissolution add a few drops of sulphuric acid, drop by drop, stirring the liquid with a wooden stick until it becomes as clear as spring water.
Take out the pieces thus cleaned and place them in what is called the copper bath, attaching to them leaves of zinc; they will assume a red tint. Then pass them into the nickeling bath, which is thus composed:
By weight Cream of tartar 20 parts Sal ammoniac, in powder 10 parts Kitchen salt 5 parts Oxychlorhydrate of tin 20 parts Sulphate of nickel, single 30 parts Sulphate of nickel, double 50 parts
Remove the pieces from the bath in a few minutes and rub them with fine sand on a moist rag. Brilliancy will thus be obtained. To improve the appearance, apply a brass wire brush. The nickeling is said to be more solid and beautiful than that obtained by the electrical method.
Brilliancy may be also imparted by means of a piece of buff glued on a wooden wheel and smeared with English red stuff. This will give a glazed appearance.
II.—Prepare a bath of neutral zinc chloride and a neutral solution of a nickel salt. The objects are immersed in the bath with small pieces of zinc and kept boiling for some time. This process has given satisfactory results. It is easy to prepare the zinc chloride by dissolving it in hydrochloric acid, as well as a saturated solution of ammoniacal nickel sulphate in the proportion of two volumes of the latter to one of the zinc chloride. The objects should be boiled for 15 minutes in the bath. Nickel salt may also be employed, preferably in the state of chloride.
«Pickling Solutions.»—Oxidized copper, brass, and German silver articles must be cleansed by acid solutions. In the case of brass alloys, this process, through which the object acquires a dull yellow surface, is known as dipping or yellowing. The treatment consists of {583} several successive operations. The article is first boiled in a lye composed of 1 part caustic soda and 10 parts water, or in a solution of potash or soda or in limewater; small objects may be placed in alcohol or benzine. When all the grease has been removed, the article is well rinsed with water, and is then ready for the next pickling. It is first plunged into a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 10 parts water, and allowed to remain in it till it acquires a reddish tinge. It is then immersed in 40° Bé. nitric acid, for the purpose of removing the red tinge, and then for a few seconds into a bath of 1 part nitric acid, 1.25 parts sulphuric acid of 66° Bé., 0.01 part common salt, and 0.02 parts lampblack. The article must then be immediately and carefully washed with water till no trace of acid remains. It is then ready for galvanizing or drying in bran or beech sawdust. When articles united with soft solder are pickled in nitric acid, the solder receives a gray-black color.
«Palladiumizing Watch Movements.»—Palladium is successfully employed for coating parts of timepieces and other pieces of metals to preserve them against oxidation. To prepare a palladium bath use the following ingredients: Chloride of palladium, 10 parts, by weight; phosphate of ammonia, 100 parts; phosphate of soda, 300 parts; benzoic acid, 8 parts; water, 2,000 parts.
«Metal Browning by Oxidation.»—The article ought first to be cleaned with either nitric acid or muriatic acid, then immersed in an acid affecting the metal and dried in a warm place. A light coating is thus formed. For a second coating acetic or formic acid is used preferably for aluminum, nickel, and copper; but for iron and steel, muriatic or nitric acid. After cleaning, the article is placed in a solution of tannin or gallic acid, and is then dried in a warm place as before. The second coating is of a yellowish-brown color. On placing it near the fire, the color can be deepened until it becomes completely black; care must be taken to withdraw it when the desired shade is produced. Instead of the acids employed for the first coating, ammonia may be used.
«Silvering by Oxidation.»—The oxidizing of silver darkens it, and gives an antique appearance that is highly prized.
I.—The salts of silver are colorless when the acids, the elements of which enter into their composition, are not colored, but they generally blacken on exposure to light. It is easy, therefore, to blacken silver and obtain its oxide; it is sufficient to place it in contact with a sulphide, vapor of sulphur, sulphohydric acids, such as the sulphides or polysulphides of potash, soda, dissolved in water and called _eau de barège_. The chlorides play the same part, and the chloride of lime in solution or simply Javelle water may be used. It is used hot in order to accelerate its action. The bath must be prepared new for each operation for two reasons: (1) It is of little value; (2) the sulphides precipitate rapidly and give best effects only at the time of their direct precipitations. The quantity of the reagent in solution, forming the bath, depends upon the thickness of the deposit of silver. When this is trifling, the oxidation penetrates the entire deposit and the silver exfoliates in smaller scales, leaving the copper bare. It is necessary, therefore, in this case to operate with dilute baths inclosing only about 45 grains of oxidizant at most per quart. The operation is simple: Heat the necessary quantity of water, add the sulphide or chloride and agitate to effect the solution of the mixture, and then at once plunge in the silver-plated articles, leaving them immersed only for a few seconds, which exposure is sufficient to cover it with a pellicle of deep black-blue silver. After withdrawing they are plunged in clean cold water, rinsed and dried, and either left mat or else polished, according to the nature of the articles.
Should the result not be satisfactory, the articles are brightened by immersing them in a lukewarm solution of cyanide of potassium. The oxide, the true name of which would be the sulphuret or chloruret, can be raised only on an object either entirely of silver or silver plated.
II.—Rub the article with a mixture of graphite, 6 parts, and powdered bloodstone, 1 part, moistened with oil of turpentine. Allow to dry and brush with soft brushes passed over wax. Or else, brush with a soft brush wet with alcoholic or aqueous platinic chloride solution of 1 in 20.
III.—Sulphurizing is effected with the following methods: Dip in a solution heated to about 175° F., of potassium sulphide, 5 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; or, calcium sulphide, 1 to 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 4 parts; water, 1,000 parts. {584}
IV.—In the following solution articles of silver obtain a warm brown tone: Copper sulphate, 20 parts, by weight; potassium nitrate, 10 parts; ammonium chloride, 20 parts. By means of bromine, silver and silver alloys receive a black coloring. On engraved surfaces a niello-like effect may be produced thereby.
«Oxidized Steel.»—I.—Mix together bismuth chloride, 1 part; mercury bichloride, 2 parts; copper chloride, 1 part; hydrochloric acid, 6 parts; alcohol, 5 parts; and water, 5 parts. To use this mixture successfully the articles to be oxidized must be cleaned perfectly and freed from all grease, which is best accomplished by boiling them in a soda solution or by washing in spirit of wine. Care should be taken not to touch the article with the fingers again after this cleaning. However clean the hand may be, it always has grease on it and leaves spots after touching, especially on steel. Next the object is dipped into the liquid, or if this is not possible the solution is applied thin but evenly with a brush, pencil, or rabbit’s foot. When the liquid has dried, the article is placed for a half hour in simple boiling water. If a very dark shade is desired the process is repeated until the required color is attained.
II.—Apply, by means of a sponge, a solution of crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts; solid butter of antimony, 2 parts; and gallic acid, 1 part in 5 parts of water. Dry the article in the air and repeat the treatment until the desired shade is reached. Finally rinse with water, dry, and rub with linseed-oil varnish.
«Tinning by Oxidation.»—A dipping bath for tinning iron is prepared by dissolving 300 parts, by weight, ammonia alum (sulphate of alumina and sulphate of ammonia) and 10 parts of melted stannous chloride (tin salt) in 20,000 parts of warm water. As soon as the solution boils, the iron articles, previously pickled and rinsed in fresh water, are plunged into the fluid; they are immediately covered with a layer of tin of a beautiful dull-white color, which can be made bright by treatment in a tub or sack. Small quantities of tin salt are added from time to time as may be required to replace the tin deposited on the iron. This bath is also well adapted for tinning zinc, but here also, as with iron, the deposit is not sufficient to prevent oxidation of the metal below. Larger articles tinned in this way are polished by scratch brushing. In tinning zinc by this process, the ammonia alum may be replaced by any other kind of alum, or aluminum sulphate may be used alone; experience has shown, however, that this cannot be done with iron, cast iron, or steel. If it is desired to tin other metals besides iron and zinc in the solution which we have described, the battery must be resorted to; if the latter is used, the above solution should be applied in preference to any other.
«PATINA OXIDIZING PROCESSES:»
«Patina of Art Bronzes.»—For all patinas, whether the ordinary brown of commerce, the green of the Barye bronzes, or the dark-orange tint of the Florentine bronzes, a brush is used with pigments varying according to the shade desired and applied to the metal after it is warmed. Recipes are to be met with on every hand that have not been patented. But the details of the operation are the important thing, and often the effect is produced by a handicraft which it is difficult to penetrate.
I.—A dark tint may be obtained by cleaning the object and applying a coat of hydrosulphate of ammonia; then, after drying it, by rubbing with a brush smeared with red chalk and plumbago. The copper may also be moistened with a dilute solution of chloride of platina and warmed slightly, or still by plunging it in a warm solution of the hydrochlorate of antimony. For the verde antique a solution is recommended composed of 200 grams of acetic acid of 8° strength, the same quantity of common vinegar, 30 parts, by weight, of carbonate of ammonia; 10 parts, by weight, of sea salt; with the same quantities of cream of tartar and acetate of copper and a little water. To obtain the bronze of medals several processes afford a selection: For example, the piece may be dipped in a bath consisting of equal parts of the perchloride and the sesquiazotate of iron, warming to the evaporation of the liquid, and rubbing with a waxed brush.
II.—Dissolve copper nitrate, 10 parts, by weight, and kitchen salt, 2 parts, in 500 parts of water and add a solution of ammonium acetate obtained by neutralization of 10 parts of officinal spirit of sal ammoniac with acetic acid to a faintly acid reaction, and filling up with water to 500 parts. Immerse the bronze, allow to dry, brush off superficially and repeat this until the desired shade of color has been obtained. {585}
«A Permanent Patina for Copper.»—
Green.—
I.—Sodium chloride 37 parts Ammonia water 75 parts Ammonium chloride 37 parts Strong wine vinegar 5,000 parts
Mix and dissolve. Apply to object to be treated, with a camel’s-hair pencil. Repeat the operation until the desired shade of green is reached.
Yellow Green.—
II.—Oxalic acid 5 parts Ammonium chloride 10 parts Acetic acid, 30 per cent dilution 500 parts
Mix and dissolve. Use as above indicated. The following will produce the same result:
III.—Potassium oxalate, acid 4 parts Ammonium chloride 16–17 parts Vinegar containing 6 per cent of acetic acid 1,000 parts
IV.—Bluish Green.—After using the first formula (for green) pencil over with the following solution:
Ammonium chloride 40 parts Ammonium carbonate 120 parts Water 1,000 parts
Mix and dissolve.
Greenish Brown.—
V.—Potassium sulphuret 5 parts Water 1,000 parts
Mix and dissolve. With this, pencil over object to be treated, let dry, then pencil over with 10 parts a mixture of a saturated solution of ammonia water and acetic acid and 5 parts of ammonium chloride thinned with 1,000 parts of water. Let dry again, then brush off well. Repeat, if necessary, until the desired hue is attained.
Another Blue Green.—
VI.—Corrosive sublimate 25 parts Potassium nitrate 86 parts Borax 56 parts Zinc oxide 113 parts Copper acetate 220–225 parts
Mix and heat together on the surface of the object under treatment.
VII.—Brown.—The following is a Parisian method of producing a beautiful deep brown:
Potassium oxalate, acid 3 parts Ammonium chloride 15 parts Water, distilled 280 parts
Mix and dissolve. The object is penciled over with this several times, each time allowing the solution to dry before putting on any more. The process is slow, but makes an elegant finish.
«Green Patina Upon Copper.»—To produce a green patina upon copper take tartaric acid, dilute it half and half with boiling water; coat the copper with this; allow to dry for one day and rub the applied layer off again the next day with oakum. The coating must be done in dry weather, else no success will be obtained. Take hydrochloric acid and dilute it half and half with boiling water, but the hydrochloric acid should be poured in the water, not vice-versa, which is dangerous. In this hydrochloric acid water dissolve as much zinc as it can solve and allow to settle. The clear liquid is again diluted half with boiling water and the copper is coated with this a few times.
«Black Patina.»—Black patina is obtained by coating with tallow the pieces to be oxidized and lighting with a rosin torch. Finally, wipe the reliefs and let dry.
«Blue-Black Patina.»—Use a dilute solution of chloride of antimony in water and add a little free hydrochloric acid. Apply with a soft brush, allow the article to dry and rub with a flannel. If expense is no object, employ a solution of chloride of palladium, which gives a magnificent blue black. It is necessary, however, to previously clean the articles thoroughly in a hot solution of carbonate of soda, in order to remove the dirt and greasy matter, which would prevent the patina from becoming fixed.
«Red Patina.»—The following is a new method of making a red patina, the so-called blood bronze, on copper and copper alloys. The metallic object is first made red hot, whereby it becomes covered with a coating consisting of cupric oxide on the surface and cuprous oxide beneath. After cooling, it is worked upon with a polishing plate until the black cupric oxide coating is removed and the cuprous oxide appears. The metal now shows an intense red color, {586} with a considerable degree of luster, both of which are so permanent that it can be treated with chemicals, such as blue vitriol, for instance, without being in the least affected.
If it is desired to produce a marbled surface, instead of an even red color, borax or some chemical having a similar action is sprinkled upon the metal during the process of heating. On the places covered by the borax, oxidation is prevented, and after polishing, spots of the original metallic color will appear in the red surface. These can be colored by well-known processes, so as to give the desired marbled appearance.
«PLATINIZING:»
«Platinizing Aluminum.»—Aluminum vessels coated with a layer of platinum are recommended in place of platinum vessels, when not exposed to very high temperatures. The process of platinizing is simple, consisting in rubbing the aluminum surface, previously polished, with platinic chloride, rendered slightly alkaline. The layer of platinum is made thicker by repeated application. Potash lye is carefully added to a solution of 5 to 10 per cent of platinic chloride in water till a slightly alkaline reaction is produced on filtering paper or a porcelain plate by means of phenolphthalein. This solution must always be freshly prepared, and is the best for the purpose. Neither galvanizing nor amalgamating will produce the desired result. Special care must be taken that the aluminum is free from iron, otherwise black patches will arise which cannot be removed. Vessels platinized in this way must not be cleaned with substances such as sea-sand, but with a 5 to 10 per cent solution of oxalic acid in water, followed by thorough rinsing in water. These vessles are said to be specially suitable for evaporating purposes.
«Platinizing Copper and Brass.»—I.—The articles are coated with a thin layer of platinum in a boiling solution of platinum sal ammoniac, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; and water, 40 parts, and next polished with chalk. A mixture of equal parts of platinum sal ammoniac and tartar may also be rubbed on the objects. Steel and iron articles can be platinized with an ethereal solution of platinic chloride. For small jewelry the boiling solution of platinic chloride, 10 parts; cooking salt, 200 parts; and water, 1,000 parts, is employed, which is rendered alkaline with soda lye. In this, one may also work with zinc contact.
II.—Heat 800 parts of sal ammoniac and 10 parts of platinum sal ammoniac to the boiling point with 400 parts of water, in a porcelain dish, and place the articles to be platinized into this, whereby they soon become covered with a coating of platinum. They are then removed from the liquid, dried and polished with whiting.
«Platinizing on Glass or Porcelain.»—First dissolve the platinum at a moderate temperature in aqua regia, and next evaporate the solution to dryness, observing the following rules: When the solution commences to turn thick it is necessary to diminish the fire, while carrying the evaporation so far that the salt becomes dry, but the solution should not be allowed to acquire a brown color, which occurs if the heat is too strong. The result of this first operation is chloride of platina. When the latter has cooled off it should be dissolved in alcohol (95 per cent). The dissolution accomplished, which takes place at the end of 1 or 2 hours, throw the solution gradually into four times its weight of essence of lavender, then put into a well-closed flask.
For use, dip a brush into the solution and apply it upon the objects to be platinized, let dry and place in the muffle, leaving them in the oven for about one-half hour. In this operation one should be guided as regards the duration of the baking by the hardness or fusibility of the objects treated. The platinization accomplished, take a cotton cloth, dipped into whiting in the state of pulp, and rub the platinated articles with this, rinsing with water afterwards.
«Platinizing Metals.»—Following are several processes of platinizing on metals:
It is understood that the metals to be covered with platinum must be copper or coppered. All these baths require strong batteries.
I.—Take borate of potash, 300 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.
II.—Carbonate of soda, 250 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 10 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.
III.—Sulphocyanide of potash, 12 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; carbonate of soda, 12 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.
IV.—Borate of soda, 500 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. {587}
«SILVERING, SILVER-PLATING, AND DESILVERING:»
See also Silvering by Oxidation, under Oxidation Processes, under Plating.
«Antique Silver.»—There are various processes for producing antique silver, either fat or oxidized:
To a little copal varnish add some finely powdered ivory black or graphite. Thin with spirits of turpentine and rub with a brush dipped into this varnish the objects to be treated. Allow to dry for an hour and wipe off the top of the articles with some rag, so that the black remains only in the hollows. If a softer tint is desired, apply again with a dry brush and wipe as the first time. The coating of black will be weaker and the shade handsomer.
«Britannia Silver-Plating.»—I.—The article should first be cleaned and then rubbed by means of a wet cloth with a pinch of powder obtained by mixing together: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potassium, 2 parts; chalk, 5 parts. Then wipe with a dry cloth, and polish well with rouge to give brilliancy.
II.—By the electric method the metal is simply plunged into a hot saturated solution of crude potassium carbonate, and the plating is then done directly, using a strong electrical current. The potassium carbonate solution dissolves the surface of the britannia metal and thus enables the silver to take a strong hold on the article.
«To Silver Brass, Bronze, Copper, etc.»—I.—In order to silver copper, brass, bronze, or coppered metallic articles, dissolve 10 parts of lunar caustic in 500 parts of distilled water, and 35 parts of potassium cyanide (98 per cent) in 500 parts of distilled water; mix both solutions with stirring, heat to 176° to 194° F. in an enameled vessel, and enter the articles, well cleansed of fat and impurities, until a uniform coating has formed.
II.—Zinc, brass, and copper are silvered by applying a paste of the following composition: Ten parts of silver nitrate dissolved in 50 parts of distilled water, and 25 parts of potassium cyanide dissolved in distilled water; mix, stir, and filter. Moisten 100 parts of whiting and 400 parts of powdered tartar with enough of the above solution to make a paste-like mass, which is applied by means of a brush on the well-cleaned objects. After the drying of this coating, rinse off, and dry in sawdust.
III.—To silver brass and copper by friction, rub on the articles, previously cleaned of grease, a paste of silver chloride, 10 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts; powdered tartar, 20 parts; and the necessary water, using a rag.
«Desilvering.»—I.—It often happens in plating that, notwithstanding all precautions, some pieces have failed and it is necessary to commence the work again. For removing the silver that has been applied, a rapid method is to take sulphuric acid, 100 parts, and nitrate of potash, 10 parts. Put the sulphuric acid and the nitrate of potash (saltpeter) in a vessel of stoneware or porcelain, heated on the water bath. When the silver has been removed from the copper, rinse the object several times and recommence the silvering. This bath may be used repeatedly, taking care each time to put it in a stoppered bottle. When it has been saturated with silver and has no more strength, decant the deposit, boil the liquor to dryness, add the residue to the deposit, and melt in a crucible to regenerate the metal.
II.—To dissolve the silver covering of a metallic object, a bath is made use of, composed of 66 per cent sulphuric acid, 3 parts, and 40 per cent nitric acid, 1 part. This mixture is heated to about 176° F., and the objects to be desilvered are suspended in it by means of a copper wire. The operation is accomplished in a few seconds. The objects are washed and then dried in sawdust.
«To Silver Glass Balls and Plate Glass.»—The following is a method for silvering the glass balls which are used as ornaments in gardens, glass panes, and concave mirrors: Dissolve 300 parts of nitrate of silver and 200 parts of ammonia in 1,300 parts of distilled water. Add 35 parts of tartaric acid dissolved in 4 times its weight of water. Dilute the whole with 15,000 to 17,000 parts of distilled water. Prepare a second solution containing twice the amount of tartaric acid as the preceding one. Apply each of these solutions successively for 15 to 20 minutes on the glass to be silvered, which must previously have been cleaned and dried. When the silvering is sufficient, wash the object with hot water, let dry, and cover with a brown varnish.
«Iron Silver-Plating.»—I.—Iron articles are plated with quicksilver in a solution of nitrate of mercury before being silvered. The quicksilver is then removed by heating to 572° F. The articles may also be first tinned to economize the silver. Steel is dipped in a mixture of {588} nitrate of silver and mercury, each dissolved separately in the proportion of 5 parts, by weight, to 300 parts, by weight, of water, then wiped to remove the black film of carbon, and silvered till a sample dipped in a solution of blue vitriol ceases to turn red. According to H. Krupp, articles made of an alloy of nickel, copper, and zinc, such as knives, forks, spoons, etc., should be coated electrically with nickel, put into a solution of copper like that used for galvanic coppering, and then electroplated.
II.—A brilliant silver color may be imparted to iron (from which all grease has been previously removed) by treating it with the following solution: Forty parts, by weight, chloride of antimony; 10 parts, by weight, powdered arsenious acid; and 80 parts levigated hematite are mixed with 1,000 parts of 90 per cent alcohol and gently heated for half an hour on a water bath. A partial solution takes place, and a small cotton pad is then dipped in the liquid and applied with a gentle pressure to the iron. A thin film consisting of arsenic and antimony is precipitated, as described by Dr. Langbein, in his “Handbuch der galv. Metallniederschläge.” The brilliancy of the effect depends upon the care with which the iron has previously been polished.
«To Silver-Plate Metals.»—I.—Nitrate of silver, 30 parts, by weight; caustic potash, 30 parts; distilled water, 100 parts. Put the nitrate of silver into the water; one-quarter hour afterwards add the potash, and, when the solution is done, filter. It is sufficient to dip the objects to be silvered into this bath, moving them about in it for 1 or 2 minutes at most; then rinsing and drying in sawdust. It is necessary to pickle the pieces before using the bath. To make the nitrate of silver one’s self, take 30 parts of pure silver and 60 parts of nitric acid, and when the metal is dissolved add the caustic potash and the water.
II.—Kayser’s silvering liquid, which is excellent for all kinds of metals, is prepared from lunar caustic, 11 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 20 parts; sal ammoniac, 12 parts; whiting, 20 parts; and distilled water, 200 parts. The articles must be cleaned well.
«Mosaic Silver.»—This compound consists of tin, 3 parts, by weight; bismuth, 3 parts; and mercury, 1 1/2 parts. The alloy of these metals is powdered finely, thus forming a silvery mass used for imitation silvering of metals, paper, wood, etc. In order to impart to metals, especially articles of copper and brass, an appearance similar to silver, they are made perfectly bright. The powder of the mosaic silver is mixed with six times the volume of bone ashes, adding enough water to cause a paste and rubbing this on the metallic surface by means of a cork of suitable shape. In order to silver paper by means of this preparation it is ground with white of egg, diluted mucilage, or varnish, and treated like a paint.
«Pastes for Silvering.»—I.—Carbonate of lime, 65 parts; sea salt, 60 parts; cream of tartar, 35 parts; nitrate of silver, 20 parts. Bray all in a mortar, not adding the carbonate of lime until the other substances are reduced to a fine powder. Next, add a little water to form a homogeneous paste, which is preserved in blue bottles away from the light. For use, put a little of this paste on a small pad and rub the article with it.
II.—Articles of zinc, brass, or copper may also be silver-plated by applying to them a pasty mass of the following composition: First dissolve 10 parts, by weight, of nitrate of silver in 50 parts, by weight, of distilled water; also 25 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide in sufficient distilled water to dissolve it. Pour the two together, stir well, and filter. Now 100 parts, by weight, of whiting or levigated chalk and 400 parts, by weight, of potassium bitartrate, finely powdered, are moistened with the above solution sufficiently to form a soft paste, which may be applied to the objects, previously well cleansed, with a brush. After this coating has dried well, rinse it off, and dry the object in clean sawdust.
«Resilvering.»—I.—Take 100 parts, by weight, of distilled water and divide it into two equal portions. In the one dissolve 10 parts of silver nitrate and in the other 25 parts of potassium cyanide. The two solutions are reunited in a single vessel as soon as completed. Next prepare a mixture of 100 parts of Spanish white, passed through a fine sieve, 10 parts of cream of tartar, pulverized, and 1 part of mercury. This powder is stirred in a portion of the above liquid so as to form a rather thick paste. The composition is applied by means of the finger, covered with a rag, on the object to be silvered. The application must be as even as possible. Let the object dry and wash in pure water. The excess of powder is removed with a brush.
II.—The following is a process used when the jeweler has to repair certain pieces from which silvering has come off {589} in places, and which he would like to repair without having recourse to the battery, and specially without having to take out the stones or pearls: Take nitrate of silver, 25 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 50 parts; cream of tartar, 20 parts; Paris white, 200 parts; distilled water, 200 parts; mercury, 2 parts. Dissolve the nitrate of silver in half of the distilled water and the cyanide in the other half; mix the two liquids; next bray well in a mortar the mercury, Paris white, and cream of tartar. Preserve the products of these two operations separately, and when you wish to use them make a rather soft paste of the two, which apply with a little cotton or a brush on the portion to be silvered. Let dry and subsequently rub with a soft brush.
«Tin Silver-Plating.»—Prepare a solution of 3 parts, by weight, of bismuth subnitrate in 10 parts of nitric acid of 1.4 specific gravity, to which add a solution of 10 parts of tartar and 40 parts of hydrochloric acid in 1,000 parts of water. In the mixture of these solutions immerse the tin articles freed from grease and oxide. The pulverous bismuth precipitated on the surface is rubbed off, whereupon the objects appear dark steel gray. For silvering prepare a mixture of 10 parts of silver chloride; 30 parts of cooking salt; 20 parts of tartar, and 100 parts of powdered chalk, which is rubbed in a slightly moist state on the bismuth surface of the tin articles, using a flannel rag. The silver separates only in a very thin layer, and must be protected against power and light before tarnishing by a coating of preservative or celluloid varnish.
«Zinc Contact Silver-Plating.»—According to Buchner, 10 parts, by weight, of silver nitrate is dissolved in water and precipitated by the addition of hydrochloric acid in the form of silver chloride, which is washed several times in clean water; now dissolve 70 parts, by weight, of spirit of sal ammoniac in water, and add to it 40 parts, by weight, of soda crystals, 40 parts, by weight, of pure potassium cyanide, and 15 parts, by weight, of common salt. Now thin down the compound with sufficient distilled water to make a total of 1,000 parts.
«Tin Plating of Lead.»—Lead plates are best tinned by plating. For this purpose a table with a perfectly even iron surface and provided with vertical raised edges to prevent the melted metal from flowing away, is employed. The lead is poured on this table, and covered with grease to prevent oxidation of the surface. As soon as the lead is congealed, melted tin is poured over it, care being taken that the tin is sufficiently heated to remelt the surface of the lead and combine thoroughly with it. When the plate is sufficiently cooled, it is turned over, and the lower surface treated in the same way. The plate, thus tinned on both sides, is then placed between rollers, and can be rolled into very thin sheets without injury to the tin coating. These sheets, doubly coated with tin by this process, are specially adapted for lining cases intended for the transport of biscuits, chocolate, candies, tea, snuff, etc. If lead plates are only to be tinned superficially, they are heated to a tolerably high temperature, and sprinkled with powdered rosin; melted tin is then rubbed on the surface of the plate with a ball of tow. It is advisable to give the lead a fairly thick coating of tin, as the latter is rendered thinner by the subsequent rolling.
«VARIOUS RECIPES:»
«To Ascertain whether an Article is Nickeled, Tinned, or Silvered.»—When necessary to ascertain quickly and accurately the nature of the white metal covering an object, the following process will be found to give excellent results:
«Nickeled Surface.»—If the article has a nickel coating, a drop of hydrochloric acid, deposited on a spot clean and free from grease, will quickly develop a greenish tint. If the object is kept for 5 or 10 minutes in a solution composed of 60 parts of sea salt and 110 parts of water, it will receive a very characteristic reddish tint. A drop of sulphuret of sodium does not change a nickeled surface.
«Tinned Surface.»—A tinned object may be recognized readily by applying hydrochloric acid, which, even diluted, will remove the tin. The salt solution, used as previously described, produces a gray tint, faint in certain cases. The sulphuret of sodium dissolves tin.
«Silvered Surface.»—In the case of a silvered article a drop of nitric acid will remove the silver, while hydrochloric acid will scarcely attack it. The salt solution will produce no effect. The sulphuret of sodium will blacken it rapidly.
PLATINIZING: See Plating.
PLATINOTYPE PAPER: See Photography. {590}
PLATINUM PAPERS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT: See Photography, under Developing Papers.
PLATINUM WASTE, TO SEPARATE SILVER FROM: See Silver.
PLUMBAGO: See Lubricants.
PLUMES: See Feathers.
«PLUSH:»
«To Make Plush Adhere to Metal.»—Wash off with ordinary soda water the bottom of a tin box, wiping it dry with cloth. Coat the tin with the juice of onion and press on this space a piece of strong paper, smoothing it out so that there will be no blisters. When this has dried, the paper will adhere, so that it can be removed only by scraping with a sharp instrument. Then give a coat of hot glue to the paper and press the plush down into the glue, and when dry and hard, the plush can be removed only by placing the tin box in boiling water.
PLUSH, TO REMOVE GREASE SPOTS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
POISONS, ANTIDOTES FOR: See Antidotes.
«Polishes»
<h4>Polishes for Aluminum.»—I.—M. Mouray recommends the use of an emulsion of equal parts of rum and olive oil, made by shaking these liquids together in a bottle. When a burnishing stone is used, the peculiar black streaks first appearing should not cause vexation, since they do not injure the metal in the least, and may be removed with a woolen rag. The object in question may also be brightened in potash lye, in which case, however, care must be taken not to have the lye too strong. For cleaning purposes benzol has been found best.
II.—Aluminum is susceptible of taking a beautiful polish, but it is not white like that of silver or nickel, rather slightly bluish, like tin. The shade can be improved. First, the grease is to be removed from the object with pumice stone. Then, for polishing, use is made of an emery paste mingled with tallow, forming cakes which are rubbed on the polishing brushes. Finally, rouge powder is employed with oil of turpentine.
«Polishes for Bars, Counters, etc.»
I.—Linseed oil 8 ounces Stale ale 8 ounces Hydrochloric acid 1 ounce Alcohol, 95 per cent 1 ounce White of 1 egg.
Mix. Shake before using. Clean out the dust, dirt, etc., using an appropriate brush, or a bit of cloth wrapped around a stick, then apply the above, with a soft brush, or a bit of cotton wrapped in a bit of silk—or, in fact, any convenient method of applying it.
II.—Japan wax 1 av. ounce Oil of turpentine 3 fluidounces Linseed oil 16 fluidounces Alcohol 3 fluidounces Solution of potash 1 1/2 fluidounces Water to make 32 fluidounces.
Dissolve the wax in the turpentine, add the other ingredients, diluting the potash solution with the water before adding to the other ingredients, and stir briskly until well mixed.
«POLISHES FOR BRASS, BRONZE, COPPER, ETC.»
Objects of polished copper, bronze, brass, and other alloys of copper tarnish through water and it is sometimes necessary to give them again their bright appearance. Pickle the articles in an acid bath; wash them next in a neutral bath; dry them, and subsequently rub them with a polishing powder. Such is the general formula; the processes indicated below are but variants adapted to divers cases and recommended by disinterested experimenters:
«Sharp Polishes.»—The following three may be used on dirty brasses, copper articles, etc., where scratching is not objectionable:
I.—Quartz sand, powdered and levigated 20 parts Paris red 30 parts Vaseline 50 parts
Mix intimately and make a pomade.
II.—Emery flour, finest levigated 50 parts Paris red 50 parts Mutton suet 40 parts Oleic acid 40 parts
III.—Levigated emery powder 100 parts Anhydrous sodium carbonate 5 parts Tallow soap 20 parts Water 100 parts
{591}
«Copper Articles.»—Make a mixture of powdered charcoal, very fine, 4 parts; spirit of wine, 3 parts; and essence of turpentine, 2 parts. To this add water in which one-third of its weight of sorrel salt or oxalic acid has been stirred, and rub the objects with this mixture.
«Bronze Articles.»—Boil the objects in soap lye, wash in plenty of water, and dry in sawdust.
«Highly Oxidized Bronzes.»—First dip in strong soda lye, then in a bath containing 1 part of sulphuric acid to 12 parts of water. Rinse in clean water, and next in water containing a little ammonia. Dry and rub with a polishing powder or paste.
«POLISHES FOR FLOORS.»
I.—Throw a handful of permanganate potash crystals into a pail of boiling water, and apply the mixture as hot as possible to the floor with a large flat brush. If the stain produced is not dark enough, apply one or two more coats as desired, leaving each wash to dry thoroughly before applying another. If it is desired to polish the surface with beeswax, a coat of size should be applied to the boards before staining, as this gives depth and richness to the color. After 3 or 4 days, polish well with a mixture of turpentine and beeswax. A few cents will cover the cost of both size and permanganate of potash.
II.—Potash 1 part Water 4 parts Yellow beeswax 5 parts Hot water, a sufficient quantity.
Emulsify the wax by boiling it in the water in which the potash has been dissolved; stir the whole time. The exact amount of boiling is determined by the absence of any free water in the mass. Then remove the vessel from the fire, and gently pour in a little boiling water, and stir the mixture carefully. If a fat-like mass appears without traces of watery particles, one may know the mass is in a fit condition to be liquefied by the addition of more hot water without the water separating. Then put in the water to the extent of 200 to 225 parts, and reheat the compound for 5 to 10 minutes, without allowing it to reach the boiling point. Stir constantly until the mixture is cool, so as to prevent the separation of the wax, when a cream-like mass results which gives a quick and brilliant polish on woodwork, if applied in the usual way, on a piece of flannel rag, and polished by rubbing with another piece of flannel.
«Colored Floor Polishes.»—Yellow: Caustic soda solution, 7 1/2 parts, mixed with 1 1/2 to 2 parts of finely powdered ocher, heated with 2 1/2 parts of yellow wax, and stirred until uniformly mixed. A reddish-brown color may be obtained by adding 2 parts of powdered umber to the above mixture.
Nut Brown.—I.—Natural umber, 1/2 part; burnt umber, 1 part; and yellow ocher, 1 part, gives a fine red-brown color when incorporated with the same wax and soda mixture.
II.—Treat 5 pounds of wax with 15 pounds of caustic soda lye of 3° Bé. so that a uniform wax milk results; boil with 1/2 pound of annatto, 3 pounds of yellow ocher, and 2 pounds of burnt umber.
Mahogany Brown.—Boil 5 pounds of wax with 15 pounds of caustic soda lye as above. Then add 7 pounds of burnt umber very finely powdered, making it into a uniform mass by boiling again.
Yellow Ocher.—The wax milk obtained as above is boiled with 5 pounds of yellow ocher.
The mass on cooling has the consistency of a salve. If it is to be used for rubbing the floor it is stirred with sufficient boiling water so as to form a fluid of the consistency of thin syrup or oil. This is applied very thin on the floor, using a brush; then it is allowed to dry only half way, and is rubbed with a stiff floor brush. The polishing is continued with a woolen rag until a mirror-like gloss is obtained. It is best not to paint the whole room and then brush, but the deals should be taken one after the other, otherwise the coating would become too dry and give too dull a luster. The floors thus treated with gloss paste are very beautiful. To keep them in this condition they should be once in a while rubbed with a woolen rag, and if necessary the color has to be renewed in places. If there are parquet floors whose patterns are not to be covered up, the ocher (yellow) paste or, better still, the pure wax milk is used.
«French Polish.»—The wood to be polished must be made perfectly smooth and all irregularities removed from the surface with glass paper; next oil the work with linseed oil, taking care to rub off all superfluous oil. (If the wood is white no oil should be used, as it imparts a slight color.) Then prepare a wad or rubber of wadding, taking care there are no hard lumps in it. After the rubber is prepared pour on it a small quantity of polish. Then cover it with a piece of old cotton rag (new will {592} not answer). Put a small drop of oil with the finger on the surface of the rubber, and then proceed to polish, moving the rubber in lines, making a kind of figure of eight over the work. Be very careful that the rubber is not allowed to stick or the work will be spoilt. A little linseed oil facilitates the process. When the rubber requires more polish, turn back the rag cover, pour on the polish, replace the cover, oil and work as before. After this rubbing has proceeded for a little time and the whole surface has been gone over, the work must be allowed to stand for a few hours to harden, and then be rubbed down smooth with very fine emery paper. Then give another coat of polish. If not smooth enough, emery paper again. This process must continue until the grain is filled up. Finish off with a clean rubber with only spirit on it (no polish), when a clear bright surface should be the result. Great care must be taken not to put the polish on too freely, or you will get a rough surface. After a little practice all difficulties will vanish. The best French polish will be found to be one made only from good pale orange shellac and spirit, using 3 pounds of shellac for each gallon of spirit. The latter should be of 63 to 64° over-proof. A weak spirit is not suitable and does not make a good polish. A few drops of pure linseed oil make the polish work more freely.
«POLISHES FOR FURNITURE.»
First make a paste to fill cracks as follows: Whiting, plaster of Paris, pumice stone, litharge, equal parts; japan dryer, boiled linseed oil, turpentine, coloring matter of sufficient quantity. Rub the solids intimately with a mixture of 1 part of the japan, 2 parts of the linseed oil, and 3 parts of turpentine, coloring to suit with Vandyke brown or sienna. Lay the filling on with a brush, let it set for about 20 minutes, and then rub off clean except where it is to remain. In 2 or 3 days it will be hard enough to polish.
After the surface has been thus prepared, the application of a coat of first-class copal varnish is in order. It is recommended that the varnish be applied in a moderately warm room, as it is injured by becoming chilled in drying. To get the best results in varnishing, some skill and experience are required. The varnish must be kept in an evenly warm temperature, and put on neither too plentifully nor too gingerly.
After a satisfactorily smooth and regular surface has been obtained, the polishing proper may be done. This may be accomplished by manual labor and dexterity, or consist in the application of a very thin, even coat of a very fine, transparent varnish.
If the hand-polishing method be preferred, it may be pursued by rubbing briskly and thoroughly with the following finishing polish:
I.—Alcohol 8 ounces Shellac 2 drachms Gum benzoin 2 drachms Best poppy oil 2 drachms
Dissolve the shellac and gum in the alcohol in a warm place, with frequent agitation, and, when cold, add the poppy oil. This may be applied on the end of a cylindrical rubber made by tightly rolling a piece of flannel which has been torn, not cut, into strips 4 to 6 inches wide.
A certain “oily sweating” of articles of polished wood occurs which has been ascribed to the oil used in polishing, but has been found to be due to a waxy substance present in shellac, which is often used in polishing. During the operation of polishing, this wax enters into close combination with the oil, forming a soft, greasy mass, which prevents the varnish from ever becoming really hard. This greasy matter exudes in the course of time. The remedy is to use only shellac from which the vegetable wax has been completely removed. This is accomplished by making a strong solution of the shellac in alcohol and then shaking it up with fresh seed lac or filtering it through seed lac. In this way the readily soluble rosins in the seed lac are dissolved, and with them traces of coloring matter. At the same time the vegetable wax, which is only slightly soluble, is deposited. The shellac solution which has exchanged its vegetable wax for rosin is not yet suitable for fine furniture polishing. It is not sufficiently taken up by the wood, and an essential oil must be added to give it the necessary properties, one of the best oils to employ for this purpose being that of rosemary. The following recipe is given:
II.—Twenty pounds of shellac and 4 pounds of benzoin are dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of alcohol, together with 1 pound of rosemary oil. The solution then obtained is filtered through seed lac so as to remove whatever vegetable wax may be present.
«Red Furniture Paste.»—
Soft water 6 pints Turpentine 6 pints {593} Beeswax 3 pounds White wax 1 1/2 ounces White soap 18 ounces Red lead 12 ounces
Cut up soap and dissolve in water by aid of heat; then evaporate to 6 pounds. Melt the waxes and add turpentine in which red lead has been stirred, pour into this the soap solution, and stir until it is nearly cold. If a darker color is wanted add more red lead, 4 to 6 ounces.
«Beechwood Furniture.»—The wood of the red beech is known to acquire, by the use of ordinary shellac polish, a dirty yellow color, and by the use of white polish, prepared from bleached shellac, an unsightly gray-white color. Therefore, where light colors are desired, only filtered shellac polish should be employed, and in order to impart some fire to the naturally dull color of the beechwood the admixture of a solution of dragon’s blood in alcohol for a red shade, or turmeric in alcohol for yellow may be used. A compound of the red and yellow liquids gives a good orange shade. A few trials will soon show how much coloring matter may be added to the polish.
«Polishes for Glass.»—I.—Mix calcined magnesia with purified benzine to a semi-liquid paste. Rub the glass with this mixture by means of a cotton wad, until it is bright.
II.—Crush to powder cologne chalk, 60 parts, by weight; tripoli, 30 parts, by weight; bole, 15 parts, by weight. For use moisten the glass a little, dip a linen rag into the powder and rub the glass until it is clean.
III.—Tin ashes may be employed with advantage. The glass is rubbed with this substance and then washed off with a piece of soft felt. In this manner a very handsome polish is obtained.
«Polishes for Ivory, Bone, etc.»—I.—First rub with a piece of linen soaked with a paste made of Armenian bole and oleic acid. Wash with Marseilles soap, dry, rub with a chamois skin, and finally render it bright with an old piece of silk. If the ivory is scratched, it may be smoothed by means of English red stuff on a cloth, or even with a piece of glass if the scratches are rather deep. In the hollow parts of ivory objects the paste can be made to penetrate by means of an old toothbrush.
II.—Tortoise-shell articles have a way of getting dull and dingy looking. To repolish dip the finger in linseed oil and rub over the whole surface. Very little oil should be used, and if the article is a patterned one it may be necessary to use a soft brush to get it into the crevices. Then rub with the palm of the hand until all oil has disappeared, and the shell feels hot and looks bright and shiny.
«Marble Polishing.»—Polishing includes five operations. Smoothing the roughness left on the surface is done by rubbing the marble with a piece of moist sandstone; for moldings either wooden or iron mullers are used, crushed, and wet sandstone, or sand, more or less fine, according to the degree of polish required, being thrown under them. The second process is continued rubbing with pieces of pottery without enamel, which have only been baked once, also wet. If a brilliant polish is required, Gothland stone instead of pottery is used, and potter’s clay or fuller’s earth is placed beneath the muller. This operation is performed upon granites and porphyry with emery and a lead muller, the upper part of which is incrusted with the mixture until reduced by friction to clay or impalpable powder. As the polish depends almost entirely upon these two operations, care must be taken that they are performed with a regular and steady movement. When the marble has received the first polish, the flaws, cavities, and soft spots are sought out and filled with mastic of a suitable color.
This mastic is usually composed of a mixture of yellow wax, rosin, and Burgundy pitch, mixed with a little sulphur and plaster passed through a fine sieve, which gives it the consistency of a thick paste; to color this paste to a tone analogous to the ground tints or natural cement of the material upon which it is placed, lampblack and rouge, with a little of the prevailing color of the material, are added. For green and red marbles, this mastic is sometimes made of gum lac, mixed with Spanish sealing wax of the color of the marble. It is applied with pincers, and these parts are polished with the rest. Sometimes crushed fragments of marble are introduced into the cement, but for fine marbles the same colors are employed which are used in painting, and which will produce the same tone as the ground; the gum lac is added to give it body and brilliancy.
The third operation in polishing consists in rubbing it again with a hard pumice stone, under which water is being constantly poured, unmixed with sand. For the fourth process, called {594} softening the ground, lead filings are mixed with the emery mud produced by the polishing of mirrors or the working of precious stones, and the marble is rubbed by a compact linen cushion well saturated with this mixture; rouge is also used for this polish. For some outside works, and for hearths and paving tiles, marble workers confine themselves to this polish. When the marbles have holes or grains, a lead muller is substituted for the linen cushion. In order to give a perfect brilliancy to the polish, the gloss is applied. Wash well the prepared surfaces and leave them until perfectly dry, then take a linen cushion, moistened only with water, and a little powder of calcined tin of the first quality. After rubbing with this for some time take another cushion of dry rags, rub with it lightly, brush away any foreign substance which might scratch the marble, and a perfect polish will be obtained. A little alum mixed with the water used penetrates the pores of the marble, and gives it a speedier polish. This polish spots very easily and is soon tarnished and destroyed by dampness. It is necessary when purchasing articles of polished marbles to subject them to the test of water; if there is too much alum, the marble absorbs the water and a whitish spot is left.
«POLISHING POWDERS.»
Polishing powders are advantageously prepared according to the following recipes:
I.—Four pounds magnesium carbonate, 4 pounds chalk, and 4 pounds rouge are intimately mixed.
II.—Four pounds magnesium carbonate are mixed with 1/4 pound fine rouge.
III.—Five pounds fine levigated whiting and 2 pounds Venetian red are ground together.
IV.—Kieselguhr 42 pounds Putty powder 14 pounds Pipe clay 14 pounds Tartaric acid 1 1/2 pounds
Powder the acid, mix well with the others. This is styled “free from mercury, poisonous mineral acids, alkalies, or grit.” It may be tinted with 12 ounces of oxide of iron if desired.
«Liquid Polishes.»—
I.—Malt vinegar 4 gallons Lemon juice 1 gallon Paraffine oil 1 gallon Kieselguhr 7 pounds Powdered bath brick 3 pounds Oil lemon 2 ounces
II.—Kieselguhr 56 pounds Paraffine oil 3 gallons Methylated spirit 1 1/2 gallons Camphorated spirit 1/2 gallon Turpentine oil 1/2 gallon Liquid ammonia fort 3 pints
III.—Rotten stone 16 av. ounces Paraffine 8 av. ounces Kerosene (coal oil) 16 fluidounces Oil of mirbane enough to perfume.
Melt the paraffine, incorporate the rotten stone, add the kerosene, and the oil of mirbane when cold.
IV.—Oxalic acid 1/2 av. ounce Rotten stone 10 av. ounces Kerosene (coal oil) 30 fluidounces Paraffine 2 av. ounces
Pulverize the oxalic acid and mix it with rotten stone; melt the paraffine, add to it the kerosene, and incorporate the powder; when cool, add oil of mirbane or lavender to perfume.
Pour the ammonia into the oil, methylated spirits, and turpentine, add the camphorated spirit and mix with the kieselguhr. To prevent setting, keep well agitated during filling. The color may be turned red by using a little sesquioxide of iron and less kieselguhr. Apply with a cloth, and when dry use another clean cloth or a brush.
«Polishing Soaps.»—
I.—Powdered pipe clay 112 pounds Tallow soap 16 pounds Tartaric acid 1 1/4 pounds
Grind until pasty, afterwards press into blocks by the machine.
II.—Levigated flint 60 pounds Whiting 52 pounds Tallow 20 pounds Caustic soda 5 pounds Water 2 gallons
Dissolve the soda in water and add to the tallow; when saponified, stir in the others, pressing as before.
III.—Saponified cocoanut oil 56 pounds Kieselguhr 12 pounds Alum 5 1/2 pounds Flake white 5 1/2 pounds Tartaric acid 1 3/4 pounds
Make as before.
IV.—Tallow soap 98 pounds Liquid glycerine soap 14 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Levigated flint 14 pounds Powdered pipe clay 14 pounds
{595}
«METAL POLISHES:»
«Polishing Pastes.»—
I.—White petroleum jelly 90 pounds Kieselguhr 30 pounds Refined paraffine wax 10 pounds Refined chalk or whiting 10 pounds Sodium hyposulphite 8 pounds
Melt wax and jelly, stir in others and grind.
It is an undecided point as to whether a scented paste is better than one without perfume. The latter is added merely to hide the nasty smell of some of the greases used, and it is not very nice to have spoons, etc., smelling, even tasting, of mirbane, so perhaps citronelle is best for this purpose. It is likely to be more pure. The dose of scent is usually at the rate of 4 ounces to the hundredweight.
II.—Dehydrated soda 5 parts Curd soap 20 parts Emery flour 100 parts
To be stirred together on a water bath with water, 100 parts, until soft.
III.—Turpentine 1 part Emery flour 1 part Paris red 2 parts Vaseline 2 parts
Mix well and perfume.
IV.—Stearine 8 to 9 parts Mutton suet 32 to 38 parts Stearine oil 2 to 2.5 parts
Melt together and mix with Vienna chalk, in fine powder, 48 to 60 parts; Paris red, 20 parts.
V.—Rotten stone 1 part Iron subcarbonate 3 parts Lard oil, a sufficient quantity.
VI.—Iron oxide 10 parts Pumice stone 32 parts Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity.
VII.—Soap, cut fine 16 parts Precipitated chalk 2 parts Jewelers’ rouge 1 part Cream of tartar 1 part Magnesium carbonate 1 part Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the soap in the smallest quantity of water over a water bath. Add the other ingredients to the solution while still hot, stirring all the time to make sure of complete homogeneity. Pour the mass into a box with shallow sides, and afterwards cut into cubes.
«Non-Explosive Liquid Metal Polish.»—Although in a liquid form, it does not necessarily follow that a liquid polish is less economical than pastes, because the efficiency of both is dependent upon the amount of stearic or oleic acid they contain, and a liquid such as that given below is as rich in this respect as most of the pastes, especially those containing much mineral jelly and earthy matters which are practically inert, and can only be considered as filling material. Thus it is a fact that an ounce of fluid polish may possess more polishing potency than an equal weight of the paste. Proportions are: Sixteen pounds crude oleic acid; 4 pounds tasteless mineral oil; 5 pounds kieselguhr; 1 1/2 ounces lemon oil. Make the earthy matter into a paste with the mixed fluids and gradually thin out, avoiding lumps. Apply with one rag, and finish with another.
«Miscellaneous Metal Polishes.»—I.—Articles of polished copper, such as clocks, stove ornaments, etc., become tarnished very quickly. To restore their brilliancy dip a brush in strong vinegar and brush the objects to be cleaned. Next pass through water and dry in sawdust. A soap water, in which some carbonate of soda has been dissolved, will do the same service.
II.—This is recommended for machinery by the chemical laboratory of the industrial museum of Batavia:
Oil of turpentine 15 parts Oil of stearine 25 parts Jewelers’ red 25 parts Animal charcoal, of superior quality 45 parts
Alcohol is added to that mixture in such a quantity as to render it almost liquid, then by means of a brush it is put on those parts that are to be polished. When the alcohol has dried, the remaining cover is rubbed with a mixture of 45 parts of animal charcoal and 25 parts jewelers’ red. The rubbed parts will become quite clean and bright.
III.—The ugly spots which frequently show themselves on nickel-plated objects may be easily removed with a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 50 parts alcohol. Coat the spots with this solution, wipe off after a few seconds, rinse off thoroughly with clean water, and rub dry with sawdust.
IV.—Crocus, dried and powdered, when applied with chamois leather to nickel-plated goods, will restore their brilliancy without injuring their surface.
V.—Articles of tin should be ground {596} and polished with Vienna lime or Spanish white. The former may be spread on linen rags, the latter on wash leather. Good results may be obtained by a mixture of about equal parts of Vienna lime, chalk, and tripoli. It should be moistened with alcohol, and applied with a brush. Subsequent rubbing with roe skin (chamois) will produce a first-rate polish. Tin being a soft metal, the above polishing substances may be very fine.
VI.—To polish watch cases, take two glasses with large openings, preferably two preserving jars with ground glass covers. Into one of the glass vessels pour 1 part of spirit of sal ammoniac and 3 parts water, adding a little ordinary barrel soap and stirring everything well. Fill the other glass one half with alcohol. Now lay the case to be cleaned, with springs and all, into the first-named liquid and allow to remain therein for about 10 to 20 seconds. After protracted use this time may be extended to several minutes. Now remove the case, quickly brush it with water and soap and lay for a moment into the alcohol in the second vessel. After drying off with a clean cloth heat over a soldering flame for quick drying and the case will now look almost as clean and neat as a new one. The only thing that may occur is that a polished metal dome may become tarnished, but this will only happen if either the mixture is too strong or the case remains in it too long, both of which can be easily avoided with a little practice. Shake before using.
VII.—This is a cleanser as well as polisher:
Prepared chalk 2 parts Water of ammonia 2 parts Water sufficient to make 8 parts
The ammonia saponifies the grease usually present.
It must be pointed out that the alkali present makes this preparation somewhat undesirable to handle, as it will affect the skin if allowed too free contact.
The density of the liquid might be increased by the addition of soap; the solid would, of course, then remain longer in suspension.
VIII.—Serviettes Magiques.—These fabrics for polishing articles of metal consist of pure wool saturated with soap and tripoli, and dyed with a little coralline. They are produced by dissolving 4 parts of Marseilles soap in 20 parts of water, adding 2 parts of tripoli and saturating a piece of cloth 3 inches long and 4 inches wide with it, allowing to dry.
IX.—In order to easily produce a mat polish on small steel articles use fine powdered oil stone, ground with turpentine.
«Polishes for Pianos.»—
I.—Alcohol, 95 per cent 300 parts Benzol 700 parts Gum benzoin 8 parts Sandarac 16 parts
Mix and dissolve. Use as French polish.
II.—Beeswax 2,500 parts Potassium carbonate 25 parts Oil of turpentine 4,000 parts Water, rain or distilled 4,500 parts
Dissolve the potassium carbonate in 1,500 parts of the water and in the solution boil the wax, shaved up, until the latter is partially saponified, replacing the water as it is driven off by evaporation. When this occurs remove from the fire and stir until cold. Now add the turpentine little by little, and under constant agitation, stirring until a smooth, homogeneous emulsion is formed. When this occurs add the remainder of the water under constant stirring. If a color is wanted use alkanet root, letting it macerate in the oil of turpentine before using the latter (about an ounce to the quart is sufficient). This preparation is said to be one of the best polishes known. The directions are very simple: First wash the surface to be polished, rinse, and dry. Apply the paste as evenly and thinly as possible over a portion of the surface, then rub off well with a soft woolen cloth.
«Polishes for Silverware.»—The best polish for silverware—that is, the polish that, while it cleans, does not too rapidly abrade the surface—is levigated chalk, either alone or with some vegetable acid, like tartaric, or with alum. The usual metal polishes, such as tripoli (diatomaceous earth), finely ground pumice stone, etc., cut away the surface so rapidly that a few cleanings wear through ordinary plating.
I.—White lead 5 parts Chalk, levigated 20 parts Magnesium carbonate 2 parts Aluminum oxide 5 parts Silica 3 parts Jewelers’ rouge 2 parts
Each of the ingredients must be reduced to an impalpable powder, mixed carefully, and sifted through silk several {597} times to secure a perfect mixture, and to avoid any possibility of leaving in the powder anything that might scratch the silver or gold surface. This may be left in the powder form, or incorporated with soap, made into a paste with glycerine, or other similar material. The objection to mixtures with vaseline or greasy substances is that after cleaning the object must be scrubbed with soap and water, while with glycerine simple rinsing and running water instantly cleans the object. The following is also a good formula:
II.—Chalk, levigated 2 parts Oil of turpentine 4 parts Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Water 10 parts
Mix the ammonia and oil of turpentine by agitation, and rub up the chalk in the mixture. Finally rub in the water gradually or mix by agitation. Three parts each of powdered tartaric acid and chalk with 1 part of powdered alum make a cheap and quick silver cleaning powder.
III.—Mix 2 parts of beechwood ashes with 4/100 of a part of Venetian soap and 2 parts of common salt in 8 parts of rain water. Brush the silver with this, using a pretty stiff brush. A solution of crystallized permanganate of potash is often recommended, or even the spirits of hartshorn, for removing the grayish violet film which forms upon the surface of the silver. Finally, when there are well-determined blemishes upon the surface of the silver, they may be soaked 4 hours in soapmakers’ lye, then cover them with finely powdered gypsum which has been previously moistened with vinegar, drying well before a fire; now rub them with something to remove the powder. Finally, they are to be rubbed again with very dry bran.
«POLISHES FOR STEEL AND IRON.»
The polishing of steel must always be preceded by a thorough smoothing, either with oilstone dust, fine emery, or coarse rouge. If any lines are left to be erased by means of fine rouge, the operation becomes tedious and is rarely successful. The oilstone dust is applied on an iron or copper polisher. When it is desired to preserve the angles sharp, at a shoulder, for instance, the polisher should be of steel. When using diamantine an iron polisher, drawn out and flattened with a hammer, answers very well. With fine rouge, a bronze or bell-metal polisher is preferable for shoulders; and for flat surfaces, discs or large zinc or tin polishers, although glass is preferable to either of these. After each operation with oilstone dust, coarse rouge, etc., the polisher, cork, etc., must be changed, and the object should be cleaned well, preferably by soaping, perfect cleanliness being essential to success. Fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste with oil; a little is then taken on the polisher or glass and worked until quite dry. As the object is thus not smeared over, a black polish is more readily obtained, and the process gets on better if the surface be cleaned from time to time.
«For Fine Steel.»—Take equal parts (by weight) of ferrous sulphate—green vitriol—and sodium chloride—cooking salt—mix both well together by grinding in a mortar and subject the mixture to red heat in a mortar or a dish. Strong fumes will develop, and the mass begin to flow. When no more fumes arise, the vessel is removed from the fire and allowed to cool. A brown substance is obtained with shimmering scales, resembling mica. The mass is now treated with water, partly in order to remove the soluble salt, partly in order to wash out the lighter portions of the non-crystallized oxide, which yield an excellent polishing powder. The fire must be neither too strong nor too long continued, otherwise the powder turns black and very hard, losing its good qualities. The more distinct the violet-brown color, the better is the powder.
For polishing and cleaning fenders, fireirons, horses’ bits, and similar articles: Fifty-six pounds Bridgewater stone; 28 pounds flour emery; 20 pounds rotten stone; 8 pounds whiting. Grind and mix well.
To make iron take a bright polish like steel, pulverize and dissolve in 1 quart of hot water, 1 ounce of blue vitriol; 1 ounce of borax; 1 ounce of prussiate of potash; 1 ounce of charcoal; 1/2 pint of salt, all of which is to be added to one gallon of linseed oil and thoroughly mixed. To apply, bring the iron or steel to the proper heat and cool in the solution.
«Stove Polish.»—The following makes an excellent graphite polish:
I.—Ceresine 12 parts Japan wax 10 parts Turpentine oil 100 parts Lampblack, best 12 parts Graphite, levigated 10 parts
Melt the ceresine and wax together, remove from the fire, and when half {598} cooled off add and stir in the graphite and lampblack, previously mixed with the turpentine.
II.—Ceresine 23 parts Carnauba wax 5 parts Turpentine oil 220 parts Lampblack 300 parts Graphite, finest levigated 25 parts
Mix as above.
III.—Make a mixture of water glass and lampblack of about the consistency of thin syrup, and another of finely levigated plumbago and mucilage of Soudan gum (or other cheap substitute for gum arabic), of a similar consistency. After getting rid of dust, etc., go over the stove with mixture No. 1 and let it dry on, which it will do in about 24 hours. Now go over the stove with the second mixture, a portion of the surface at a time, and as this dries, with an old blacking brush give it a polish. If carefully done the stove will have a polish resembling closely that of new Russian iron. A variant of this formula is as follows: Mix the graphite with the water glass to a smooth paste; add, for each pound of paste, 1 ounce of glycerine and a few grains of aniline black. Apply to the stove with a stiff brush.
«POLISHES FOR WOOD:»
See also Polishes for Furniture, Floors and Pianos.
In the usual method of French polishing, the pad must be applied along curved lines, and with very slight pressure, if the result is to be uniform. To do this requires much practice and the work is necessarily slow. Another disadvantage is that the oil is apt to sweat out afterwards, necessitating further treatment. According to a German patent all difficulty can be avoided by placing between the rubber and its covering a powder composed of clay or loam, or better, the powder obtained by grinding fragments of terra cotta or of yellow bricks. The powder is moistened with oil for use. The rubber will then give a fine polish, without any special delicacy of manipulation and with mere backward and forward rubbing in straight lines, and the oil will not sweat out subsequently. Another advantage is that no priming is wanted, as the powder fills up the pores. The presence of the powder also makes the polish adhere more firmly to the wood.
«Oak Wood Polish.»—The wood is first carefully smoothed, then painted with the following rather thickly liquid mass, using a brush, viz.: Mix 1 1/2 parts, by weight, of finely washed chalk (whiting), 1/2 part of dryer, and 1 part of boiled linseed oil with benzine and tint (umber with a little lampblack, burnt sienna). After the applied mixture has become dry, rub it down, polish with glass powder, and once more coat with the same mixture. After this filling and after rubbing off with stickwood chips or fine sea grass, one or two coats of shellac are put on (white shellac with wood alcohol for oak, brown shellac for cherry and walnut). This coating is cut down with sandpaper and given a coat of varnish, either polishing varnish, which is polished off with the ball of the hand or a soft brush, or with interior varnish, which is rubbed down with oil and pumice stone. This polish is glass hard, transparent, of finer luster, and resistive.
«Hard Wood Polish.»—In finishing hard wood with a wax polish the wood is first coated with a “filler,” which is omitted in the case of soft wood. The filler is made from some hard substance, very finely ground; sand is used by some manufactures.
The polish is the same as for soft wood. The simplest method of applying wax is by a heated iron, scraping off the surplus, and then rubbing with a cloth. It is evident that this method is especially laborious; and for that reason solution of the wax is desirable. It may be dissolved rather freely in turpentine spirit, and is said to be soluble also in kerosene oil.
The following recipes give varnish-like polishes:
I.—Dissolve 15 parts of shellac and 15 parts of sandarac in 180 parts of spirit of wine. Of this liquid put some on a ball of cloth waste and cover with white linen moistened with raw linseed oil. The wood to be polished is rubbed with this by the well-known circular motion. When the wood has absorbed sufficient polish, a little spirit of wine is added to the polish, and the rubbing is continued. The polished articles are said to sustain no damage by water, nor show spots or cracks.
II.—Orange shellac, 3 parts; sandarac, 1 part; dissolved in 30 parts of alcohol. For mahogany add a little dragon’s blood.
III.—Fifteen parts of oil of turpentine, dyed with anchusine, or undyed, and 4 parts of scraped yellow wax are stirred into a uniform mass by heating on the water bath. {599}
IV.—Melt 1 part of white wax on the water bath, and add 8 parts of petroleum. The mixture is applied hot. The petroleum evaporates and leaves behind a thin layer of wax, which is subsequently rubbed out lightly with a dry cloth rag.
V.—Stearine 100 parts Yellow wax 25 parts Caustic potash 60 parts Yellow laundry soap 10 parts Water, a sufficient quantity.
Heat together until a homogeneous mixture is formed.
VI.—Yellow wax 25 parts Yellow laundry soap 6 parts Glue 12 parts Soda ash 25 parts Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the soda in 400 parts of water, add the wax, and boil down to 250 parts, then add the soap. Dissolve the glue in 100 parts of hot water, and mix the whole with the saponified wax.
VII.—This is waterproof. Put into a stoppered bottle 1 pint alcohol; 2 ounces gum benzoin; 1/4 ounce gum sandarac, and 1/4 ounce gum anime. Put the bottle in a sand bath or in hot water till the solids are dissolved, then strain the solution, and add 1/4 gill best clear poppy oil. Shake well and the polish is ready for use.
VIII.—A white polish for wood is made as follows:
White lac 1 1/2 pounds Powdered borax 1 ounce Alcohol 3 pints
The lac should be thoroughly dried, especially if it has been kept under water, and, in any case, after being crushed, it should be left in a warm place for a few hours, in order to remove every trace of moisture. The crushed lac and borax are then added to the spirit, and the mixture is stirred frequently until solution is effected, after which the polish should be strained through muslin.
IX.—To restore the gloss of polished wood which has sweated, prepare a mixture of 100 parts of linseed oil, 750 parts of ether, 1,000 parts of rectified oil of turpentine, and 1,000 parts of petroleum benzine, perfumed, if desired, with a strongly odorous essential oil, and colored, if required, with cuicuma, orlean, or alkanna. The objects to be treated are rubbed thoroughly with this mixture, using a woolen rag.
«MISCELLANEOUS POLISHING AGENTS:»
«Polishing Agent which may also be used for Gilding and Silvering.»—The following mediums hitherto known as possessing the aforenamed properties, lose these qualities upon having been kept for some time, as the metal salt is partly reduced. Furthermore, it has not been possible to admix reducing substances such as zinc to these former polishing agents, since moisture causes the metal to precipitate. The present invention obviates these evils. The silver or gold salt is mixed with chalk, for instance, in a dry form. To this mixture, fine dry powders of one or more salts (e. g., ammonia compounds) in whose solutions the metal salt can enter are added; if required, a reducing body, such as zinc, may be added at the same time. The composition is pressed firmly together and forms briquettes, in which condition the mass keeps well. For use, all that is necessary is to scrape off a little of the substance and to prepare it with water.
«Silver Polishing Balls.»—This polishing agent is a powder made into balls by means of a binding medium and enjoys much popularity in Germany. It is prepared by adding 5 parts of levigated chalk to 2 parts of yellow tripoli, mixing the two powders well and making into a stiff paste with very weak gum water—1 part gum arabic to 12 parts of water. This dough is finally shaped by hand into balls of the size of a pigeon’s egg. The balls are put aside to dry on boards in a moderately warm room, and when completely hard are wrapped in tin-foil paper.
«To Prepare Polishing Cloths.»—The stuff must be pure woolen, colored with aniline red, and then put in the following:
Castile soap, white 4 parts Jewelers’ red 2 parts Water 20 parts
Mix. One ounce of this mixture will answer for a cloth 12 inches square, where several of them are saturated at the same time. For the workshop, a bit of chamois skin of the same size (a foot square), is preferable to wool, on account of its durability. After impregnation with the soap solution, it should be dried in the air, being manipulated while drying to preserve its softness and suppleness.
«To Polish Delicate Objects.»—Rub the objects with a sponge charged with a mixture of 28 parts of alcohol, 14 parts of water, and 4 parts of lavender oil. {600}
«Polish for Gilt Frames.»—Mix and beat the whites of 3 eggs with one-third, by weight, of javelle water, and apply to the gilt work.
«Steel Dust as a Polishing Agent.»—Steel dust is well adapted for polishing precious stones and can replace emery with advantage. It is obtained by spraying water on a bar of steel brought to a high temperature. The metal becomes friable and can be readily reduced to powder in a mortar. This powder is distinguished from emery by its mordanting properties and its lower price. Besides, it produces a finer, and consequently, a more durable polish.
«Polishing Bricks.»—Stir into a thick pulp with water 10 parts of finely powdered and washed chalk, 1 part of English red, and 2 parts of powdered gypsum; give it a square shape and dry.
«Polishing Cream.»—
Denaturized alcohol 400 parts Spirit of sal ammoniac 75 parts Water 150 parts Petroleum ether 80 parts Infusorial earth 100 parts Red bole or white bole 50 parts Calcium carbonate 100 parts
Add as much of the powders as desired. Mirbane oil may be used for scenting.
«Polishing Paste.»—
Infusorial earth (Kieselguhr) 8 ounces Paraffine 2 ounces Lubricating oil 6 fluidounces Oleic acid 1 fluidounce Oil mirbane 30 minims
Melt the paraffine with the lubricating oil, and mix with the infusorial earth, then add the oleic acid and oil of mirbane.
«To Polish Paintings on Wood.»—According to the statements of able cabinet makers who frequently had occasion to cover decorations on wood, especially aquarelle painting, with a polish, a good coating of fine white varnish is the first necessity, dammar varnish being employed for this purpose. This coat is primarily necessary as a protective layer so as to preserve the painted work from destructive attacks during the rubbing for the production of a smooth surface and the subsequent polishing. At all events, the purest white polishing varnish must be used for the polish so as to prevent a perceptible subsequent darkening of the white painting colors. Naturally the success here is also dependent upon the skill of the polisher. To polish painting executed on wood it is necessary to choose a white, dense, fine grained wood, which must present a well-smoothed surface before the painting. After the painting the surface is faintly coated with a fine, quickly drying, limpid varnish. When the coating has dried well, it is carefully rubbed down with finely pulverized pumice stone, with tallow or white lard, and now this surface is polished in the usual manner with a good solution prepared from the best white shellac.
«Polishing Mediums.»—For iron and steel, stannic oxide or Vienna lime or iron oxide and sometimes steel powder is employed. In using the burnisher, first oil is taken, then soap water, and next Vienna lime.
For copper, brass, German silver, and tombac, stearine oil and Vienna lime are used. Articles of brass can be polished, after the pickling, in the lathe with employment of a polish consisting of shellac, dissolved in alcohol, 1,000 parts; powdered turmeric, 1,000 parts; tartar, 2,000 parts; ox gall, 50 parts; water, 3,000 parts.
Gold is polished with ferric oxide (red stuff), which, moistened with alcohol, is applied to leather.
For polishing silver, the burnisher or bloodstone is employed, using soap water, thin beer, or a decoction of soap wort. Silver-plated articles are also polished with Vienna lime.
To produce a dull luster on gold and silver ware, glass brushes, i. e., scratch brushes of finely spun glass threads, are made use of.
Pewter articles are polished with Vienna lime or whiting; the former on a linen rag, the latter on leather.
If embossed articles are to be polished, use the burnisher, and for polish, soap water, soap-wort decoction, ox gall with water.
Antimony-lead alloys are polished with burnt magnesia on soft leather or with fine jewelers’ red.
Zinc is brightened with Vienna lime or powdered charcoal.
Vienna lime gives a light-colored polish on brass, while ferric oxide imparts a dark luster.
«Rouge or Paris Red.»—This appears in commerce in many shades, varying from brick red to chocolate brown. The color, however, is in no wise indicative of its purity or good quality, but it can be accepted as a criterion by which to {601} determine the hardness of the powder. The darker the powder, the greater is its degree of hardness; the red or reddish is always very soft, wherefore the former is used for polishing steel and the latter for softer metals.
For the most part, Paris red consists of ferric oxide or ferrous oxide. In its production advantage is taken of a peculiarity common to most salts of iron, that when heated to a red heat they separate the iron oxide from the acid combination. In its manufacture it is usual to take commercial green vitriol, copperas crystals, and subject them to a moderate heat to drive off the water of crystallization. When this is nearly accomplished they will settle down in a white powder, which is now placed in a crucible and raised to a glowing red heat till no more vapor arises, when the residue will be found a soft smooth red powder. As the temperature is raised in the crucible, the darker will become the color of the powder and the harder the abrasive.
Should an especially pure rouge be desired, it may be made so by boiling the powder we have just made in a weak solution of soda and afterwards washing it out repeatedly and thoroughly with clean water. If treated in this way, all the impurities that may chance to stick to the iron oxide will be separated from it.
Should a rouge be needed to put a specially brilliant polish upon any object its manufacture ought to be conducted according to the following formula: Dissolve commercial green vitriol in water; dissolve also a like weight of sorrel salt in water; filter both solutions; mix them well, and warm to 140° F.; a yellow precipitate, which on account of its weight, will settle immediately; decant the fluid, dry out the residue, and afterwards heat it as before in an iron dish in a moderately hot furnace till it glows red.
By this process an exceptionally smooth, deep-red powder is obtained, which, if proper care has been exercised in the various steps, will need no elutriation, but can be used for polishing at once. With powders prepared in this wise our optical glasses and lenses of finest quality are polished.
POLISHES FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.
POMADE, PUTZ: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
POMADES: See Cosmetics.
POMEGRANATE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.
«PORCELAIN:»
See also Ceramics.
«Mending Porcelain by Riveting» (see Adhesives for methods of mending Porcelain by means of cements).—Porcelain and glass can be readily pierced with steel tools. Best suited are hardened drills of ordinary shape, moistened with oil of turpentine, if the glazed or vitreous body is to be pierced. In the case of majolica and glass without enamel the purpose is best reached if the drilling is done under water. Thus, the vessel should previously be filled with water, and placed in a receptacle containing water, so that the drill is used under water, and, after piercing the clay body, reaches the water again. In the case of objects glazed on the inside, instead of filling them with water, the spot where the drill must come through may be underlaid with cork. The pressure with which the drill is worked is determined by the hardness of the material, but when the tool is about to reach the other side it should gradually decrease and finally cease almost altogether, so as to avoid chipping. In order to enlarge small bore holes already existing, three-cornered or four-square broaches, ground and polished, are best adapted. These are likewise employed under water or, if the material is too hard (glass or enamel), moistened with oil of turpentine. The simultaneous use of oil of turpentine and water is most advisable in all cases, even where the nature of the article to be pierced does not admit the use of oil alone, as in the case of majolica and non-glazed porcelain, which absorb the oil, without the use of water.
«Porcelain Decoration.»—A brilliant yellow color, known as “gold luster,” may be produced on porcelain by the use of paint prepared as follows: Melt over a sand bath 30 parts of rosin, add 10 parts of uranic nitrate, and, while constantly stirring, incorporate with the liquid 35 to 40 parts of oil of lavender. After the mixture has become entirely homogeneous, remove the source of heat, and add 30 to 40 parts more of oil of lavender. Intimately mix the mass thus obtained with a like quantity of bismuth glass prepared by fusing together equal parts of oxide of bismuth and crystallized boric acid. The paint is to be burned in in the usual manner.
PORCELAIN, HOW TO TELL POTTERY AND PORCELAIN: See Ceramics. {602}
PORTLAND CEMENT: See Cement.
PORTLAND CEMENT, SIZE OVER: See Adhesives.
POSTAL CARDS, HOW TO MAKE SENSITIZED: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.
POTASSIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.
POTATO STARCH: See Starch.
POTTERY: See Ceramics.
POULTRY APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides.
POULTRY FOODS AND POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.
POULTRY WINE: See Wines and Liquors.
POUNCE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Ink Eradicators.
POWDER FOR COLORED FIRES: See Pyrotechnics.
POWDER, FACE: See Cosmetics.
POWDER, ROUP: See Roup Powder.
POWDERS FOR STAMPING: See Stamping.
POWDERS FOR THE TOILET: See Cosmetics.
«Preservatives»
(See also Foods.)
«Preservative Fluid for Museums.»—
Formaldehyde solution 6 parts Glycerine 12 parts Alcohol 3 parts Water 100 parts
The addition of glycerine becomes necessary only if it is desired to keep the pieces in a soft state. Filtering through animal charcoal renders the liquid perfectly colorless. For dense objects, such as lungs and liver, it is best to make incisions so as to facilitate the penetration of the fluid. In the case of very thick pieces, it is best to take 80 to 100 parts of formaldehyde solution for above quantities.
«Preservative for Stone, etc.»—A new composition, or paint, for protecting stone, wood, cement, etc., from the effects of damp or other deleterious influences consists of quicklime, chalk, mineral colors, turpentine, boiled oil, galipot, rosin, and benzine. The lime, chalk, colors, and turpentine are first fixed and then made into a paste with the boiled oil. The paste is finely ground and mixed with the rosins previously dissolved in the benzine.
«Preservative for Stuffed Animals.»—For the exterior preservation use
Arsenic 0.7 parts Alum 15.0 parts Water 100.0 parts
For sprinkling the inside skin as well as filling bones, the following is employed:
Camphor 2 parts Insect powder 2 parts Black pepper 1 part Flowers of sulphur 4 parts Alum 3 parts Calcined soda 3 parts Tobacco powder 3 parts
«Preservatives for Zoological and Anatomical Specimens.»—The preparations are first placed in a solution or mixture of
Sodium fluoride 5 parts Formaldehyde (40 per cent) 2 parts Water 100 parts
After leaving this fixing liquid they are put in the following preservative solution:
Glycerine (28° Bé.) 5 parts Water 10 parts Magnesium chloride 1 part Sodium fluoride 0.2 parts
In this liquid zoological preparations, especially reptiles, retain their natural coloring. Most anatomical preparations likewise remain unchanged therein.
PRESERVATIVES FOR WOOD: See Wood.
«Preserving»
«Canning.»—There should be no trouble in having canned fruit keep well if perfect or “chemical cleanliness” is observed in regard to jars, lids, etc., and if the fruit or vegetables are in good order, not overripe or beginning to ferment where bruised or crushed. Fruit will {603} never come out of jars better than it goes in. It is better to put up a little fruit at a time when it is just ripe than to wait for a large amount to ripen, when the first may be overripe and fermenting and likely to spoil the whole lot. Use only the finest flavored fruit.
Have everything ready before beginning canning. Put water in each jar, fit on rubbers and tops, and invert the jar on the table. If any water oozes out try another top and rubber until sure the jar is air-tight. Wash jars and tops, put them in cold water and bring to a boil. When the fruit is cooked ready take a jar from the boiling water, set it on a damp cloth laid in a soup plate, dip a rubber in boiling water, and fit it on firmly. Fill the jar to overflowing, wipe the brim, screw on the top, and turn it upside down on a table. If any syrup oozes out empty the jar back into the kettle and fit on a tighter rubber. Let it stand upside down till cold, wipe clean, wrap in thick paper, and keep in a cool, dry place.
These general directions are for all fruits and vegetables that are cooked before putting in the jars. Fruit keeps its shape better if cooked in the jars, which should be prepared as above, the fruit carefully looked over and filled into the jars. If a juicy fruit, like blackberries or raspberries, put the sugar in with it in alternate layers. For cherries the amount of sugar depends on the acidity of the fruit and is best made into a syrup with a little water and poured down through them. Peaches and pears after paring, are packed into the jars and a syrup of about a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit poured over them. Most fruits need to be cooked from 10 to 15 minutes after the water around them begins to boil.
Red raspberries ought not to be boiled. Put them into jars as gently as possible; they are the tenderest of all fruits and will bear the slightest handling. Drop them in loosely, fold a saucer into a clean cloth, and lay over the top, set on a perforated board in a boiler, pour water to two-thirds, cover and set over a slow fire. As the fruit settles add more until full. When it is cooked soft lift the jar out and fill to the top with boiling syrup of equal parts of sugar and water, and seal.
Do not can all the fruit, for jams and jellies are a welcome change and also easier to keep. Raspberries and currants mixed make delicious jam. Use the juice of a third as many currants and 3/4 of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit. The flavor of all kinds of fruit is injured by cooking it long with the sugar, so heat the latter in the oven and add when the fruit is nearly done.
Jelly is best made on a clear day, for small fruits absorb moisture, and if picked after a rain require longer boiling, and every minute of unnecessary boiling gives jelly a less delicate color and flavor. When jelly is syrupy, it has been boiled too long; if it drops from the spoon with a spring, or wrinkles as you push it with the spoon in a saucer while cooling, it is done enough. Try it after 5 minutes’ boil. Cook the fruit only until the skin is broken and pulp softened. Strain without squeezing for jelly, and use the last juice you squeeze out for jam. Measure the juice and boil uncovered, skimming off. For sweet fruits 3/4 of a pound of sugar is enough to a pint of juice. Heat the sugar in the oven, add to the boiling juice; stir till dissolved. When it boils up, draw to the back of the stove. Scald the jelly glasses, fill and let stand in a clean, cool place till next day; then cover. Blackberries make jelly of a delicious flavor and jelly easily when a little underripe. Currants should be barely ripe; the ends of the bunches may be rather green.
A highly prized way of canning cherries: Stone and let them stand overnight. In the morning pour off the juice, add sugar to taste, and some water if there is not much juice, and boil and skim till it is a rich syrup. If the cherries are sweet a pint of juice and 3/4 of a pint of sugar will be right. Heat the jars, put in the uncooked cherries till they are nearly full; then pour over them the boiling syrup and fasten on the covers. Set the jars in a washboiler, fill it with very hot water and let it stand all night. The heat of the syrup and of the water will cook the fruit, but the flavor and color will be that of fresh and uncooked cherries.
«Canning without Sugar.»—I.—In order to preserve the juices of fruit merely by sterilization, put the juice into the bottles in which it is to be kept, filling them very nearly full; place the bottles, unstoppered, in a kettle filled with cold water, so arranging them on a wooden perforated “false bottom,” or other like contrivance, as to prevent their immediate contact with the metal, thus preventing unequal heating and possible fracture. Now heat the water, gradually raising the temperature to the boiling point, and maintain at that until the juice attains a boiling temperature; then close the bottles with perfectly fitting corks, which {604} have been kept immersed in boiling water for a short time before use. The corks should not be fastened in any way, for if the sterilization is not complete, fermentation and consequent explosion of the bottle might occur, unless the cork should be forced out. The addition of sugar is not necessary to secure the success of the operation; in fact a small proportion would have no antiseptic effect. If the juice is to be used for syrup as for use at the soda fountain, the best method is to make a concentrated syrup at once, using about 2 pounds of refined sugar to 1 pint of juice, dissolving by a gentle heat. The syrup may be made by simple agitation without heat and a finer flavor thus results, but its keeping quality would be uncertain.
II.—Fruit juices may be preserved by gentle heating and after protection from the air in sterilized containers. The heat required is much below the boiling point. Professor Müller finds that a temperature of from 140° to 158° F., maintained for 15 minutes, is sufficient to render the fermenting agents present inactive. The bottles must also be heated to destroy any adherent germs. The juices may be placed in them as expressed and the container then placed in a water bath. As soon as the heating is finished the bottles must be securely closed. The heating process will, in consequence of coagulating certain substances, produce turbidity, and if clear liquid is required, filtration is, of course, necessary. In this case it is better to heat the juice in bulk in a kettle, filter through felt, fill the bottles, and then heat again in the containers as in the first instance. It is said that grape juice prepared in this manner has been found unaltered after keeping for many years. Various antiseptics have been proposed as preservatives for fruit juices and other articles of food, but all such agents are objectionable both on account of their direct action on the system and their effect in rendering food less digestible. While small quantities of such drugs occasionally taken may exert no appreciable effect, continuous use is liable to be more or less harmful.
«CRUSHED FRUIT PRESERVING:»
«Crushed Pineapples.»—Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple and drain off about one-half of the liquor by placing on a strainer. Add to each pound of pineapple 1 pound of granulated sugar. Place on the fire and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution salicylic acid. Put into air-tight jars until wanted for use.
«Crushed Peach.»—Take a good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Add sugar, bring to the boiling point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal hermetically.
«Crushed Apricots.»—Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using canned apricots.
«Crushed Orange.»—Secure oranges with a thin peel and containing plenty of juice. Remove the outer or yellow peel first, taking care not to include any of bitter peel. The outer peel may be used in making orange phosphate or tincture sweet orange peel. After removing the outer peel, remove the inner, bitter peel, quarter and remove the seeds. Extract part of the juice and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat grinder. Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point. When ready to remove, add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid and 1 ounce glycerine. Put into jars and seal.
«Crushed Cherries.»—If obtainable, the large, dark California cherry should be used. Stone the cherries, and grind to a pulp. Add sugar, and place on the fire, stirring constantly. Before removing, add to each gallon 1 ounce of the saturated solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal.
«Dry Sugar Preserving.»—The fruits are embedded in a thick layer of dry, powdered sugar to which they give up the greater part of the water contained in them. At the same time, a quantity of sugar passes through the skins into the interior of the fruits. Afterwards, the fruits are washed once, wiped, and completely dried.
«Fruit Preserving.»—Express the juice and filter at once, through two thicknesses of best white Swedish paper, into a container that has been sterilized immediately before letting the juice run into it, by boiling water. The better plan is to take out of water in active ebullition at the moment you desire to use it. Have ready some long-necked, 8-ounce vials, which should also be kept in boiling water until needed. Pour the juice into these, leaving room in the upper part of the body of the vial to {605} receive a teaspoonful of the best olive oil. Pour the latter in so that it will trickle down the neck and form a layer on top of the juice, and close the neck with a wad of antiseptic cotton thrust into it in such manner that it does not touch the oil, and leaves room for the cork to be put in without touching it. Cork and cap or seal the vial, and put in a cool, dark place, and keep standing upright. If carried out faithfully with due attention to cleanliness, this process will keep the juice in a perfectly natural condition for a very long time. The two essentials are the careful and rapid filtration, and the complete asepticization of the containers. Another process, in use in the French Navy, depends upon the rapid and careful filtering of the juice, and the addition of from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol.
«Raspberry Juice.»—A dark juice is obtained by adding to the crushed raspberries, before the fermentation, slight quantities of sugar in layers. The ethyl-alcohol forming during the fermentation is said to cause a better extraction of the raspberry red. Furthermore, the boiling should not be conducted on a naked fire, but by means of superheated steam, so as to avoid formation of caramel. Finally, the sugar used should be perfectly free from ultramarine and lime, since both impurities detract from the red color of the raspberries.
«Spice for Fruit Compote.»—This is greatly in demand in neighborhoods where many plums and pears are preserved.
Parts Parts Lemon peel 15 or — Cinnamon, ordinary 15 or 50 Star aniseed 10 or 15 Coriander 3 or 100 Carob pods 5 or — Ginger root, peeled 2 or 200 Pimento — or 100 Licorice — or 100 Cloves, without stems — or 30 Spanish peppers — or 2 Oil of lemon — or 4 Oil of cinnamon — or 2 Oil of cloves — or 2
All the solid constituents are powdered moderately fine and thoroughly mixed; the oils dropped in last, and rubbed into the powder.
«Strawberries.»—Carefully remove the stems and calyxes, place the strawberries on a sieve, and move the latter about in a tub of water for a few moments, to remove any dirt clinging to them. Drain and
## partially dry spontaneously, then remove from the sieve and put into
a porcelain-lined kettle provided with a tight cover. To every pound of berries take a half pound of sugar and 2 ounces of water and put the same in a kettle over the fire. Let remain until the sugar has dissolved or become liquid, and then pour the same, while still hot, over the berries, cover the kettle tightly and let it stand overnight. The next morning put the kettle over the fire, removing the cover when the berries begin to boil, and let boil gently for 6 to 8 minutes (according to the mass), removing all scum as it arises. Remove from the fire, and with a perforated spoon or dipper take the fruit from the syrup, and fill into any suitable vessel. Replace the syrup on the fire and boil for about the same length of time as before, then pour, all hot, over the berries. The next day empty out the contents of the vessel on a sieve, and let the berries drain off; remove the syrup that drains off, add water, put on the fire, and boil until you obtain a syrup which flows but slowly from the stirring spoon. At this point add the berries, and let boil gently for a few moments. Have your preserve jars as hot as possible, by putting them into a pot of cold water and bringing the latter to a boil, and into them fill the berries, hot from the kettle. Cool down, cover with buttered paper, and immediately close the jars hermetically. If corks are used, they should be protected below with parchment paper, and afterwards covered with wet bladder stretched over the top, securely tied and waxed. The process seems very troublesome and tedious, but all of the care expended is repaid by the richness and pureness of the flavor of the preserve, which maintains the odor and taste of the fresh berry in perfection.
«Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative.»—Hydrogen peroxide is one of the best, least harmful, and most convenient agents for preserving syrups, wine, beer, cider, and vinegar. For this purpose 2 1/2 fluidrachms of the commercial peroxide of hydrogen may be added to each quart of the article to be preserved. Hydrogen peroxide also affords an easy test for bacteria in water. When hydrogen peroxide is added to water that contains bacteria, these organisms decompose it, and consequently oxygen gas is given off. If the water be much contaminated the disengagement of gas may be quite brisk. {606}
«To Preserve Milk» (which should be as fresh as possible) there should be added enough hydrogen peroxide to cause it to be completely decomposed by the enzymes of the milk. For this purpose 1.3 per cent, by volume, of a 3 per cent hydrogen peroxide solution is required. The milk is well shaken and kept for 5 hours at 122° to 125° F. in well-closed vessels. Upon cooling, it may keep fresh for about a month and also to retain its natural fresh taste. With this process, if pure milk is used, the ordinary disease germs are killed off soon after milking and the milk sterilized.
«Powdered Cork as a Preservative.»—Tests have shown that powdered cork is very efficacious for packing and preserving fruits and vegetables. A bed of cork is placed at the bottom of the case, and the fruits or vegetables and the cork are then disposed in alternate layers, with a final one of cork at the top. Care should be taken to fill up the interstices, in order to prevent friction. Fruit may thus be kept fresh a year, provided any unsound parts have been removed preliminarily. When unpacking for sale, it suffices to plunge the fruit into water. Generally speaking, 50 pounds of cork go with 1,000 or 1,200 pounds of fruit. The cork serves as a protection against cold, heat, and humidity. Various fruits, such as grapes, mandarines, tomatoes, and early vegetables, are successfully packed in this way.
PRESSURE TABLE: See Tables.
PRINT COPYING: See Copying.
PRINTERS’ OIL: See Oil.
PRINTING ON PHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography.
PRINTS, RESTORATION OF: See Engravings.
PRINTS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Engravings.
PRINTING OILCLOTH AND LEATHER IN GOLD: See Gold.
PRINTING-OUT PAPER, HOW TO SENSITIZE: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.
PRINTING-ROLLER COMPOSITIONS: See Roller Compositions for Printers.
PRUSSIC ACID: See Poisons.
«PUMICE STONE.»
While emery is used for polishing tools, polishing sand for stones and glass, ferric oxide for fine glassware, and lime and felt for metals, pumice stone is more frequently employed for polishing softer objects. Natural pumice stone presents but little firmness, and the search has therefore been made to replace the natural product with an artificial one. An artificial stone has been produced by means of sandstone and clay, designed to be used for a variety of purposes. No. 1, hard or soft, with coarse grain, is designed for leather and waterproof garments, and for the industries of felt and wool; No. 2, hard and soft, of average grain, is designed for work in stucco and sculptors’ use, and for rubbing down wood before painting; No. 3, soft, with fine grain, is used for polishing wood and tin articles; No. 4, of average hardness, with fine grain, is used for giving to wood a surface previous to polishing with oil; No. 5, hard, with fine grain, is employed for metal work and stones, especially lithographic stones. These artificial products are utilized in the same manner as the volcanic products. For giving a smooth surface to wood, the operation is dry; but for finishing, the product is diluted with oil.
PUMICE-STONE SOAP: See Soaps.
PUNCHES: See Ice Creams.
PUNCTURE CEMENT: See Cement.
PURPLE OF CASSIUS: See Gold.
«Putty»
(See also Lutes, under Adhesives and Cements.)
Common putty, as used by carpenters, painters, and glaziers, is whiting mixed with linseed oil to the consistency of dough. Plasterers use a fine lime mortar that is called putty. Jewelers use a tin oxide for polishing, called putty powder or putz powder. (See Putz Powder, under Jewelers’ Polishes, under Polishes.) {607}
«Acid-Proof Putty.»—I.—Melt 1 part of gum elastic with 2 parts of linseed oil and mix with the necessary quantity of white bole by continued kneading to the desired consistency. Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid do not attack this putty, it softens somewhat in the warm and does not dry readily on the surface. The drying and hardening is effected by an admixture of 1/2 part of litharge or red lead.
II.—A putty which will even resist boiling sulphuric acid is prepared by melting caoutchouc at a moderate heat, then adding 8 per cent of tallow, stirring constantly, whereupon sufficiently slaked lime is added until the whole has the consistency of soft dough. Finally about 20 per cent of red lead is still added, which causes the mass to set immediately and to harden and dry. A solution of caoutchouc in double its weight of linseed oil, added by means of heat and with the like quantity (weight) of pipe clay, gives a plastic mass which likewise resists most acids.
«Black Putty.»—Mix whiting and antimony sulphide, the latter finely powdered, with soluble glass. This putty, it is claimed, can be polished, after hardening, by means of a burnishing agate.
«Durable Putty.»—According to the “Gewerbeschau,” mix a handful of burnt lime with 4 1/4 ounces of linseed oil; allow this mixture to boil down to the consistency of common putty, and dry the extensible mass received, in a place not accessible to the rays of the sun. When the putty, which has become very hard through the drying, is to be used, it is warmed. Over the flame it will become soft and pliable, but after having been applied and become cold, it binds the various materials very firmly.
«Glaziers’ Putty.»—I.—For puttying panes or looking glasses into picture frames a mixture prepared as follows is well adapted: Make a solution of gum elastic in benzine, strong enough so that a syrup-like fluid results. If the solution be too thin, wait until the benzine evaporates. Then grind white lead in linseed-oil varnish to a stiff paste and add the gum solution. This putty may be used, besides the above purposes, for the tight puttying-in of window panes into their frames. The putty is applied on the glass lap of the frames and the panes are firmly pressed into it. The glass plates thereby obtain a good, firm support and stick to the wood, as the putty adheres both to the glass and to the wood.
II.—A useful putty for mirrors, etc., is prepared by dissolving gummi elasticum (caoutchouc) in benzol to a syrupy solution, and incorporating this latter with a mixture of white lead and linseed oil to make a stiff pulp. The putty adheres strongly to both glass and wood, and may therefore be applied to the framework of the window, mirror, etc., to be glazed, the glass being then pressed firmly on the cementing layer thus formed.
«Hard Putty.»—This is used by carriage painters and jewelers. Boil 4 pounds brown umber and 7 pounds linseed oil for 2 hours; stir in 2 ounces beeswax; take from the fire and mix in 5 1/2 pounds chalk and 11 pounds white lead; the mixing must be done very thoroughly.
«Painters’ Putty and Rough Stuff.»—Gradually knead sifted dry chalk (whiting) or else rye flour, powdered white lead, zinc white, or lithopone white with good linseed-oil varnish. The best putty is produced from varnish with plenty of chalk and some zinc white. This mixture can be tinted with earth colors. These oil putties must be well kneaded together and rather compact (like glaziers’ putty).
If flour paste is boiled (this is best produced by scalding with hot water, pouring in, gradually, the rye flour which has been previously dissolved in a little cold water and stirring constantly until the proper consistency is attained) and dry sifted chalk and a little varnish are added, a good rough stuff for wood or iron is obtained, which can be rubbed. This may also be produced from glaziers’ oil putty by gradually kneading into it flour paste and a little more sifted dry chalk.
«To Soften Glaziers’ Putty.»—I.—Glaziers’ putty which has become hard can be softened with the following mixture: Mix carefully equal parts of crude powdered potash and freshly burnt lime and make it into a paste with a little water. This dough, to which about 1/4 part of soft soap is still added, is applied on the putty to be softened, but care has to be taken not to cover other paint, as it would be surely destroyed thereby. After a few hours the hardest putty will be softened by this caustic mass and can be removed from glass and wood.
II.—A good way to make the putty soft and plastic enough in a few hours so that it can be taken off like fresh putty, is by the use of kerosene, which entirely dissolves the linseed oil of the putty, {608} transformed into rosin, and quickly penetrates it.
«Substitute for Putty.»—A cheap and effective substitute for putty to stop cracks in woodwork is made by soaking newspapers in a paste made by boiling a pound of flour in 3 quarts of water, and adding a teaspoonful of alum. This mixture should be of about the same consistency as putty, and should be forced into the cracks with a blunt knife. It will harden, like papier maché, and when dry may be painted or stained to match the boards, when it will be almost imperceptible.
«Waterproof Putties.»—I.—Grind powdered white lead or minium (red lead) with thick linseed-oil varnish to a stiff paste. This putty is used extensively for tightening wrought-iron gas pipes, for tightening rivet seams on gas meters, hot-water furnaces, cast-iron flange pipes for hot-water heating, etc. The putty made with minium dries very slowly, but becomes tight even before it is quite hard, and holds very firmly after solidification. Sometimes a little ground gypsum is added to it.
The two following putties are cheaper than the above-mentioned red lead putty: II.—One part white lead, 1 part manganese, one part white pipe clay, prepared with linseed-oil varnish.
III.—Two parts red lead, 5 parts white lead, 4 parts clay, ground in or prepared with linseed-oil varnish.
IV.—Excellent putty, which has been found invaluable where waterproof closing and permanent adhesion are desired, is made from litharge and glycerine. The litharge must be finely pulverized and the glycerine very concentrated, thickly liquid, and clear as water. Both substances are mixed into a viscid, thickly liquid pulp. The pegs of kerosene lamps, for instance, can be fixed in so firmly with this putty that they can only be removed by chiseling it out. For puttying in the glass panes of aquariums it is equally valuable. As it can withstand higher temperatures it may be successfully used for fixing tools, curling irons, forks, etc., in the wooden handles. The thickish putty mass is rubbed into the hole, and the part to be fixed is inserted. As this putty hardens very quickly it cannot be prepared in large quantities, and only enough for immediate use must be compounded in each case.
V.—Five parts of hydraulic lime, 0.3 parts of tar, 0.3 parts of rosin, 1 part of horn water (the decoction resulting from boiling horn in water and decanting the latter). The materials are to be mixed and boiled. After cooling, the putty is ready for use. This is an excellent cement for glass, and may be used also for reservoirs and any vessels for holding water, to cement the cracks; also for many other purposes. It will not give way, and is equally good for glass, wood, and metal.
VI.—This is especially recommended for boiler leaks: Mix well together 6 parts of powdered graphite, 3 parts of slaked lime, 8 parts of heavy spar (barytes), and 8 parts of thick linseed-oil varnish, and apply in the ordinary way to the spots.
PUTTY FOR ATTACHING SIGN-LETTERS TO GLASS: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Cements.
PUTTY, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
PUTZ POMADE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
PYROGALLIC ACID: See Photography.
PYROGALLIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE, FROM THE SKIN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Photography.
PYROCATECHIN DEVELOPER: See Photography.
«Pyrotechnics»
«FIREWORKS.»
The chief chemical process is, of course, oxidation. Oxidation may be produced by the atmosphere, but in many cases this is not enough, and then the pyrotechnist must employ his knowledge of chemistry in selecting oxidizing agents.
The chief of these oxidizing agents are chlorates and nitrates, the effect of which is to promote the continuance of combustion when it is once started. They are specially useful, owing to their solid non-hygroscopic nature. Then ingredients are needed to prevent the too speedy action of the oxidizing agents, to regulate the process of combustion, such as calomel, sand, and sulphate of potash. Thirdly, there are the active ingredients that produce the desired effect, prominent among which are substances that in contact with flame impart some special color to it. Brilliancy and brightness are imparted by steel, zinc, and copper {609} filings. Other substances employed are lampblack with gunpowder, and, for theatre purposes, lycopodium.
Fireworks may be classified under four heads, viz.:
1. Single fireworks.
2. Terrestrial fireworks, which are placed upon the ground and the fire issues direct from the surface.
3. Atmospheric fireworks, which begin their display in the air.
4. Aquatic fireworks, in which oxidation is so intense that they produce a flame under water.
«Rockets.»—First and foremost among atmospheric fireworks are rockets, made in different sizes, each requiring a slightly different percentage composition. A good formula is
Sulphur 1 part Carbon, wood 2 parts Niter 4 parts Meal powder 1 part
Meal powder is a fine black or brown dust, which acts as a diluent.
«Roman Candles.»—Roman candles are somewhat after the same principle. An average formula is:
Sulphur 4 parts Carbon 3 parts Niter 8 parts
«Pin Wheels.»—These are also similar in composition to the preceding. The formula for the basis is
Sulphur 5 parts Niter 9 parts Meal powder 15 parts Color as desired.
«Bengal Lights.»—Bengal lights have the disadvantage of being poisonous. A typical preparation can be made according to this formula:
Realgar 1 part Black antimony 5 parts Red lead 1 part Sulphur 3 parts Niter 14 parts
«COLORED FIRES.»
The compounds should be ignited in a small pill box resting on a plate. All the ingredients must be dried and powdered separately, and then lightly mixed on a sheet of paper. Always bear in mind that sulphur and chlorate of potassium explode violently if rubbed together.
«Smokeless Vari-Colored Fire.»—First take barytes or strontium, and bring to a glowing heat in a suitable dish, remove from the fire, and add the shellac. The latter (unpowdered) will melt at once, and can then be intimately mixed with the barytes or strontium by means of a spatula. After cooling, pulverize. One may also add about 2 1/2 per cent of powdered magnesium to increase the effect. Take for instance 4 parts of barytes or strontium and 1 part of shellac.
The following salts, if finely powdered and burned in an iron ladle with a little spirits, will communicate to the flame their peculiar colors.
Potassium nitrate or sodium chlorate, yellow.
Potassium chlorate, violet.
Calcium chloride, orange.
Strontium nitrate, red.
Barium nitrate, apple green.
Copper nitrate, emerald green.
Borax, green.
Lithium chloride, purple.
The colored fires are used largely in the production of various theatrical effects.
«Blue Fire.»—
I.—Ter-sulphuret of antimony 1 part Sulphur 2 parts Nitrate of potassium 6 parts
II.—Sulphur 15 parts Potassium sulphate 15 parts Ammonio-cupric sulphate 15 parts Potassium nitrate 27 parts Potassium chlorate 28 parts
III.—Chlorate of potash 8 parts Calomel 4 parts Copper sulphate 5 parts Shellac 3 parts
IV.—Ore pigment 2 parts Charcoal 3 parts Potassium chloride 5 parts Sulphur 13 parts Potassium nitrate 77 parts
V.—Potassium chlorate 10 parts Copper chlorate 20 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts
VI.—Copper chlorate 100 parts Copper nitrate 50 parts Barium chlorate 25 parts Potassium chlorate 100 parts Alcohol 500 parts Water 1,000 parts
«Green.»—
I.—Barium chlorate 20 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts
II.—Barium nitrate 10 parts Potassium chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts
{610}
III.—Shellac 5 parts Barium nitrate 1 1/4 parts
Pound after cooling, and add Barium chlorate, 2 to 5 per cent.
«Red.»—
I.—Shellac 5 parts Strontium nitrate 1 to 1.2 parts
Preparation as in green fare. In damp weather add 2 to 4 per cent of potassium chlorate to the red flame; the latter causes a little more smoke.
II.—Strontium nitrate 20 parts Potassium chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts
«Yellow.»—
I.—Sulphur 16 parts Dried carbonate of soda 23 parts Chlorate of potassium 61 parts
II.—Sodium chlorate 20 parts Potassium oxalate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts
«Violet.»—
I.—Strontium chlorate 15 parts Copper chlorate 15 parts Potassium chlorate 15 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts
II.—Potassium chlorate 20 parts Strontium chlorate 20 parts Copper chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts
«Lilac.»—
Potassium chlorate 20 parts Copper chlorate 10 parts Strontium chloride 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts
«Mauve.»—
Chlorate of potash 28 parts Calomel 12 parts Shellac 4 parts Strontium nitrate 4 parts Cupric sulphate 2 parts Fat 1 part
«Purple.»—
Copper sulphide 8 parts Calomel 7 parts Sulphur 2 parts Chlorate of potash 16 parts
«White.»—
I.—Gunpowder 15 parts Sulphur 22 parts Nitrate of potassium 64 parts
II.—Potassium nitrate 30 parts Sulphur 10 parts Antimony sulphide (black) 5 parts Flour 3 parts Powdered camphor 2 parts
III.—Charcoal 1 part Sulphur 11 parts Potassium sulphide 38 parts
IV.—Stearine 1 part Barium carbonate 1 part Milk sugar 4 parts Potassium nitrate 4 parts Potassium chlorate 12 parts
As a general rule, a corresponding quantity of shellac may be taken instead of the sulphur for inside fireworks.
The directions for using these solutions are simply to imbibe bibulous papers in them, then carefully dry and roll tightly into rolls of suitable length, according to the length of time they are to burn.
«Fuses.»—For fuses or igniting papers, the following is used:
Potassium nitrate 2 parts Lead acetate 40 parts Water 100 parts
Mix and dissolve, and in the solution place unsized paper; raise to nearly a boil and keep at this temperature for 20 minutes. If the paper is to be “slow,” it may now be taken out, dried, cut into strips, and rolled. If to be “faster,” the heat is to be continued longer, according to the quickness desired. Care must be taken to avoid boiling, which might disintegrate the paper.
In preparing these papers, every precaution against fire should be taken, and their preparation in the shop or house should not be thought of. In making the solutions, etc., where heat is necessary, the water bath should invariably be used.
«PYROTECHNIC MAGIC.»
[Caution.—When about to place any lighted material in the mouth be sure that the mouth is well coated with saliva, and that you are exhaling _the breath continuously_, with greater or less force, _according to the amount of heat you can bear_.
If the lighted material shows a tendency to burn the mouth, _do not attempt to drag it out quickly_, but simply shut the lips tight, and breathe through the nose, and the fire must go out instantly.
In the Human Gas Trick, where a flame 10 to 15 inches long is blown from the mouth, be careful after lighting the {611} gas, _to continue to exhale the breath_. When you desire the gas to go out, simply shut the lips tight and hold the breath for a few seconds. In this trick, until the gas is well out, any inhalation is likely to be attended with the most serious results.
The several cautions above given may be examined with a lighted match, first removing, after lighting the match, any brimstone or phosphorus from its end.]
«To Fire Paper, etc., by Breathing on it.»—This secret seems little known to conjurers. Pay particular attention to the caution concerning phosphorus at the head of this article, and the caution respecting the dangerous nature of the prepared fluid given.
Half fill a half-ounce bottle with carbon disulphide, and drop in 1 or 2 fragments of phosphorus, each the size of a pea, which will quickly dissolve. Shake up the liquid, and pour out a small teaspoonful onto a piece of blotting paper. The carbon disulphide will quickly evaporate, leaving a film of phosphorus on the paper, which will quickly emit fumes and burst into flame. The once-popular term Fenian fire was derived from the supposed use of this liquid by the Fenians for the purpose of setting fire to houses by throwing a bottle down a chimney or through a window, the bottle to break and its contents to speedily set fire to the place.
For the purpose of experiment this liquid should only be prepared in small quantities as above, and any left over should be poured away onto the soil in the open air, so as to obviate the risk of fire. Thin paper may be fired in a similar manner with the acid bulbs and powder already mentioned. The powder should be formed into a paste, laid on the paper, and allowed to dry. Then the acid bulb is pasted over the powder.
«Burning Brimstone.»—Wrap cotton around two small pieces of brimstone and wet it with gasoline; take between the fingers, squeezing the surplus liquid out, light it with a candle, throw back the head well, and put it on the tongue blazing. Blow fire from mouth, and observe that a freshly blown-out candle may be lighted from the flame, which makes it more effective. After lighting candle chew up brimstone and pretend to swallow.
«Blazing Sponge Trick.»—Take 2 or 3 small sponges, place them in a ladle; pour just enough oil or gasoline over them to wet them. Be very careful not to have enough oil on them to cause them to drip. Set fire to the sponges and take one of them up with the tongs, and throw the head back and drop the blazing sponge in the mouth, expelling the breath all the time. Now close your mouth quickly; this cuts off the air from the flame and it immediately goes out. Be careful not to drop the sponge on the face or chin. Remove sponge under cover of a handkerchief before placing the second one in the mouth.
«Burning Sealing Wax.»—Take a stick of common sealing wax in one hand and a candle in the other, melt the wax over the candle, and put on your tongue while blazing. The moisture of the mouth cools it almost instantly. Care should be taken not to get any on the lips, chin, or hands.
«Demon Bowls of Fire.»—The performer has three 6 1/2-inch brass bowls on a table, and openly pours ordinary clean water (may be drunk) into bowls, until each is about half full. Then by simply passing the hand over bowls they each take fire and produce a flame 12 to 20 inches high.
Each bowl contains about 2 teaspoonfuls of ether, upon which is placed a small piece of the metal potassium, about the size of a pea. If the ether be pure the potassium will not be acted upon. When the water is poured into the bowl the ether and potassium float up, the latter
## acting vigorously on the water, evolving hydrogen and setting fire
thereto, and to the ether as well.
The water may be poured into the bowl and lighted at command. In this case the potassium and ether are kept separated in the bowl, the former in a little cup on one side, and the latter in the body of the bowl. The water is poured in, and on rocking the bowl it is caused to wash into the little cup, the potassium floats up, and the fire is produced.
N. B.—The above tricks are not safe in any but specially made bowls, i. e., bowls with the wide flange round edge to prevent the accidental spilling of any portion of the burning ether.
«The Burning Banana.»—Place some alcohol in a ladle and set fire to it. Dip a banana in the blazing alcohol and eat it while it is blazing. As soon as it is placed in the mouth the fire goes out.
«Sparks from the Finger Tips.»—Take a small piece of tin about 1/2 inch wide and 1 1/2 inches long. Bend this in the shape of a ring. To the center of this piece solder another small piece of tin bent in the shape of a letter U; between the {612} ends of this U place a small piece of wax tape about 1/2 inch long. Take a piece of small rubber tubing about 2 feet in length and to one end of this attach a hollow rubber ball, which you must partly fill with iron filings. Place the rubber ball containing the iron filings under the arm and pass the rubber tube down through the sleeve of the coat to the palm of the hand; now place the tin ring upon the middle finger, with the wax taper inside of the hand. Light this taper. By pressing the arm down sharply on the rubber ball, the force of the air will drive some of the iron filings through the rubber tube and out through the flame of the burning taper, when they will ignite and cause a beautiful shower of sparks to appear to rain from the finger tips.
«To Take Boiling Lead in the Mouth.»—The metal used, while not unlike lead in appearance, is not the ordinary metal, but is really an alloy composed of the following substances:
Bismuth 8 parts Lead 5 parts Tin 2 parts
To prepare it, first melt the lead in a crucible, then add the bismuth and finally the tin, and stir well together with a piece of tobacco pipe stem. This “fusible metal” will melt in boiling water, and a teaspoon cast from the alloy will melt if very hot water be poured into it, or if boiling water be stirred with it. If the water be not quite boiling, as is pretty sure to be the case if tea from a teapot is used, in all probability the heat will be insufficient to melt the spoon. But by melting the alloy and adding to it a small quantity of quicksilver a compound will be produced, which, though solid at the ordinary temperature, will melt in water _very much below the boiling point_. Another variety of easily fusible alloy is made by melting together
Bismuth 7 to 8 parts Lead 4 parts Tin 2 parts Cadmium 1 to 2 parts
This mixture melts at 158°, that given above at 208° F.
Either one of the several alloys above given will contain considerably less heat than lead, and in consequence be the more suitable for the purposes of a “Fire King.”
When a body is melted it is raised to a certain temperature and then gets no hotter, not even if the fire be increased—all the extra heat goes to melt the remainder of the substance.
_Second Method._—This is done with a ladle constructed similarly to the tin cup in a previous trick. The lead, genuine in this case, is, apparently, drunk from the ladle, which is then tilted, that it may be seen to be empty. The lead is concealed in the secret interior of the ladle, and a solid piece of lead is in conclusion dropped from the mouth, as congealed metal.
«To Eat Burning Coals.»—In the first place make a good charcoal fire in the furnace. Just before commencing the act throw in three or four pieces of soft pine. When burnt to a coal one cannot tell the difference between this and charcoal, except by sticking a fork into it. This will not burn in the least, while the genuine charcoal will. You can stick your fork into these coals without any difficulty, but the charcoal is brittle and hard; it breaks before the fork goes into it.
«Chain of Fire.»—Take a piece of candle wick 8 or 10 inches long, saturated with kerosene oil, squeeze out surplus oil. Take hold of one end with your fire tongs, light by furnace, throw back your head, and lower it into your mouth _while exhaling the breath freely_. When all in, close your lips and remove in handkerchief.
NOTE.—Have a good hold of the end with the tongs, for if it should fall it would probably inflict a serious burn; for this reason also no burning oil must drop from the cotton.
«Biting Off Red-Hot Iron.»—Take a piece of hoop iron about 2 feet long, place it in a vise and bend it backwards and forwards, about an inch from the end, until it is nearly broken off. Put this in a furnace until it becomes red hot, then take it in your right hand, grasp the broken end in your teeth, being careful not to let it touch your lips or your tongue, make a “face” as though it was terribly hard to bite off, and let the broken end drop from between your teeth into a pail of water (which you should always have at hand in case of fire), when the hissing will induce the belief that the portion bitten off is still “red hot”—it may be, for that matter, if the iron be nearly broken off in the first place and if you have good teeth and are not afraid to injure them.
«Water Stirred Yellow, Scarlet, and Colorless.»—Obtain a glass tube with one end hermetically sealed and drawn into a fine point that will break easily. Into an ale glass put a solution of mercury {613} bichloride (corrosive sublimate, a deadly poison) and into the tube a strong solution of potassium iodide so adjusted in strength that it will redissolve the scarlet precipitate formed by the union of the two liquids. While stirring the solution in the glass the bottom of the tube (apparently a glass rod) is broken and a small portion of its contents allowed to escape, which produces a beautiful scarlet. The balance of the fluid in the tube is retained there by simply keeping the thumb on the open top end. Continue the stirring, allowing the balance of the contents of the tube to escape, and the scarlet fluid again becomes colorless. Before the scarlet appears the liquid is yellow.
To heighten the effect, another ale glass, containing only clean water and a solid glass stirring-rod, may be handed to one of the company, with instructions to do the same as the performer; the result is amusing.
QUICK-WATER: See Alloys.
QUILTS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
QUINCE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.
RAGS FOR CLEANING AND POLISHING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
RASPBERRYADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.
RASPBERRY SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.
«Rat Poisons»
(See also Turpentine.)
Poisons for rats may be divided into two classes, quick and slow. Potassium cyanide and strychnine belong to the first, and phosphorus and arsenic to the second. Both should be kept away from children, dogs, and cats, and this is best done by putting them in places too narrow for anything larger than a rat to squeeze into. If the poison is too quick, the effect of it is visible to the same rats which saw the cause, and those which have not eaten of the bait will leave it alone. On the other hand, if it is too slow, the poisoned rat may spread it to edible things in the pantry, by vomiting. Slow poisons generally cause the rat to seek water, and when they are used water should not be left about promiscuously.
The substances most useful as rat poisons, and which are without danger to the larger domestic animals, are plaster of Paris and fresh squills. Less dangerous than strychnine and arsenic are the baryta preparations, of which the most valuable is barium carbonate. Like plaster of Paris, this substance, when used for the purpose, must be mixed with sugar and meal, or flour, and as a decoy some strong-smelling cheese should be added. In closed places there should be left vessels containing water easily accessible to the creatures.
One advantage over these substances possessed by the squill is that it is greedily eaten by rats and mice. When it is used, however, the same precaution as to water, noted above, is necessary, a circumstance too frequently forgotten. In preparing the squill for this purpose, by the addition of bacon, or fat meat of any kind, the use of a decoy like cheese is unnecessary, as the fats are sufficiently appetizing to the rodents. It is to be noted that only fresh squills should be used for this purpose, as in keeping the bulb the poisonous principle is destroyed, or, at least, is so modified as to seriously injure its value.
«Squill Poisons.»—The preparation of the squill as a rat poison can be effected in several different ways. Usually, after the removal of the outer peel, the bulb is cut up into little slices and mixed with milk and flour; these are stirred into a dough or paste, which, with bits of bacon rind, is put into the oven and baked. Another plan is to grate the squill on a grater and mingle the gratings with mashed, boiled, or roasted potato. This method of preparing them necessitates the immediate use of the poison. The following is, however, a stable preparation that keeps well:
I.—Hog’s lard 500 grams Acid salicylic 5 grams Squill 1 bulb Beef suet 50 to 100 grams Barium carbonate 500 grams Solution of ammonium copper acetate, 20 per cent 50 grams
Cut or grate the squill into very small pieces, and fry it in the lard and suet until it has acquired a dark-brown color and {614} the fats have taken up the characteristic squill odor; then to the mess add the other substances, and stir well together.
II.—Squill, bruised 4 ounces Bacon, chopped fine 6 ounces Flour or meal, enough. Water, enough.
Make into a stiff mass, divide into small cakes, and bake.
«Phosphorus Poisons.»—Next to the squill in value as a poison comes phosphorus in the shape of an electuary, or in pills. For readily preparing the electuary, when needed or ordered, it is a good plan to keep on hand a phosphorated syrup made as follows:
To 200 parts of simple syrup, in a strong flask, add 50 parts of phosphorus and 10 parts of talc powder; place the container in a suitable vessel and surround it with water heated to 120° to 130° F., and let it stand until the phosphorus is melted. Now, cork the flask well, tie down the cork, and agitate until the mixture is completely cold. As a measure of precaution, the flask should be wrapped with a cloth.
To make the poison take 50 parts of rye flour and mix with it 10 parts of powdered sugar. To the mixture add about 40 parts of water and from 30 to 40 parts of the phosphorated syrup, and mix the mass thoroughly.
While it is best to make the phosphorated syrup fresh every time that it is required, a stable syrup can be made as follows:
Heat together very carefully in a water bath 5 parts of phosphorus, 3 parts of sublimed sulphur, and 30 parts of water, until the phosphorus is completely melted and taken up; then add 30 parts of wheat flour and 6 parts of ground mustard seed, and work up, with the addition of warm water from time to time, if necessary, into a stiff paste, finally adding and working in from 1 to 2 parts of oil of anise.
Borax in powder, it may be noticed, is also useful as a preservative of phosphorated paste or the electuary.
Mühsam gives the following formula for an electuary of phosphorus for this purpose:
I.—Phosphorus, granulated 1 part Rye flour 30 parts Simple syrup 10 parts Mustard seed, powdered 1 part Sublimed sulphur 1 part Water 10 parts
Proceed as indicated above.
Hager’s formula for “Phosphorus globules” is as follows:
II.—Phosphorus, amorphous 10 parts Glycerine 20 parts Linseed, powdered 100 parts Meat extract 15 parts Quark, recently coagulated, quantity sufficient.
Mix, and make a mass, and divide into 200 globules, weighing about 15 grains each. Roll in wheat flour, in which a little powdered sugar has been mixed.
Phosphorus electuary, made as indicated above, may be smeared upon bits of fried bacon, which should be tacked firmly to a bit of board or to the floor. It is essential that either flour or sugar, or both, be strewn over the surface of the phosphorus.
The most convenient in practice, on the whole, are the phosphorus globules, either made after Hager’s formula, or, more readily, by adding rye flour and sugar to the electuary and working up to a pill mass, or barium carbonate and plaster may be added.
«Arsenical Poisons.»—The following are some of the formulas given by Hager for preparing globules, or pills, of arsenic:
I.—Arsenic, white, powdered 100 parts Soot from the kitchen 5 parts Oil of anise 1 part Lard, sufficient. Wheat flour, sufficient.
Make into 400 globules.
II.—Beef suet 500 parts Rye flour 500 parts Arsenic, white, powdered 50 parts Ultramarine 10 parts Oil of anise 1 part
Melt the suet, and add to the flour, mix in the other ingredients, and work up while hot, beating the mass with a roller. Make 1,000 globules.
«Strychnine Poisons.»—The strychnine preparations are also valuable in the destruction of rats and mice. The first of these in point of usefulness is strychnine-wheat, or strychnine-oats (Strychninweizen or Strychninhafer), in the proportion of 1 part of strychnine to 100 or 150 parts of wheat or oat flour, prepared by dissolving 1 part of strychnine in 40 to 50 parts of hot water, mixing well up with the flour, and drying in the water {615} bath. Strychnine may also be used on fresh or salted meat, sausage, etc., by insertion of the powder, or the heads of fried fish are opened and the powder strewn on the inside. The latter is an especially deadly method, since the odor of the fish acts as a powerful lure, as also do the bits of bacon or other fats used in frying fish. Strong cheese is also a good vehicle for strychnine, acting as a powerful lure for the rodents.
Strychnine sulph 1 drachm Sugar milk 3 drachms Prussian blue 5 grains Sugar 1/2 ounce Oat flour 1/2 ounce
«Nux Vomica Poison.»—
Oatmeal 1 pound Powdered nux vomica 1 ounce Oil of anise 5 drops Tincture of asafetida 5 drops
«Barium Poison.»—
Barium carbonate 4 ounces Sugar 6 ounces Oatmeal 6 ounces Oil of anise 4 drops Oil of caraway 4 drops
RAZOR PAPER: See Paper.
«RAZOR PASTES:»
See also Pastes.
The razor pastes, razor creams, etc., on the market, have for their cutting, or sharpening, agent jewelers’ rouge, or rouge and emery. When emery is used it should be ground to an impalpable powder and levigated.
I.—The simplest formula is a mixture in equal parts of rouge and emery powder, rubbed up with spermaceti ointment. Coke is also used as a cutting agent. Suet, prepared lard, in fact, any greasy or soapy substance, will answer for the vehicle.
II.—Melt 1,000 parts of beef tallow and pour 250 parts of oil to it. To this mixture, which is uniformly combined by thorough stirring, add in the same manner 150 parts of washed emery, 100 parts of tin ashes, and 50 parts of iron oxide. The stirring of these ingredients must be continued until the mass is cool, as otherwise they would be unevenly distributed. The leather of the strop should be rubbed with this grease, applying only small quantities at a time. This renders it possible to produce a very uniform coating, since little quantities penetrate the fibers of the leather more easily.
III.—Tin putty (tin ashes) 2 parts Colcothar 2 parts Forged iron scales or filings 1 part Pure levantine honing stone finely powdered 7 parts Beef suet 3 parts
All the ingredients with the exception of the suet should be finely powdered. The suet is melted, the ingredients poured in, and the whole thoroughly mixed to form a doughy mass.
IV.—Colcothar 1 1/2 parts Pumice stone 1 1/2 parts Graphite 4 1/2 parts Bloodstone (red hematite) 2 parts Iron filings 1 part
These ingredients are finely powdered, washed, and mixed with the following:
Grafting wax 2 parts Soap 2 parts Lard 2 parts Olive oil 2 parts
Naturally the fatty ingredients are to be heated before the solid substances are commingled with them.
The side of the blade to be polished should be treated with the following compositions:
_a._ Tin ashes (tin putty) rubbed down to a fine powder on a honing stone and mixed with axle grease.
_b._ Washed graphite mingled with olive oil.
REDUCERS: See Photography.
REDUCING PHOTOGRAPHS, SCALE FOR: See Photography.
REFLECTOR METAL: See Alloys.
«REFRIGERANTS.»
I.—Potassium nitrate 2 pounds Ammonium chloride 2 pounds Water 5 pints
II.—Potassium nitrate 2 1/2 pounds Ammonium chloride 2 1/2 pounds Sodium sulphate 4 pounds Water 9 pints
III.—Ammonia nitrate 4 pounds Water 4 pints
IV.—Sodium sulphate 8 parts Dilute hydrochloric acid 5 parts
{616}
V.—Snow 1 part Water 1 part Sulphuric acid 4 parts
VI.—Snow 3 parts Calcium chloride 4 parts
«Refrigeration»
If water to be frozen is placed in a tin bucket or other receptacle it can be readily congealed by putting it in a pail containing a weak dilution of sulphuric acid and water. Into this throw a handful of common Glauber salts, and the resulting cold is so great that water immersed in the mixture will be frozen solid in a few minutes, and ice cream or ices may be quickly and easily prepared. The cost is only a few cents. The same process in an ice-cream freezer will do the trick for ice cream.
«Home-Made Refrigerators.»—I.—Partly fill with water a shallow granite-ware pan. Place it in an open, shady window where there is a good draught of air. In this put bottles of water, milk, and cream (sealed), wrapped with wet cloths reaching into the water. Put butter in an earthen dish deep enough to prevent water getting in. Over this turn an earthen flower-pot wrapped with a wet cloth reaching into the water. The pan should be fixed every morning and evening. With several of these pans one can keep house very comfortably without ice.
II.—Procure a wire meat-safe—that is, a box covered by wire netting on three sides, with a fly-proof door. On top place a deep pan filled with water. Take a piece of burlap the height of the pan and safe, and of sufficient length to reach around the entire safe. Tack it fast where the door opens and closes. Tuck the upper edge in the water. Place it where there is a draught and where the dripping will do no damage. This constitutes a well-ventilated refrigerator that costs nothing but water to maintain.
III.—Take a store box, any convenient size, and place in this a smaller box, having the bottom and space around the sides packed with sawdust. Have a galvanized iron pan made, the size of the inside box and half as deep, to hold the ice. Have the pan made with a spout 6 inches long to drain off the water as the ice melts. Bore a hole the size of the spout through the double bottom and sawdust packing to admit the spout. Short legs may be nailed on the sides of the box and a vessel set underneath to catch the drippings. Put on a tight board cover. A shelf may be placed in the box above the ice. This box will keep ice for three days.
IV.—Select a large cracker box with a hinged cover. Knock out the bottom and cut windows in each side, leaving a 3-inch frame, over which tack wire gauze. In the coolest part of the cellar dig away the earth to a level depth of 3 inches and fit the box into the space.
Mix plaster of Paris to a consistency of thick cream and pour into the box for a 1/2-inch thick bottom. Twenty-four hours will harden it sufficiently. Put a hook and catch on the lid. A box of this sort can be cleaned easily, and insects cannot penetrate it.
«To Drain a Refrigerator.»—I.—Have a stout tin funnel made, 7 inches in diameter at the top. The tube portion should be at least 8 inches long and of uniform diameter. Bore a hole through the floor directly under the drain-pipe of the refrigerator; insert the funnel, then force a piece of rubber tubing (a tight fit) over the funnel from the cellar side. Pass the tubing through a hole cut in the screen frame of a cellar window, and drain into any convenient place. This avoids the necessity of continually emptying the drain-pan, and prevents the overflow that frequently occurs when it is forgotten.
II.—This simple device saves the inconvenience of having a drip-pan under the refrigerator: If the refrigerator is placed near the outer wall get a piece of rubber hose long enough to reach from the waste pipe to the outside of the wall. Bore a hole through the wall under the refrigerator, where baseboard and floor meet. Attach the hose to the waste-pipe and pass through the hole in the wall. A small trough outside should carry the water away from the house.
REFRIGERATORS, THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas.
REPLATING: See Plating.
RESILVERING OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors.
REVOLVER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLERA: See Cholera Remedies. {617}
RIBBONS FOR TYPEWRITERS: See Typewriter Ribbons.
RICE PASTE: See Adhesives.
RICE POWDER: See Cosmetics.
RIFLE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.
RING, HOW TO SOLDER A JEWELED: See Solders.
RINGS ON METAL, PRODUCING COLORED: See Plating.
ROACH EXTERMINATORS: See Insecticides.
ROBURITE: See Explosives.
RODINAL DEVELOPER: See Photography.
«ROLLER COMPOSITIONS FOR PRINTERS.»
Rollers for transferring ink to types have to possess special properties, which have reference both to the nature of the ink and that of the types to which it is to be transferred. They must be as little liable as possible to changes of temperature. They must be sticky, but only just sticky enough, and must have elasticity enough to exert a uniform pressure over the varying surface with which they meet in the form. Originally, the composition was one of glue and molasses in varying proportions, and the only practical improvement that has been made is the addition of glycerine. This being slightly hygroscopic, helps to keep the roller at the right degree of softness, and being practically unfreezable, it is a great assistance in keeping the rollers from hardening in cold weather.
The recipes given in technical works for printing roller compositions are numerous and very different. All contain glue and molasses, and it is the practice to put a larger proportion of glue in rollers to be used in the summer than in those intended for winter use. The following is a selection of recipes:
I.—Soak 8 pounds of glue in as much water as it will absorb. When there is no visible water, treat the glue till melted, and add 7 pounds of hot molasses.
II.—Glue (summer) 8 pounds Glue (winter) 4 pounds Molasses 1 gallon
III.—Molasses 12 pounds Glue 4 pounds
IV.—Molasses 24 pounds Glue 16 pounds Paris white 2 pounds
V.—Glue or gelatin 64 pounds Water 48 pounds Linseed oil 96 pounds Molasses or sugar 64 to 96 pounds Chloride of calcium 3 pounds Powdered rosin 8 pounds
Soak the glue in the water and then liquefy by heat. Then stir in the oil, first heated to 150° F. Then add the molasses and the chloride of calcium, and finally the fused rosin. The latter ingredient is only to be added when very tough rollers are required. This recipe is interesting from the inclusion in it of the hygroscopic salt, chloride of calcium, the object of which is obviously to keep the rollers moist.
ROOFS, HOW TO LAY GALVANIZED: See Household Formulas.
ROOFS, PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE: See Household Formulas.
ROOF PAINTS: See Paint.
ROOM DEODORIZER: See Household Formulas.
«ROPES.»
To protect ropes, cordage, and cloths made of flax and hemp against rot, it has been recommended to leave them for 4 days in a solution of copper sulphate, 20 parts by weight to a liter, then allow them to dry, and then, to prevent the copper sulphate being washed away by the water, place in tar or a solution of soap—1 to 10. In the latter case an insoluble copper soap is formed. To secure the same result with twine, the following process has been recommended: Place the string for an hour in a solution of glue, then allow to dry, and place in a solution of tannin. After removal from the tannin, again dry, and soak in oil. The process first described has been shown by experience to be very effective; but to prevent the washing away of the copper sulphate, it is advisable to use the solution of soap in preference to the tar, as articles steeped in the latter substance are apt to become stiff, and consequently brittle. The {618} treatment with glue and tannin in the second process has the drawback that it tends to make the string too stiff and inflexible, and thus impair its usefulness.
ROPE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricant.
ROPES, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
ROSE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.
ROSEWOOD: See Wood.
ROSE POWDERS: See Cosmetics.
ROSIN, TESTS FOR, IN EXTRACTS: See Foods.
ROSIN OIL: See Oil.
ROSIN STICKS: See Depilatories.
«ROT:»
«Remedies for Dry Rot.»—A good remedy for dry rot is petroleum. The sick parts of the wood are painted with it, which causes the fungi to die, turn black, and finally drop off. The best preventive of dry rot is plenty of draught. If the portions are already affected so badly that they must be removed and renewed, the freshly inserted wood is coated with “carbolineum” to prevent a fresh appearance of dry rot. Another remedy is ordinary salt, which is known to have a highly hygroscopic action. It absorbs the moisture of the wood, whereby it is itself dissolved, thus gradually impregnating the planks, etc. In order to combat dry rot with salt, proceed as follows: Throw salt into boiling water until a perfectly saturated solution is obtained. With this repeatedly wash the wood and masonry afflicted with dry rot. Wherever practicable the salt may be sprinkled direct upon the affected place.
ROUGE: See Cosmetics.
«ROUGE FOR BUFF WHEELS.»
The rouge employed by machinists, watchmakers, and jewelers, is obtained by directly subjecting crystals of sulphate of iron or copperas to a high heat by which the sulphuric acid is expelled and the oxide of iron remains. Those portions least calcined, when ground, are used for polishing gold and silver. These are of bright crimson color. The darker and more calcined portions are known as “crocus,” and are used for polishing brass and steel. Others prefer for the production of rouge the peroxide of iron precipitated by ammonia from a dilute solution of sulphate of iron, which is washed, compressed until dry, then exposed to a low red heat and ground to powder. Of course, there are other substances besides rouge which are employed in polishing, as powdered emery, kieselguhr, carborundum, rotten stone, etc.
ROUGE POWDER: See Polishes.
ROUGH STUFF: See Wood.
ROUP CURES: See Veterinary Formulas.
«Rubber»
«ARTIFICIAL RUBBER.»
Austin G. Day tried hundreds of experiments and took out many patents for rubber substitutes. He was in a measure successful, his “Kerite” compound proving of great value and being a result of his seeking for something that would wholly supplant rubber. As far back as 1866 he made public the results of some of his work, giving as formulas for rubber substitutes the following compounds:
I.—Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 2 pounds Raw turpentine 2 pounds Sulphur 2 pounds
Boil 2 hours.
II.—Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 1 pound Raw turpentine 2 pounds Castor oil 1 pound Sulphur 2 pounds
Boil 1/2 hour.
III.—Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 1 pound Raw turpentine 1/2 pound Liquid coal tar 3 pounds Peanut oil 1 pound Spirits turpentine 1 pound Sulphur 4 pounds
Boil 35 minutes.
IV.—Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 2 pounds Raw turpentine 1/2 pound Liquid coal tar 2 pounds {619} Spirits turpentine 1 pound Rubber [ ] pound Sulphur 2 pounds
Boil 1 hour.
In 1871 Mr. Day had brought his experimenting down to the following formula:
V.—Cottonseed oil 14 pounds Linseed oil 14 pounds Asphaltum 8 pounds Coal tar 8 pounds Sulphur 10 pounds Camphor 1/2 pound
In this the tar and asphaltum were first mixed with the cottonseed oil, after which was added the linseed oil and camphor, and, last of all, the sulphur, when the temperature was about 270° F.
A substitute designed to be used in rubber compounding in place, say, of reclaimed rubber, was made as follows:
VI.—Cottonseed oil 27 pounds Coal tar 30 pounds Earthy matter 5 pounds
To be mixed and heated to 300° F., and then strained and cooled to 200° F. Then were added 27 pounds linseed oil, the heat raised to 220° F., and 15 to 18 pounds of sulphur added, the heat being continually raised until the mass was sulphurized. When the heat reached 240° F., 1 to 1 1/2 ounces of nitric acid were added, and at 270° to 280° F., from 1 to 3 ounces camphor were added to help the sulphurization. The resultant compound was used on the following basis:
VII.—Para rubber 20 pounds Litharge 5 pounds Sulphur 1 pound Above compound 20 to 40 pounds
Mr. Day did not insist on the compound quoted, but advised that the proportions be varied as widely as the exigencies of the case might demand. Whiting, barytes, infusorial earth, white lead, blacks, in fact almost any of the oxides, carbonates, or earthy materials commonly used in compounding, were used in connection with his substitute, as also were any grades of crude rubber. Among other ingredients that he found of use in making his substitutes were vegetable and animal waxes, together with ozokerite and paraffine. These were only used in small quantities, and always in connection with the linseed and cottonseed oils, and generally asphaltum or coal tar. One of his compounds also called for a quantity of golden sulphuret of antimony, presumably to assist in the sulphurization, and a small amount of tannic acid.
Another line of experimenting that is interesting, and that will yet produce good results, although so far it has not amounted to much, is in the use of cellulose. A very simple formula is of French origin and calls for the treating of cellulose with sulphuric acid, washing, drying, granulating, treating with resinate of soda—which is afterwards precipitated by sulphate of alumina—then drying and molding under pressure. As a matter of fact, the resultant mass would not be mistaken for rubber. An English formula is more like it. This consists of
VIII.—Cellulose 15 pounds Pitch 25 pounds Asphalt 20 pounds Silica 20 pounds Mastic 5 pounds Bitumen 5 pounds Rosin 10 pounds Coal tar 12 pounds
This makes a thick gummy varnish which is of little use except as for its waterproof qualities. Allen’s formula for a cellulose substitute might have a value if it were carried further. It is made up of 100 pounds of rosinous wood pulp treated with animal gelatin, 100 pounds asphalt, and 10 pounds asphalt oil, all heated and molded.
The Greening process, which is English, is more elaborate than Allen’s, but seems a bit laborious and costly. This process calls for the treatment of the cellulose by a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitrate of potash, and, after drying, a treatment to a bath of liquid carbonic acid. When dry again, it is mixed in a retort with refined rosin, gum benzoin, castor oil, and methylated alcohol. The distillate from this is dried by redistilling over anhydrous lime.
Another curious line of substitutes is that based upon the use of glue and glycerine. Some of these have uses, while others, that look very attractive, are of no use at all, for the simple reason that they will absorb water almost as readily as a dry sponge. The first of these is more than 30 years old and is said to be of French origin. The formula is:
IX.—Glue 4 pounds Glycerine 8 ounces Nutgall 3 ounces Acetic acid, 1 pound in 5 pounds of water.
Ten years later this was approached by an English formula in which in place of {620} the nutgall and acetic acid, chromic and tannic acids were substituted, and a modicum of ground cork was added as a cheapener probably. Some four years later an ingenious Prussian gave out a formula in which to the glue and glycerine and tannic acid were added Marseilles soap and linseed oil. None of the above have ever had a commercial value, the nearest approach being the glue and glycerine compound used as a cover for gas tubing.
The substitutes that have really come into use generally are made either from linseed, cottonseed, or maize oil. Scores of these have been produced and thousands of dollars have been spent by promoters and owners in trying to make these gums do just what crude rubber will. A German formula which was partially successful is
X.—Linseed oil, in solution 80 pounds Lime-hardened rosin, in solution 50 pounds
Add to above
Sulphur 8 pounds Linseed oil 42 pounds
Add 20 pounds sulphur and heat to 375° F.
«Rubber and Rubber Articles.»—As regards the action of coal gas on rubber tubes, it has been observed that it is weakest on ordinary gray rubber which withstands it the longest, and gives off no odor. Red rubber is more readily affected, and the black kind still more so.
To prevent rubber tubes from drying up and becoming brittle, they should be coated with a 3 per cent aqueous solution of carbolic acid, which preserves them. If they have already turned stiff and brittle, they can be rendered soft and pliant again by being placed in ammonia which has been made liquid with double the amount of water.
In France rubber tubes are used as a core for casting pipes from cement and sand. In order to construct a connected pipe conduit in the ground, a groove is dug and a layer of cement mortar spread out. Upon this the rubber tube is laid, which is wrapped up in canvas and inflated. The remaining portion of the channel is then filled up with cement mortar, and as soon as it has set, the air is let out of the rubber hose and the latter is pulled out and used as before.
To cover cloth with rubber, there are chiefly employed for dissolving the rubber, naphtha, alcohol, and benzol. They are mixed with purified solid paraffine, and ground together.
Rubber boots and shoes are rendered waterproof by melting 4 parts of spermaceti and 1 part of rubber on a moderate fire, adding tallow or fat, 10 parts, and lastly 5 parts of copal varnish or amber varnish. This mixture is applied on the shoes with a brush. It should be stated that the rubber used for this purpose must be cut up very small and allowed 4 to 5 hours to dissolve.
To rid rubber articles of unpleasant odor, cover both sides with a layer of animal charcoal and heat to about 140° F.
To prevent gas from escaping through rubber hose, cover it with a mixture prepared as follows: Dissolve 5 parts of gum arabic and 3 parts of molasses in 15 parts of white wine and add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of alcohol in small quantities. Stirring is necessary to prevent the alcohol from precipitating the gum arabic.
«Repairing Rubber Goods.»—First, clean off all adherent matter, and dry thoroughly. Varnish or lacquer, as for instance on rubber shoes, may be removed with sand or emery paper, or even with a file, in the absence of one of these. The surface thus produced is then rubbed with benzine. A solution of Para rubber in benzine is then painted over the surface around the break or tear, and a strip of natural rubber fitted over it. Then prepare a vulcanizing solution as follows:
Sulphur chloride 18 parts Benzine 400 parts Carbon disulphide 300 parts
This is applied to the edges of the joint by means of a pledget of cotton wrapped on the end of a little stick, and press the jointed parts well together.
One may repair rubber bulbs by the following method: Put some pure gum in three times its bulk of benzine, and cork tightly. Let stand several days. Get some rubber in sheet form; it will be better if it is backed with cloth. To make a patch, dampen some little distance around the hole to be mended with benzine. After a moment, scrape with a knife; repeat the process several times till the site to be patched is thoroughly clean. Cut a patch from sheet of rubber a little larger than the hole to be mended, and apply to its surface several coats of the benzine solution. Then apply a good coat of the solution to both patch and about the hole, and press the patch firmly in place. Again apply the solution to make coating over the patch, and allow to dry till it will not stick to the finger. Do not use for several days.
Cracked rubber goods may be {621} successfully mended in the following manner: Before patching, the cracked surfaces to unite well must be dried, entirely freed from all dirt and dust and greased well, otherwise the surfaces will not combine. In case of a cover, waterproof coat, or rubber boots, etc., take a moderately thick piece of india rubber, suited to size of the object, cut off the edges obliquely with a sharp knife moistened in water, coat the defective places as well as the cut pieces of rubber with oil of turpentine, lay the coated parts together and subject them for 24 hours to a moderate pressure. The mended portions will be just as waterproof as the whole one. Rubber cushions or articles containing air are repaired in a very simple manner, after being cleaned as aforesaid. Then take colophony, dissolve it in alcohol (90 per cent) so that a thick paste forms, smear up the holes, allow all to harden well, and the rubber article, pillow, ball, knee caps, etc., may be used again.
«Softening Rubber.»—The hardening of gum articles is generally referable to these having been kept for a long time in some warm, dry place, though keeping them in the cold will produce the same effect. Hardness and brittleness, under any reasonable care and conditions, are usually signs of an inferior article of goods. Articles of Para rubber, of good workmanship, usually maintain their elasticity for a very long time. Before attempting to soften hollow rubber ware, such as flasks, water bags, or bottles, etc., they should be well scrubbed with a wire brush (bottle cleaner) and warm water, so as to remove all dirt and dust. This scrubbing should be continued until the wash water comes away clean and bright. For softening, the best agent is dilute water of ammonia, prepared by mixing pharmacopœial ammonia water, 1 part, and water, 2 parts. There should be enough of this to cover the articles, inside and out. Let them remain in the mixture until the ammonia has evaporated. Warm water works better than cold. From 1 to 2 hours will be long enough, as a usual thing. Thick and massive articles such as large rubber tubing, require more energetic treatment, and the journal recommends for the treatment of these that they be filled nearly full with the ammonia mixture, corked at both ends, and coiled up in a kettle, or other vessel, of sufficient size, warm water poured in sufficient to cover the coil completely, and lightly boiled for from 1 to 2 hours. The water lost by evaporation should be replaced from time to time, and the vessel should never be allowed to boil violently. When the proper time has arrived (and this must be learned, it appears, by experience, as the article quoted gives no directions save those translated), remove from the fire, and allow to cool gradually.
Glycerine has been also recommended, and it may be used with advantage in certain cases. The articles must first be cleaned with the brush and warm water, as above detailed. Heat them in water and rub them with a wad of cotton soaked in glycerine, drawing the wad over them, backwards and forwards. This wad should be wrapped with good stout wire, the ends of which are prolonged, to serve as a handle. Where possible the articles should be stricken with the glycerine inside and out, the article being, naturally, held out of the boiling water, sufficiently, at least, to make bare the part being rubbed at the time. Let rest for 24 hours, and repeat this process. With goods kept in stock, that show a tendency to grow brittle, this treatment should be repeated every 6 months or oftener. Never put away tubing, etc., treated in this manner until every particle of moisture has drained off or evaporated.
Another authority, Zeigler, has the following on this subject: Tubing, bands, and other articles of vulcanized caoutchouc that have become brittle and useless, may be restored to usefulness, indeed, to their pristine elasticity, by treating them as follows: First, put them in a hot aqueous solution of tannic acid and tartar emetic. Next, transfer them to a cold aqueous solution of tannic acid and calcium sulphate. Mix the two solutions and heat to about the boiling point, and transfer the articles to the hot solution. This treatment should be maintained from 1 day to 3 or 4, according to the nature and condition of the articles.
To restore rubber stoppers that have become too hard for usefulness, digest them in 5 per cent soda lye for about 10 days at 86° to 104° F., replacing the lye repeatedly. Next, wash the stoppers in water and scrape off the softened outer layer with a knife, until no more can be removed. The stoppers (which have become quite soft and elastic again) are next rinsed in warm water to remove the caustic soda. If it is desired to trim them it should be done with a knife moistened with soap spirit.
«Treatment and Utilization of Rubber Scraps.»—The scraps, assorted according {622} to their composition, are first cleaned by boiling to remove the adhering dirt, absorbed and adhering acids, salts, etc., as well as to eliminate the free sulphur. Next, the waste is ground between rollers and reduced to powder in emery grinders with automatic feeding. In many cases the material obtained may be added at once dry to the mixture, but generally it first receives a chemical treatment. This is carried out by boiling in caustic soda solution, or sulphuric or hydrochloric acid respectively, and steaming for about 20 hours with 4 atmospheres pressure.
According to another method, the ground scraps are steamed with soda lye under pressure, washed twice thoroughly for the elimination of the lye, and dried in the vacuum. Subsequently mix between cold rollers with 5 to 10 per cent of benzol or mineral oil and steam for some hours under hydraulic pressure at 4 atmospheres. The product thus obtained is rolled in plates and added to the mixture. The finely ground dry waste must not be stored for a long time in large quantities, as it hardens very easily and takes fire.
Old articles of vulcanized rubber are first “devulcanized” by grinding, boiling with caustic soda, and washing thoroughly. After drying, the scraps are heated to 302° F. with linseed oil in a kettle provided with stirring mechanism which is kept in continual motion. When the rubber has dissolved, a quantity of natural or coal-tar asphalt is added, and as soon as the contents of the kettle have become well mixed, the temperature is raised so high that dense fumes begin to rise and air is forced through the mass until a cooled sample shows the desired consistence. This composition being very tough and flexible, forms an excellent covering for electric cables. It finds many other uses, the proportions of rubber, asphalt, and oil being varied in accordance with the purpose for which it is designed.
«Vulcanization.»—Besides the Goodyear, Mason, and other patented processes, the process now usually followed in vulcanizing rubber stamps and similar small objects of rubber, is as follows:
Sulphur chloride is dissolved in carbon disulphide in various proportions, according to the degree of hardness the vulcanized object is to receive; the rubber cast is plunged in the solution and left there from 60 to 70 seconds. On removing, it is placed in a box or space warmed to 80° F., and left long enough for the carbon disulphide to evaporate, or about 90 to 100 seconds. It is then washed in a weakly alkaline bath of water, and dried.
Another method (recommended by Gerard) depends upon letting the rubber lie in a solution of potassium _ter_ or _penta_ sulphide, of 25° Bé., heated to about 280° F. for 3 hours.
«Testing Rubber Gloves.»—In testing rubber gloves it is best to inflate them with air, and then put them under water. Thus one may discover many small holes in new ones which otherwise would have been impossible to find.
«Dissolving Old Rubber.»—The material is shredded finely and then heated, under pressure, for several hours, with a strong solution of caustic soda. All cloth, paint, glue, fillers, etc., in the rubber are disintegrated, but the rubber is not affected. The mass is then washed repeatedly with water, to remove all alkali, and the resultant pure rubber may then be formed into sheets.
«Rubber Stamps.»—Set up the desired name and address in common type, oil the type and place a guard about 1/2 inch high around the form. Mix plaster of Paris to the proper consistence, pour in and allow it to set. Have the vulcanized rubber all ready, as made in long strips 3 inches wide and 1/8 of an inch thick, cut off the size of the intended stamp, remove the plaster cast from the type, and place both the cast and the rubber in a screw press, applying sufficient heat to thoroughly soften the rubber. Then turn down the screw hard and let it remain until the rubber receives the exact impression of the cast and becomes cold, when it is removed, neatly trimmed with a sharp knife, and cemented to the handle ready for use.
RUBBER CEMENTS: See Adhesives.
RUBBER GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Antiseptics.
RUBBER, ITS PROPERTIES AND USES IN WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
RUBBER VARNISHES: See Varnishes.
RUBY SETTINGS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.
RUOLTZ METAL: See Alloys.
RUM, BAY: See Bay Rum. {623}
«Rust Preventives»
(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Varnishes, Waterproofing.)
In spite of the numerous endeavors to protect metal objects from oxidation, a thoroughly satisfactory process has not yet been found, and we still have to resort to coatings and embrocations.
By covering the metals with a pale, colorless linseed-oil varnish, a fat or spirit lacquer, an unfailing protection against oxidation is obtained. This method, though frequently employed, however, is too laborious and expensive to admit of general use, and instead we frequently see employed ordinary or specially composed greases, especially for scythes, straw-knives, and many other bright iron goods. These greases are not suited to retard oxidation, for they are without exception acid-reacting bodies, which absorb oxygen in the air and under the action of light, thus rather assisting oxidation than retarding it. A covering of wax dissolved in oil of turpentine would be more recommendable, because wax is an impervious body, and a firm and rather hard layer remains after evaporation of the oil of turpentine, which excludes the air. If the treatment with the wax salve is carefully attended to no other objection can be urged against this preserving agent than that it is likewise comparatively expensive if used in large quantities. As regards the greases, and treatment with petroleum or vaseline, the easy attrition of these substances is another drawback, which makes a lasting protection impossible.
According to Shedlok, cast-iron articles are treated with acids, then exposed to the action of steam, hot or cold water, and dried. The receptacle is exhausted of air and a solution of pitch, rosin, rubber, or caoutchouc, applied under pressure. Objects prepared in this manner are said to be impervious even to weak acids.
The inoxidizing process of Ward is founded on the simultaneous employment of silicates and heat. The cast iron or wrought iron are coated with a siliceous mass by means of a brush or by immersion. This covering dries quickly, becomes liquid when the articles are exposed to a suitable heat, and soaks into the pores of the metal, forming a dense and uniform coat of dull black color after cooling, which is not changed by long-continued influence of the atmosphere, and which neither scales nor peels from the object. By the admixture of glass coloring matters to the siliceous mass, decorated surfaces may be produced.
Another inoxidation process for cast iron is the following: The cast-iron objects, such as whole gas chandeliers, water pipes, ornaments, balcony railings, cooking vessels, etc., are laid upon an iron sliding carriage 3.5 meters long and are exposed in a flame furnace of special construction first 15 minutes to the influence of gas generators with oxidizing action, then 20 minutes to such with reducing action. After being drawn out and cooled off the inoxidized pieces take on a uniform slate-blue shade of color, but can be enameled and ornamented in any manner desired. In applying the enamel the corroding with acid is obviated, for which reason the enamel stands exceedingly well.
A bronze-colored oxide coating which withstands outward influences fairly well, is produced as follows: The brightly polished and degreased objects are exposed from 2 to 5 minutes to the vapors of a heated mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid (1:1) until the bronze color becomes visible on the articles. After these have been rubbed well with vaseline, heat once more until the vaseline commences to decompose. After cooling, the object is smeared well with vaseline. If vapors of a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are allowed to act on the iron object, light reddish-brown shades are obtained, but if acetic acid is added to the above named two acids, oxide coatings of a bronze-yellow color can be obtained by the means of the vapors. By the use of different mixtures of acids any number of different colorings can be produced.
“Emaille de fer contre-oxide” is the name of an enamel which is said to protect iron pipes cheaply. The enamel is composed as follows: One hundred and thirty parts powdered crystal glass, 20.5 parts soda, 12 parts boracic acid. These substances mixed in the most careful manner are melted together in crucibles, the mass is chilled and transformed into a fine powder by crushing and grinding. The iron pipes and other objects of iron are first cleaned in the usual manner by corroding, dried and then coated with a very dilute gum arabic solution or any other gluing agent, and the powdered mass is spread over them by means of a sieve. The objects thus powdered are put in a room which is heated to 160° C. to drive out all moisture and are heated {624} to dark redness, at which temperature the oxide coating melts.
Those processes, which produce a black protoxide layer on the iron by heating iron objects in supersaturated aqueous vapor, have not stood the test, as the layer formed will drop off or peel off after a short time, thus opening the way for rust after all.
The anti-rust composition called rubber oil is prepared as follows, according to the specification of the patent: The crude oil obtained by the dry distillation of brown oil, peat and other earthy substances is subjected to a further distillation. Thinly rolled India rubber, cut in narrow strips, is saturated with four times the bulk of the oil and left alone for a week or so. The mass thus composed is then subjected to the action of mineral sperm oil or a similar substance, until an entirely uniform clear substance has formed. This substance, which is applied on the metallic surfaces in as thin a layer as possible, forms a sort of film after slowly drying, which is perfectly proof against atmospheric influences.
The rust-preventive composition of Jones & Co., Sheffield, is a composition of wax, fat, turpentine, and small quantities of iron oxide.
According to a process patented by A. Buchner in Germany, the iron objects are first painted with a mixture of an alkaline glue solution and rosin soap. The alkaline mass enters all the pores and fissures and prevents the rust from extending under the coating. After the first coat is dry a second one is applied of the following composition: Five parts linseed oil boiled with peroxide of manganese; 2.25 parts turpentine; 0.25 parts benzol; 20 parts zinc dust, carbonate of calcium, lead oxide, or peroxide of manganese. The mixing of the liquid with the powders must be done immediately before use, as the mass solidifies after 10 hours, and is then no longer of working consistency. The second coating, which should only be thin, hardens quickly. The paint is weatherproof, does not peel off or blister, and adheres so firmly that it can only be removed with mechanical means.
A patented process to prevent rusting of wrought or cast iron consists in applying with a brush a strong solution of potassium dichromate and drying in a stove or over an open fire. Drying at ordinary temperature is not sufficient. To ascertain if the heat is strong enough the iron is moistened with a little water. So long as this takes up any color the heat must be increased. When the proper degree of heat is reached a fine deep black layer results, which is not acted upon by water, and protects the surface from the action of the atmosphere.
A permanent lustrous rust preventive is secured as follows: The well-cleaned iron parts are suspended for a few minutes in a blue vitriol solution, so that a delicate skin of copper forms on the surface; if the pieces rinsed off with water are then moved about for a few minutes in a solution of sodium hyposulphite faintly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, they assume a blue-black coating of copper sulphide, which is equally permanent in air and in water. The black surface may be immediately rinsed with water, dried with a rag or blotting paper, and polished at once. It possesses a steel-blue luster, adheres well to the iron, will stand treatment with the scratch brush, and protects against rust in a most satisfactory manner.
«Black Sheet Rust Preventive.»—Before black plate is ready to receive a rust protective coating, it is necessary to render the surface free from grease and scales, for which purpose the sheet iron is placed for some time into a warmed solution of 10 parts of sulphuric acid in 100 parts of water, whereby the impurities become detached, a process which may be assisted and accelerated by scouring with sand. Then rinse in clean water and rub dry in sawdust. The sheets thus prepared are placed for a short while into a feeble solution of blue vitriol, where they assume a reddish coloring. Next, they are rinsed in water, and after that moved to and fro, for a short time, in a feeble solution of hyposulphite of soda acidulated with a little hydrochloric acid. The result is a dark-blue coating on the sheets, which prevents all oxidation.
«To Keep Machinery Bright.»—I.—In order to keep machinery from rusting take 1 ounce of camphor, dissolve it in 1 pound of melted lard; take off the scum, and mix as much fine black lead as will give it iron color. Clean the machinery and smear it with this mixture. After 24 hours, rub clean with soft linen cloth. It will keep clean for months under ordinary circumstances.
II.—Mastic, transparent grains 10 parts Camphor 5 parts Sandarac 5 parts Gum elemi 5 parts Alcohol, wood, quantity sufficient to dissolve.
{625}
Mix and cover the articles with the solution. The latter will take the lacquer better if warmed slightly, but may be easily covered in the cold, if necessary.
«Magnetic Oxide.»—A layer of magnetic oxide is a good preservative from rust. To obtain it the objects are placed in the furnace at a temperature sufficient for decomposing steam. Steam superheated to 1,040° F. is then injected for from 4 to 6 hours. The thickness of the layer of oxide formed varies with the duration of the operation. This process can replace zincing, enameling, and tinning.
The deposit of magnetic oxide may also be obtained by electrolysis. The iron object is placed at the anode in a bath of distilled water heated to 176° F. The cathode is a copper plate, or the vessel itself, if it is of iron or copper. By electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide is formed. Other peroxides may be deposited in the same manner. With an alkaline solution of litharge, a very adherent, brilliant, black deposit of peroxide of lead is secured. Too energetic a current must be avoided, as it would cause a pulverulent deposit. To obtain a good coating it is necessary, after putting the objects for a moment at the positive pole, to place them at the other pole until the oxide is completely reduced, and then bring them back to their first position.
«Paper as Protection for Iron and Steel.»—That paraffine paper is a very good protector of iron and steel has been proven by tests conducted by Louis H. Barker for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The mode of applying the paraffine paper is as follows: After the rust is carefully cleaned off by means of stiff wire brushes, a tacky paint is applied. The paper is then covered over and tightly pressed upon the painted surface, the joints of the paper slightly lapping. As soon as the paper is in place it is ready for the outside coat of paint. Iron and steel girders and beams subjected to the action of smoke and gases may thus be admirably protected from decomposition.
«Anti-Rust Paper for Needles.»—This is paper covered with logwood, and prepared from a material to which fine graphite powder has been added, and which has been sized with glue and alum. It is used for wrapping around steel goods, such as sewing needles, etc., and protecting them against rust. According to Lake, the paper is treated with sulphuric acid, like vegetable parchment, the graphite being sprinkled on before the paper is put into the water.
«Rust Paper.»—Rust paper is produced by coating strong packing paper with linseed-oil varnish, size, or any other binder, and sprinkling on the powder given in previous formula. For use the paper must be moistened with petroleum.
«Anti-Rust Pastes.»—I.—This preparation serves for removing rust already present, as well as for preventing same, by greasing the article with it: Melt 5 parts of crude vaseline on the water bath, and mix with 5 parts of finely levigated powdered pumice stone into a uniform mass. To the half-way cooled mass add 1/2 part of crude acid oxalate of potassium (sorrel salt) in a finely powdered state and grind into complete homogeneity.
II.—Dry tallow, 25 parts; white wax, 23 parts; olive oil, 22 parts; oil of turpentine, 25 parts; mineral oil, 10 parts. Apply with a brush at the fusing temperature of the mixture.
«Rust Prevention for Iron Pipes.»—The pieces of pipe are coated with tar and filled with light wood sawdust, which is set afire. This method will fully protect the iron from rust for an unlimited period, rendering a subsequent coat altogether superfluous.
«Rust Preventive for Tools, etc.»—I.—To preserve tools, dies, etc., from rust, they should be greased well with yellow vaseline. To use oil is not advisable, since all oils, except the dear ones, which are too expensive for this purpose, contain a certain percentage of acid that has an injurious effect upon the steel and iron articles. For greasing the cavities use a hard brush.
II.—Carefully heat benzine and add half its weight of white wax, which dissolves completely in this ratio. This solution is applied to the tools by means of a brush. It is also said to protect against the
## action of acidiferous fumes.
III.—Take a pound of vaseline and melt with it 2 ounces of blue ointment—what druggists call one-third—and add, to give it a pleasant odor, a few drops of oil of wintergreen, cinnamon, or sassafras. When thoroughly mixed pour into a tin can—an old baking-powder can will do. Keep a rag saturated with the preventive to wipe tools that are liable to rust.
«To Separate Rusty Pieces.»—By boiling the objects in petroleum, success is {626} certain. It is necessary to treat them with alcohol or spirit to avoid subsequent oxidation, petroleum being in itself an oxidant.
«To Protect Zinc Roofing from Rust.»—Zinc sheets for roofing can easily be protected against rust by the following simple process. Clean the plates by immersing them in water to which 5 per cent of sulphuric acid has been added, then wash with pure water, allow to dry and coat with asphalt varnish. Asphalt varnish is prepared by dissolving 1 to 2 parts asphalt in 10 parts benzine; the solution should be poured evenly over the plates, and the latter placed in an upright position to dry.
RUST SPOT REMOVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SACCHARINE IN FOOD: See Food.
SADDLE GALLS: See Veterinary Formulas.
SADDLE SOAP: See Soap.
SALAMANDRINE DESSERT: See Pyrotechnics.
SALICYL (SWEET): See Dentifrices.
SALICYLIC ACID IN FOOD: See Foods.
SALICYLIC SOAP: See Soap.
«Salts, Effervescent»
Granulated effervescent salts are produced by heating mixtures of powdered citric acid, tartaric acid, sodium bicarbonate, and sugar to a certain temperature, until they assume the consistency of a paste, which is then granulated and dried.
If effervescent caffeine citrate, anti-pyrin, lithium citrate, etc., are to be prepared, the powder need not be dried before effecting the mixture, but if sodium phosphate, sodium sulphate, or magnesium sulphate are to be granulated, the water of crystallization must first be removed by drying, otherwise a hard, insoluble and absolutely non-granulable mass will be obtained. Sodium phosphate must lose 60 per cent of its weight in drying, sodium sulphate 56 per cent, and magnesium sulphate 23 per cent.
Naturally, water and carbonic acid escape on heating, and the loss will increase with the rise of temperature. For the production of the granulation mass it must not exceed 158° F., and for drying the grains a temperature of 122° F. is sufficient.
The fineness of the mesh should vary according to the necessary admixture of sugar and the size of the grains.
If the ingredients should have a tendency to cling to the warm bottom, an effort should be made immediately upon the commencement of the reaction to cause a new portion of the surface to come in contact with the hot walls.
When the mass is of the consistency of paste it is pressed through a wire sieve, paper or a fabric being placed underneath. Afterwards dry at sufficient heat. For wholesale manufacture, surfaces of large size are employed, which are heated by steam.
In the production of substances containing alkaloids, antipyrin, etc., care must be taken that they do not become colored. It is well, therefore, not to use heat, but to allow the mixture to stand in a moist condition for 12 hours, adding the medicinal substances afterwards and kneading the whole in a clay receptacle. After another 12 hours the mass will have become sufficiently paste-like, so that it can be granulated as above.
According to another much employed method, the mass is crushed with alcohol, then rubbed through a sieve, and dried rapidly. This process is somewhat dearer, owing to the great loss of alcohol, but presents the advantage of furnishing a better product than any other recipe.
Effervescent magnesium citrate cannot be very well made; for this reason the sulphate was used in lieu of the citrate. A part of the customary admixture of sulphate is replaced by sugar and aromatized with lemon or similar substances.
An excellent granulation mass is obtained from the following mixture by addition of alcohol:
Parts by weight Sodium bicarbonate 30 Tartaric acid 15 Citric acid 13 Sugar 30
The total loss of this mass through granulation amounts to from 10 to 15 per cent.
To this mass, medicinal substances, such as antipyrin, caffeine citrate, lithium citrate, lithium salicylate, phenacetin, piperacin, ferric carbonate, and pepsin may be added, as desired. {627}
In order to produce a quinine preparation, use tincture of quinine instead of alcohol for moistening; the quinine tincture is prepared with alcohol of 96 per cent.
Basis for Effervescent Salts.—
Sodium bicarbonate, dried and powdered 53 parts Tartaric acid, dried and powdered 28 parts Citric acid, uneffloresced crystals 18 parts
Powder the citric acid and add the tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate. This basis may be mixed with many of the medicaments commonly used in the form of granular effervescent salts, in the proportion which will properly represent their doses and such substances as sodium phosphate, magnesium sulphate, citrated caffeine, potassium bromide, lithium citrate, potassium citrate, and others, will produce satisfactory products. A typical formula for effervescent sodium phosphate would be as follows:
Sodium phosphate, uneffloresced crystals 500 parts Sodium bicarbonate, dried and powdered 477 parts Tartaric acid, dried and powdered 252 parts Citric acid, uneffloresced crystals 162 parts
Dry the sodium phosphate on a water bath until it ceases to lose weight; after powdering the dried salt, mix it intimately with the citric acid and tartaric acid, then thoroughly incorporate the sodium bicarbonate. The mixed powders are now ready for granulation. The change in manipulation which is suggested to replace that usually followed, requires either a gas stove or a blue-flame coal-oil stove, and one of the small tin or sheet-iron ovens which are so largely used with these stoves. The stove itself will be found in almost every drug store; the oven costs from $1 to $2.
The oven is heated to about 200° F. (the use of a thermometer is desirable at first, but one will quickly learn how to regulate the flame to produce the desired temperature), and the previously mixed powders are placed on, preferably, a glass plate, which has been heated with the oven, about 1/2 pound being taken at a time, dependent upon the size of the oven. The door of the oven is now closed for about one minute, and, when opened, the whole mass will be found to be uniformly moist and ready to pass through a suitable sieve, the best kind and size being a tinned iron, No. 6. This moist, granular powder may then be placed upon the top of the oven, where the heat is quite sufficient to thoroughly dry the granules, and the operator may proceed immediately with the next lot of mixed powder, easily granulating 10 or more pounds within an hour.
Sugar has often been proposed as an addition to these salts, but experience has shown that the slight improvement in taste, which is sometimes questioned, does not offset the likelihood of darkening, which is apt to occur when the salt is being heated, or the change in color after it has been made several months. It should be remembered that in making a granular effervescent salt by the method which depends upon the liberation of water of crystallization, a loss in weight, amounting to about 10 per cent, will be experienced. This is due, in part, to the loss of water which is driven off, and also to a trifling loss of carbon dioxide when the powder is moistened.
«EFFERVESCENT POWDERS:»
«Magnesian Lemonade Powder.»—
Fine white sugar 2 pounds Magnesium carbonate 6 ounces Citric acid 4 ounces Essence of lemon 2 drachms
Rub the essence into the dry ingredients, work well together, sift, and bottle.
«Magnesian Orgeat Powder.»—
Fine sugar 1 pound Carbonate of magnesia 3 ounces Citric acid 1 ounce Oil of bitter almonds 3 drops Vanilla flavoring, quantity sufficient.
Thoroughly amalgamate the dry ingredients. Rub in the oil of almonds and sufficient essence of vanilla to give a slight flavor. Work all well together, sift, and bottle.
«Raspberryade Powder.»—
Fine sugar 2 pounds Carbonate of soda 2 ounces Tartaric acid 2 ounces Essence of raspberry 4 drachms Carmine coloring, quantity sufficient.
Rub the essence well into the sugar, and mix this with the soda and acid. Then work in sufficient liquid carmine to make the powder pale red, sift through a fine sieve, and pack in air-tight bottles. {628}
«Ambrosia Powder.»—
Fine sugar 2 pounds Carbonate of soda 12 drachms Citric acid 10 drachms Essence of ambrosia 20 drops
Amalgamate the whole of the above, and afterwards sift and bottle in the usual manner.
«Noyeau Powder.»—
Fine sugar 2 pounds Carbonate of soda 12 drachms Tartaric acid 10 drachms Essence of Noyeau 6 drops
After the dry ingredients have been mixed, and the essence rubbed into them, sift and bottle the powder.
«Lemon Sherbet.»—
Fine sugar 9 pounds Tartaric acid 40 ounces Carbonate of soda 36 ounces Oil of lemon 2 drachms
Having thoroughly mixed the dry ingredients, add the lemon, rubbing it well in between the hands; then sift the whole thrice through a fine sieve, and cork down tight.
As oil of lemon is used in this recipe, the blending must be quite perfect, otherwise when the powder is put in water the oil of lemon will float.
Any other flavoring may be substituted for lemon, and the sherbet named accordingly.
«Cream Soda Powder.»—
Fine sugar 30 parts Tartaric acid 7 parts Carbonate of soda 6 parts Finely powdered gum arabic 1 part Vanilla flavoring, quantity sufficient.
Proceed exactly as for lemon sherbet.
«Kissingen Salt.»—
Potassium chloride 17 parts Sodium chloride 367 parts Magnesium sulphate (dry) 59 parts Sodium bicarbonate 107 parts
For the preparation of Kissingen water, dissolve 1.5 grams in 180 grams of water.
«Vichy Salt.»—
Sodium bicarbonate 846 parts Potassium carbonate 38 parts Magnesium sulphate (dry) 38 parts Sodium chloride 77 parts
For making Vichy water dissolve 1 part in 200 parts of water.
«Seidlitz Salt.»—This is one of the many old names for magnesium sulphate. It has at various times been known as Seidlitz salt, Egra salt, canal salt, bitter salt, cathartic salt, English salt, and Epsom salt. Its earliest source was from the salt springs of Epsom in England and from this fact it took its last two names. For a long time sea-salt makers supplied the markets of the world. They procured it as a by-product in the making of salt. The bitter water that remained after the table salt had been crystallized out was found to contain it. Now it is chiefly procured from such minerals as dolomite, siliceous magnesium hydrate, and schistose rock containing the sulphide of magnesia. Many medical men deem it our best saline cathartic.
«SALTS, SMELLING.»
I.—Moisten coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate with a mixture of
Strong tincture of orris root 2 1/2 ounces Extract of violet 3 drachms Spirit of ammonia 1 drachm
II.—Fill suitable bottles with coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate, and add to the salt as much of the following solution as it will absorb:
Oil of orris 5 minims Oil of lavender flowers 10 minims Extract of violet 30 minims Stronger water of ammonia 2 ounces
SALVES: See Ointments.
«SAND:»
«Colored Sand.»—Sift fine white sand from the coarser particles and color it as follows:
I.—Blue.—Boil 106 parts of sand and 4 of Berlin blue with a small quantity of water, stirring constantly, and dry as soon as the sand is thoroughly colored.
II.—Black Sand.—Heat very fine quartz sand, previously freed from dust by sifting, and add to every 1/4 pound of it 6 to 8 spoonfuls of fat. Continue the heating as long as smoke or a flame is observed on stirring. The sand is finally washed and dried. This black sand will not rub off.
III.—Dark-Brown Sand.—Boil white sand in a decoction of brazil wood and dry it over a fire.
IV.—Rose-colored sand is obtained by mixing 100 parts of white sand with 4 parts of vermilion. {629}
«Lawn Sand.»—Lawn sand may be prepared by mixing crude ammonium sulphate, 65 parts, with fine sand, 35 parts. This mixture will kill daisies and plantains, but does not permanently injure the grass of lawns. A most effective method of killing plantains is to put, during dry weather, a full teaspoonful of common salt in the head of each.
SAND HOLES IN BRASS: See Castings.
SAND SOAP: See Soap.
SANDSTONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.
SANDSTONE COATING: See Acid-Proofing.
SANDSTONES, TO REMOVE OIL SPOTS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SAND, TO PREVENT ADHESION OF SAND TO CASTINGS: See Castings.
«SARSAPARILLA.»
Each fluidounce of Ayer’s sarsaparilla represents
Sarsaparilla root 10 parts Yellow dock root 8 parts Licorice root 8 parts Buckthorn bark 4 parts Burdock root 3 parts Senna leaves 2 parts Black cohosh root 2 parts Stillingia root 4 parts Poke root 1 part Cinchona red bark 2 parts Potassium iodide 4 parts
Solvent.—Alcohol, 10 1/2 minims to each fluidrachm; glycerin, syrup, water.
This is the formula as given by Dr. Charles H. Stowell, of the Ayer Company, to the daily papers, for advertising purposes.
Sarsaparilla Flavoring.—
Oil wintergreen 6 parts Oil sassafras 2 parts Oil cassia 1 1/2 parts Oil clove 1 1/2 parts Oil anise 1 1/2 parts Alcohol 60 parts
Sarsaparilla Syrup.—
Simple syrup 40 ounces Sarsaparilla flavoring 1 drachm Caramel to color.
SARSAPARILLA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.
SAUCES, TABLE: See Condiments.
SATINWOOD: See Wood.
SAUSAGE COLOR: See Foods.
SAWDUST IN BRAN: See Bran.
SAWDUST FOR JEWELERS AND WATCHMAKERS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.
SCALD HEAD, SOAP FOR: See Soap.
SCALD REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.
SCALE FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC REDUCTION: See Photography.
SCALE PAN CLEANER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SCALE IN BOILERS: See Boiler Compounds.
SCALE INSECTS, EXTERMINATION OF: See Insecticides.
SCALP WASHES: See Hair Preparations.
SCISSORS HARDENING: See Steel.
SCOURING LIQUIDS: See Laundry Preparations.
SCRATCH BRUSHING: See Plating, under Gilding.
«SCREWS:»
«To Prevent Screws from Rusting and Becoming Fast.»—Screws will sometimes rust in their seats, even when carefully oiled before driving them to their seats, but if they are anointed with a mixture of graphite and soft tallow they will remain unrusted and unaltered for years.
A screw rusted in may also be removed by placing the flat extremity of a red-hot rod of iron on it for 2 or 3 minutes. When the screw is heated, it will be found to turn quite easily.
SCREWS, BLUEING: See Steel.
SCREWS IN WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas. {630}
SEALING (BURNING) TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.
SEALING WAX: See Waxes.
«SEA SICKNESS.»
I.—To prevent sea sickness, take 2 or 3 grams of potassium bromide dissolved in plain or carbonated water every evening either with supper or just before retiring for several weeks before going on the voyage. During the voyage, breathing should be deep and a tight bandage should be worn around the abdomen.
II.—Menthol 0.1 part Cocaine hydrochloride 0.2 parts Alcohol 60.0 parts Syrup 30.0 parts
A dessertspoonful to be taken at intervals of half an hour.
SEASONINGS: See Condiments.
SEED, BIRD: See Bird Foods.
SEEDS, TESTS FOR FOREIGN: See Foods.
SEIDLITZ POWDERS: See Salts (Effervescent).
SELTZER WATER: See Water.
«SERPENTS, PHARAOH’S.»
An old form consisted of pellets of a very poisonous mercurial compound which gave off dangerous fumes when heated. The “eggs” may be made of comparatively safe material by the following formula:
Potassium bichromate 2 parts Potassium nitrate 1 part White sugar 2 parts
Powder each ingredient separately, mix, and press into small paper cones. These must be kept from light and moisture.
Of course, neither this nor other chemical toys containing substances in the slightest degree harmful if swallowed should be placed in the hands of children not old enough fully to understand the danger of eating or even tasting unknown things.
SERVIETTES MAGIQUES: See Polishes.
SETTING OF TOOLS: See Tool Setting.
SEWING-MACHINE OIL: See Lubricants.
SHAMPOO LOTIONS AND PASTES: See Hair Restorers and Soaps.
SHARPENING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.
SHARPENING STONES: See Whetstones.
«SHAVING PASTE.»
An emulsion of paraffine wax, melting at 131° F., should be used. This is prepared with 25 per cent of wax and 2 per cent of tragacanth, the wax being melted and mixed with the tragacanth previously made into a mucilage with some of the water. The addition of a little stearine or lard renders the emulsification of the wax easier, while about 10 per cent of alcohol makes the preparation more agreeable to use. The fatty odor of the preparation may be covered by the addition of 1/2 to 1 per cent of lavender oil, and the finished product then appears as a thick white cream. In use a small quantity is rubbed over the area to be shaved and the razor immediately applied. As the water in the emulsion evaporates, the particles of wax previously distributed in the emulsion become coherent and fill up the depressions in the surface of the skin from which the hairs arise, thus forming a mechanical support during the passage of the razor. The quantity required is very small, 1 ounce being sufficient for shaving the face about 6 times.
SHAVING SOAP: See Soap.
SHEEP-DIPS: See Disinfectants.
SHEEP DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas.
«SHELL CAMEOS.»
If shell cameos and corals have become too hot in cementing and cracks have appeared in consequence, olive oil is applied and allowed to soak in by heating. The same process is employed for shell cameos which have developed white fissures, owing to being filed smaller.
SHELL, IMITATION OF: See Casein Compounds.
SHELLS, LUBRICANTS FOR REDRAWING: See Lubricants. {631}
SHELL POLISHES: See Polishes.
SHELLAC: See Varnishes.
«SHELLAC BLEACHING.»
In bleaching, shellac is brought into contact with an acidified solution of chloride of lime for some time, then washed, kneaded in hot water, placed back into the chloride of lime solution, and brushed. Through this treatment with the chloride of lime solution the bleached shellac sometimes loses its solubility in alcohol, which, however, can be restored if the shellac is melted in boiling water, or if it is moistened with a little ether in a well-closed vessel. A quantity of ether in the proportion of 1 part to 20 parts shellac is sufficient. Great caution is recommended in the handling of ether. The ether vapors easily ignite when in proximity to a burning light and a mixture of ether vapor and atmospheric air may cause most vehement explosions. After an action of the ether upon the shellac for several hours, the alcohol necessary to dissolve it may either be added directly or the shellac moistened with ether is placed in the open air for half an hour in a dish, after which time the ether will have evaporated and the shellac can then be dissolved by the use of alcohol.
Bleached shellac is known to lose its solubility in alcohol, especially if treated with chlorine in bleaching. This solubility can be readily restored, however, by first moistening the rosin with 1/20 its weight of ether, placing it in a closed vessel and allowing it to swell there. Shellac thus treated becomes perfectly soluble again.
«SHIMS IN ENGINE BRASSES.»
In taking up the wear of engine brasses on wrist pin or crosshead pin when the key is driven clear down, back out the key and instead of putting in sheet-iron shims, put in a small piece of pine wood of just the right thickness to allow the key to come even with the under side of the strap, then pour in melted babbitt. A hole must be drilled through the flange of the brasses to allow for pouring the babbitt.
Every engineer knows the trouble it is to put several shims between the brass box and the end of the strap, especially if the box is a round-end one, as many are. By using the method described, brasses may be worn up much closer, even if worn through; the babbitt will form part of the bearing.
«Shoe Dressings»
(See also Leather.)
«Acid-Free Blacking.»—
Lampblack 27–36 parts Bone black 3 parts Syrup 60–70 parts
Put in a kettle and under gentle heat stir together until a smooth, homogeneous mass has been attained. In another kettle put 3 parts of finely shredded gutta percha and warm over an open fire until it begins to run, then add, with constant stirring, 5 parts of olive oil, continuing the heat until the gum is completely dissolved. When this occurs dissolve in 1 part of stearine, and add the whole while still hot in a slow stream, and under diligent and constant stirring, to the mixture of syrup and blacks. Continue the agitation of the mass until it is completely homogeneous. Now dissolve 4 parts of Senegal gum in 12 parts of water, and add the solution to the foregoing mass. Stir well in and finally add sufficient mirbane (about 1/5 part) to perfume.
«Blacking Pastes.»—While shellac is not soluble in water alone, it is soluble in water carrying borax, the alkaline carbonates, etc. In paste blacking the object of the sulphuric acid is to remove from the bone black the residual calcium phosphate. The ordinary bone black of commerce consists of only about 10 per cent of carbon, the residue being chiefly calcium phosphate. This is the reason that we cannot obtain a pure black color from it, but a dirty brown. To make a good blacking, one that is of a black in color, either use purified bone black, or a mineral acid (sulphuric or hydrochloric acid) with crude bone black. The residual acid is entirely neutralized by the sodium carbonate and has no bad effect on the leather. The following formula contains no acid and makes a good paste:
I.—Marseilles soap 122 parts Potassium carbonate 61 parts Beeswax 500 parts Water 2,000 parts
Mix and boil together with occasional stirring until a smooth, homogeneous paste is obtained, then add, a little at a time, and under constant stirring, the following: {632}
Rock candy, powdered 153 parts Gum arabic, powdered 61 parts Ivory black 1,000 parts
Stir until homogeneous, then pour, while still hot, into boxes.
The following makes a very brilliant and durable black polish for shoes:
II.—Bone black 40 parts Sulphuric acid 10 parts Fish oil 10 parts Sodium carbonate crystal 18 parts Sugar, common brown, or molasses 20 parts Liquid glue, prepared as below 20 parts Water, sufficient.
Soak 10 parts of good white glue in 40 parts of cold water for 4 hours, then dissolve by the application of gentle heat, and add 1.8 parts of glycerine (commercial). Set aside. Dissolve the sodium carbonate in sufficient water to make a cold saturated solution (about 3 parts of water at 60° F.), and set aside. In an earthenware vessel moisten the bone black with a very little water, and stirring it about with a stick, add the sulphuric acid, slowly. Agitate until a thick dough-like mass is obtained, then add and incorporate the fish oil. Any sort of animal oil, or even colza will answer, but it is best to avoid high-smelling oils. Add a little at a time, and under vigorous stirring, sufficient of the saturated sodium carbonate solution to cause effervescence. Be careful not to add so freely as to liquefy the mass. Stir until effervescence ceases, then add the molasses or sugar, the first, if a soft, damp paste is desired, and the latter if a dryer one is wanted. Finally, add, a little at a time, and under constant stirring, sufficient of the solution of glue to make a paste of the desired consistency. The exact amount of this last ingredient that is necessary must be learned by experience. It is a very important factor, as it gives the finished product a depth and brilliancy that it could not otherwise have, as well as a certain durability, in which most of the blackings now on the market are deficient.
III.—Soap 122 parts Potassium carbonate 61 parts Beeswax 500 parts Water 2,000 parts
Mix and boil together until a smooth, homogeneous paste is obtained, then add
Bone black 1,000 parts Powdered sugar 153 parts Powdered gum arabic 61 parts
Mix thoroughly, remove from the fire, and pour while still hot into boxes.
«Boot-Top Liquid.»—
Solution of muriate of tin 3 drachms French chalk (in powder) 1 ounce Salt of sorrel 1/2 ounce Flake white 1 ounce Burnt alum 1/2 ounce Cuttle-fish bones (powdered) 1 ounce White arsenic 1 ounce Boiling water 1 quart
«Brown Dressing for Untanned Shoes.»—
Yellow wax 30 parts Soap 12 parts Nankin yellow 15 parts Oil of turpentine 100 parts Alcohol 12 parts Water 100 parts
Dissolve in the water bath the wax in the oil of turpentine; dissolve, also by the aid of heat, the soap in the water, and the Nankin yellow (or in place of that any of the yellow coal-tar colors) in the alcohol. Mix the solutions while hot, and stir constantly until cold. The preparation is smeared over the shoes in the usual way, rubbed with a brush until evenly distributed, and finally polished with an old silk or linen cloth.
«Heel Polish.»—
I.—Carnauba wax 5 parts Japanese wax 5 parts Paraffine 5 parts Oil of turpentine 50 parts Lampblack 1 part Wine black 2 parts
Melt the wax and the paraffine, and when this has become lukewarm, add the turpentine oil, and finally the lampblack and the wine black. When the black color has become evenly distributed, pour, while still lukewarm, into tin cans.
II.—Melt together Japanese wax, 100 parts; carnauba wax, 100 parts; paraffine, 100 parts; and mix with turpentine oil, 500 parts, as well as a trituration of lampblack, 10 parts; wine black, 20 parts; turpentine oil, 70 parts. {633}
«LIQUID BLACKINGS.»
The following formulas make a product of excellent quality:
I.—Ivory black 120 parts Brown sugar 90 parts Olive oil 15 parts Stale beer 500 parts
Mix the black, sugar and olive oil into a smooth paste, adding the beer, a little at a time, under constant stirring. Let stand for 24 hours, then put into flasks, lightly stoppered.
II.—Ivory black 200 parts Molasses 200 parts Gallnuts, bruised 12 parts Iron sulphate 12 parts Sulphuric acid 40 parts Boiling water 700 parts
Mix the molasses and ivory black in an earthen vessel. In an iron vessel let the gallnuts infuse in 100 parts of boiling water for 1 hour, then strain and set aside. In another vessel dissolve the iron sulphate; in another, 100 parts of the boiling water. One-half of this solution is added at once to the molasses mixture. To the remaining half add the sulphuric acid, and pour the mixture, a little at a time, under constant stirring, into the earthen vessel containing the molasses mixture. The mass will swell up and thicken, but as soon as it commences to subside, add the infusion of gallnuts, also under vigorous stirring. If a paste blacking is desired the preparation is now complete. For a liquid black add the remaining portion of the boiling water (500 parts), stir thoroughly and bottle.
«Patent-Leather Polish.»—
Yellow wax or ceresine 3 ounces Spermaceti 1 ounce Oil of turpentine 11 ounces Asphaltum varnish 1 ounce Borax 80 grains Frankfort black 1 ounce Prussian blue 150 grains
Melt the wax, add the borax, and stir until an emulsion has been formed. In another pan melt the spermaceti; add the varnish, previously mixed with the turpentine; stir well and add to the wax; lastly add the colors.
«Preservatives for Shoe Soles.»—I.—This preparation, destined for impregnating leather shoe soles, is produced as follows: Grind 50 parts of linseed oil with 1 part of litharge; next heat for 2 hours to the boiling point with 1/4 part of zinc vitriol, which is previously calcined (dehydrated). The composition obtained in this manner, when perfectly cold, is mixed with 8 parts of benzine and filled in bottles or other receptacles. To render this preservative effective, the soles must be coated with it until the leather absorbs it.
II.—Dissolve ordinary household soap in water; on the other hand, dissolve an aluminum salt—the cheapest is the commercial aluminum sulphate—in water and allow both solutions to cool. Now pour the aluminum salt solution, with constant stirring, into the soap solution, thereby obtaining a very fine precipitate of aluminum oleate. The washed-out residue is dried with moderate heat. By adding 10 to 30 per cent to petroleum with slight heating, a solid petroleum of vaseline-like consistency is received, which may be still further solidified by additional admixture. A 10 per cent solution of aluminum oleate in petroleum is a very excellent agent for preserving the soles, a single saturation of the soles sufficing forever. The sole will last about 1 year.
III.—The following mixture is prepared by melting together over the fire in an enameled iron vessel: Vaseline, 400 parts; ceresine, 100 parts. The melted mass, which is used as a grease, is filled in wooden boxes or tin cans.
IV.—The oleic acid of the stearine factories is heated with strong alcohol and sulphuric acid. Take 16 parts of oleic acid, 2 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), and 1 part of concentrated sulphuric acid. The oleic-acid ether formed separates as a thin brownish oil. It is liberated from free sulphuric acid and the alcohol in excess by agitation with warm water and allowing to settle. This oleic-acid ether is mixed with the same weight of fish oil, and 4 to 8 parts of nitro-benzol are added per 1,000 parts to disguise the odor.
«TAN AND RUSSET SHOE POLISHES:»
«To Renovate and Brighten Russet and Yellow Shoes.»—First, clean off all dirt and dust with a good stiff brush, then with a sponge dipped in benzine go over the leather, repeating the process as soon as the benzine evaporates. A few wipings will bring back the original color. Then use a light-yellow dressing and brush well.
The liquid application consists usually of a solution of yellow wax and soap in oil of turpentine, and it should be a matter of no difficulty whatever to compound a mixture of this character at least equal {634} to the preparations on the market. As a type of the mixture occasionally recommended we may quote the following:
I.—Yellow wax 4 ounces Pearl ash 4 drachms Yellow soap 1 drachm Spirit of turpentine 7 ounces Phosphine (aniline) 4 grains Alcohol 4 drachms Water, a sufficient quantity.
Scrape the wax fine and add it, together with the ash and soap, to 12 ounces of water. Boil all together until a smooth, creamy mass is obtained; remove the heat and add the turpentine and the aniline (previously dissolved in the alcohol). Mix thoroughly, and add sufficient water to bring the finished product up to 1 1/2 pints.
II.—Water 18 parts Rosin oil 4 1/2 parts Spirit of sal ammoniac, concentrated 1 1/5 parts White grain soap 1.93 parts Russian glue 1.59 parts Brown rock candy 0.57 parts Bismarck brown 0.07 parts
Boil all the ingredients together, excepting the pigment; after all has been dissolved, add the Bismarck brown and filter. The dressing is applied with a sponge.
III.—Beeswax, yellow 2 ounces Linseed oil 3 ounces Oil turpentine 10 ounces
Dissolve by heat of a water bath, and add 1 1/4 ounces soap shavings, hard yellow. Dissolve this in 14 ounces of hot water.
IV.—A simpler form of liquid mixture consists of equal parts of yellow wax and palm oil dissolved with the aid of heat in 3 parts of oil of turpentine.
V.—Soft or green soap 1 ounce Linseed oil, raw 2 ounces Annatto solution (in oil) 7 ounces Yellow wax 2 ounces Gum turpentine 7 ounces Water 7 ounces
Dissolve the soap in the water and add the solution of annatto; melt the wax in the oil of turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution, stirring until cold.
The paste to accompany the foregoing mixtures is composed of yellow wax and rosin thinned with petrolatum, say 4 parts of wax, 1 part of rosin, and 12 parts of petrolatum.
«Paste Dressings for Russet Shoes.»—The paste dressings used on russet leather consist of mixtures of wax with oil and other vehicles which give a mixture of proper working quality.
A simple formula is:
I.—Yellow wax 9 parts Oil of turpentine 20 parts Soap 1 part Boiling water 20 parts
Dissolve the wax in the turpentine on a water bath and the soap in the water and stir the two liquids together until the mixture becomes sufficiently cold to remain homogeneous.
Another formula in which stearine is used is appended:
II.—Wax 1 part Stearine 2 parts Linseed oil 1 part Oil of turpentine 6 parts Soap 1 part Water 10 parts
Proceed as above.
Carnauba wax is often used by manufacturers of such dressings instead of beeswax, as it is harder and takes a higher polish. These dressings are sometimes colored with finely ground yellow ocher or burnt umber. If the leather be badly worn, however, it is best to apply a stain first, and afterwards the waxy dressing.
Suitable stains are made by boiling safflower in water, and annatto is also used in the same way, the two being sometimes mixed together. Oxalic acid darkens the color of the safflower. Aniline colors would also doubtless yield good results with less trouble and expense. By adding finely ground lampblack to the waxy mixture instead of ocher, it would answer as a dressing for black leather.
«WATERPROOF SHOE DRESSINGS.»
I.—Caoutchouc 10 parts Petroleum 10 parts Carbon disulphide 10 parts Shellac 40 parts Lampblack 20 parts Oil lavender 1 part Alcohol 200 parts
Upon the caoutchouc in a bottle pour the carbon disulphide, cork well, and let stand a few days, or until the caoutchouc has become thoroughly gelatinized or partly dissolved. Then add the petroleum, oil of lavender, and alcohol, next the shellac in fine powder, and heat it to about 120° F., taking care that as little as possible is lost by evaporation. When the substances are all dissolved and the liquid is tolerably clear, add the {635} lampblack, mix thoroughly, and fill at once into small bottles.
II.—A waterproof blacking which will give a fine polish without rubbing, and will not injure the leather:
Beeswax 18 parts Spermaceti 6 parts Turpentine oil 66 parts Asphalt varnish 5 parts Powdered borax 1 part Frankfort black 5 parts Prussian blue 2 parts Nitro-benzol 1 part
Melt the wax, add the powdered borax and stir till a kind of jelly has formed. In another pan melt the spermaceti, add the asphalt varnish, previously mixed with the oil of turpentine, stir well, and add to the wax. Lastly add the color previously rubbed smooth with a little of the mass. The nitro-benzol gives fragrance.
«Waterproof Varnish for Beach Shoes.»—
Yellow.—
Water 150 parts Borax 5 parts Glycerine 3 parts Spirit of ammonia 1 part White shellac 25 parts Yellow pigment, water soluble 1 part Formalin, a few drops.
Orange.—
Water 150 parts Borax 5 parts Glycerine 2 parts Spirit of ammonia 1 part Ruby shellac 22 parts Orange, water soluble 1 part Brown 0.3 parts Formalin 0.1 part
Pale Brown.—
Water 150 parts Borax 5 parts Glycerine 2 parts Spirit of ammonia 0.25 parts White shellac 25 parts Yellow, water soluble 8 parts Orange 0.3 parts Formalin 0.1 part
Stir the glycerine and the spirit of ammonia together in a special vessel before putting both into the kettle. It is also advisable, before the water boils, to pour a little of the nearly boiling water into a clean vessel and to dissolve the colors therein with good stirring, adding this solution to the kettle after the shellac has been dissolved.
White Shoe Dressing.—
I.—Cream of tartar 3 ounces Oxalic acid 1 ounce Alum 1 ounce Milk 3 pints
Mix and rub on the shoes. When they are thoroughly dry, rub them with a mixture of prepared chalk and magnesium carbonate.
II.—Water 136 parts Fine pipe clay 454 parts Shellac, bleached 136 parts Borax, powdered 68 parts Soft soap 8 parts Ultramarine blue 5 parts
Boil the shellac in the water, adding the borax, and keeping up the boiling until a perfect solution is obtained, then stir in the soap (5 or 6 parts of “ivory” soap, shaved up, and melted with 2 or 3 parts of water, is better than common soft soap), pipe clay, and ultramarine. Finally strain through a hair-cloth sieve. This preparation, it is said, leaves absolutely nothing to be desired. A good deal of stiffness may be imparted to the leather by it. The addition of a little glycerine would remedy this. The old application should be wiped away before a new one is put on. This preparation is suitable for military shoes, gloves, belts, and uniforms requiring a white dressing.
SHOES, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
SHIO LIAO: See Adhesives, under Cements.
SHIP COMPOSITIONS AND PAINTS: See Paints.
SHOW BOTTLES FOR DRUGGISTS: See Bottles.
«SHOW CASES.»
Dents in show cases and counters, and, indeed, almost all forms of “bruises” on shop and other furniture, may be removed by the exercise of a little patience, and proceeding as follows: Sponge the place with water as warm as can be borne by the hand. Take a piece of filtering or other bibulous paper large enough to fold 6 or 8 times and yet cover the bruise, wet in warm water and place over the spot. Take a warm (not hot) smoothing iron and hold it on the paper until the moisture is evaporated (renewing its heat, if necessary). If the bruise does not yield to the first trial, repeat the process. A dent as large as a {636} dollar and 1/4 inch deep in the center, in black walnut of tolerably close texture, was brought up smooth and level with the surrounding surface by two applications of the paper and iron as described. If the bruise be small, a sponge dipped in warm water placed upon it, renewing the warmth from time to time, will be all-sufficient. When the dent is removed and the wood dry, the polish can be restored by any of the usual processes. If the wood was originally finished in oil, rub with a little boiled linseed cut with acetic acid (oil, 8 parts; acid, 1 part). If it was “French polished,” apply an alcoholic solution of shellac, and let dry; repeat if necessary, and when completely dry proceed as follows: Rub the part covered with shellac, first with crocus cloth and a few drops of olive oil, until the ridges, where the new and old polish come together, disappear; wipe with a slightly greased but otherwise clean rag and finish with putz pomade.
SHOW-CASE SIGNS: See Lettering.
SHOW-CASES, TO PREVENT DIMMING OF: See Glass.
«Siccatives»
The oldest drier is probably litharge, a reddish-yellow powder, consisting of lead and oxygen. Formerly it was ground finely in oil, either pure or with admixture of white vitriol and added to the dark oil paints. Litharge and sugar of lead are used to-day only rarely as drying agents, having been displaced by the liquid manganese siccatives, which are easy to handle. E. Ebelin, however, is of the opinion that the neglect of the lead compounds has not been beneficial to decorative painting. Where these mediums were used in suitable quantities hard-drying coatings were almost always obtained. Ebelin believes that formerly there used to be less lamentation on account of tacky floors, pews, etc., than at the present time.
Doubtless a proposition to grind litharge into the oil again will not be favorably received, although some old master painters have by no means discarded this method.
Sugar of lead (lead acetate) is likewise used as a drier for oil paint. While we may presume in general that a siccative acts by imparting its oxygen to the linseed oil or else prepares the linseed oil in such a manner as to render it capable of readily absorbing the oxygen of the air, it is especially sugar of lead which strengthens us in this belief. If, according to Leuchs, a piece of charcoal is saturated with lead acetate, the charcoal can be ignited even with a burning sponge, and burns entirely to ashes. (Whoever desires to make the experiment should take 2 to 3 parts, by weight, of sugar of lead per 100 parts of charcoal.) This demonstrates that the sugar of lead readily parts with its oxygen, which though not burning itself, supports the combustion. Hence, it may be assumed that it will also as a siccative freely give off its oxygen.
Tormin reports on a siccative, of which he says that it has been found valuable for floor coatings. Its production is as follows: Pour 1 part of white lead and 1 1/2 parts each of litharge, sugar of lead and red lead to 12 1/2 parts of linseed oil, and allow this mixture to boil for 8 to 10 hours. Then remove the kettle from the fire and add to the mixture 20 parts of oil of turpentine. During the boiling, as well as during and after the pouring in of the oil turpentine, diligent stirring is necessary, partly to prevent anything from sticking to the kettle (which would render the drier impure) and partly to cause the liquid mass to cool off sooner. After that, it is allowed to stand for a few days, whereby the whole will clarify. The upper layer is then poured off and added to the light tints, while the sediment may be used for the darker shades.
If white vitriol (zinc sulphate or zinc vitriol) has been introduced among the drying agents, this is done in the endeavor to create a non-coloring admixture for the white pigments and also not to be compelled to add lead compounds, which, as experience has shown, cause a yellowing of white coatings to zinc white. For ordinary purposes, Dr. Koller recommends to add to the linseed oil 2 per cent (by weight) of litharge and 1/2 per cent of zinc vitriol, whereupon the mixture is freely boiled. If the white vitriol is to be added in powder form, it must be deprived of its constitutional water. This is done in the simplest manner by calcining. The powder, which feels moist, is subjected to the action of fire on a sheet-iron plate, whereby the white vitriol is transformed into a vesicular, crumbly mass. At one time it was ground in oil for pure zinc white coatings only, while for the other pigments litharge is added besides, as stated above.
As regards the manganese preparations which are employed for siccatives, it must be stated that they do not possess {637} certain disadvantages of the lead preparations as, for instance, that of being acted upon by hydrogen sulphide gas. The ordinary brown manganese driers, however, are very liable to render the paint yellowish, which, of course, is not desirable for pure white coatings. In case of too large an addition of the said siccative, a strong subsequent yellowing is perceptible, even if, for instance, zinc white has been considerably “broken” by blue or black. But there are also manganese siccatives or drying preparations offered for sale which are colorless or white, and therefore may unhesitatingly be used in comparatively large quantities for white coatings. A pulverulent drying material of this kind consists, for example, of equal parts of calcined (i. e., anhydrous) manganese vitriol, manganous acetate, and calcined zinc vitriol.
Of this mixture 3 per cent is added to the zinc white. Of the other manganese compounds, especially that containing most oxygen, viz., manganic peroxide, is extensively employed. This body is treated as follows: It is first coarsely powdered, feebly calcined, and sifted. Next, the substance is put into wire gauze and suspended in linseed oil, which should be boiled slightly. The weight of the linseed oil should be 10 times that of the manganese peroxide.
According to another recipe a pure pulverous preparation may be produced by treating the manganic peroxide with hydrochloric acid, next filtering, precipitating with hot borax solution, allowing to deposit, washing out and finally drying. Further recipes will probably be unnecessary, since the painter will hardly prepare his own driers.
Unless for special cases driers should be used but sparingly. As a rule 3 to 5 per cent of siccative suffices; in other words, 3 to 5 pounds of siccative should be added to 100 pounds of ground oil paint ready for use. As a standard it may be proposed to endeavor to have the coating dry in 24 hours. For lead colors a slight addition of drier is advisable; for red lead, it may be omitted altogether. Where non-tacky coatings are desired, as for floors, chairs, etc., as well as a priming for wood imitations, lead color should always be employed as foundation, and as a drier also a lead preparation. On the other hand, no lead compounds should be used for pure zinc-white coats and white lacquering.
«Testing Siccatives.»—Since it was discovered that the lead and manganese compounds of rosin acids had a better and more rapid action on linseed oil than the older form of driers, such as red lead, litharge, manganese dioxide, etc., the number of preparations of the former class has increased enormously. Manufacturers are continually at work endeavoring to improve the quality of these compounds, and to obtain a preparation which will be peculiarly their own. Consequently, with such a large variety of substances to deal with, it becomes a matter of some difficulty to distinguish the good from the bad. In addition to the general appearance, color, hardness, and a few other such physical properties, there is no means of ascertaining the quality of these substances except practical testing of their drying properties, that is, one must mix the driers with oil and prove their value for oneself. Even the discovery of an apparently satisfactory variety does not end the matter, for experience has shown that such preparations, even when they appear the same, do not give similar results. A great deal depends upon their preparation; for example, manganese resinate obtained from successive consignments, and containing the same percentage of manganese, does not always give identical results with oil. In fact, variation is the greatest drawback to these compounds. With one preparation the oil darkens, with another it remains pale, or sometimes decomposition of the oil takes place in part. The addition of a small proportion of drier has been known to cause the separation of 50 per cent of the oil as a dark viscous mass. One drier will act well, and the oil will remain thin, while with another, the same oil will in the course of a few months thicken to the consistency of stand oil. These various actions may all be obtained from the same compound of rosin with a metal, the source only of the drier varying.
The liquid siccatives derived from these compounds by solution in turpentine or benzine also give widely divergent results. Sometimes a slight foot will separate, or as much as 50 per cent may go to the bottom of the pan, and at times the whole contents of the pan will settle to a thick, jelly-like mass. By increasing the temperature, this mass will become thin and clear once more, and distillation will drive over pure unaltered turpentine or benzine, leaving behind the metallic compound of rosin in its original state.
The compounds of metals with fatty acids which, in solution in turpentine, have been used for many years by {638} varnish-makers, show even greater variation. At the same time, a greater drying power is obtained from them than from rosin acids, quantities being equal. As these compounds leave the factory, they are often in solution in linseed oil or turpentine, and undoubtedly many of the products of this nature on the market are of very inferior quality.
The examination of these bodies may be set about in two ways:
_A._—By dissolving in linseed oil with or without heat.
_B._—By first dissolving the drier in turpentine and mixing the cooled solution (liquid siccatives) with linseed oil.
Before proceeding to describe the method of carrying out the foregoing tests, it is necessary to emphasize the important part which the linseed oil plays in the examination of the driers. As part of the information to be gained by these tests depends upon the amount of solid matter which separates out, it is essential that the linseed oil should be uniform. To attain this end, the oil used must always be freed from mucilage before being used for the test. If this cannot readily be obtained, ordinary linseed oil should be heated to a temperature of from 518° to 572° F., so that it breaks, and should then be cooled and filtered. With the ordinary market linseed oil, the amount of solid matter which separates varies within wide limits, so that if this were not removed, no idea of the separation of foot caused by the driers would be obtained. It is not to be understood from this that unbroken linseed oil is never to be used for ordinary paint or varnish, the warning being only given for the sake of arriving at reliable values for the quality of the driers to be tested.
_A._—_Solution of Drier in Linseed Oil._—The precipitated metallic compounds of rosin (lead resinate, manganese resinate and lead manganese resinate) dissolve readily in linseed oil of ordinary temperature (60° to 70° F.). The oil is mixed with 1 1/2 per cent of the drier and subjected to stirring or shaking for 24 hours, the agitation being applied at intervals of an hour. Fused metallic resinates are not soluble in linseed oil at ordinary temperatures, so different treatment is required for them. The oil is heated in an enameled pan together with the finely powdered drier, until the latter is completely in solution, care being taken not to allow the temperature to rise above 390° F. The pan is then removed from the fire and its contents allowed to settle. The quantity of drier used should not exceed 1 1/2 to 3 per cent. In the case of metallic linoleates (lead linoleate, manganese linoleate and lead-manganese linoleate), the temperature must be raised above 290° F. before they will go into solution. In their case also the addition should not be greater than 3 per cent. Note, after all the tests have settled, the amount of undissolved matter which is left at the bottom, as this is one of the data upon which an idea of the value of the drier must be formed.
_B._—_Solution of Drier in Turpentine or Benzine._—For the preparation of these liquid siccatives 1 to 1.4 parts of the metallic resinate or linoleate are added to the benzine or turpentine and dissolved at a gentle heat, or the drier may first be melted over a fire and added to the solvent while in the liquid state. The proportion of matter which does not go into solution must be carefully noted as a factor in the valuation of the drier. From 5 to 10 per cent of the liquid siccative is now added to the linseed oil, and the mixture shaken well, at intervals during 24 hours.
Samples of all the oils prepared as above should be placed in small clear bottles, which are very narrow inside, so that a thin layer of the oil may be observed. The bottles are allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days in a temperate room, without being touched. When sufficient time has been allowed for thorough settling, the color, transparency, and consistency of the samples are carefully observed, and also the quantity and nature of any precipitate which may have settled out. A note should also be made of the date for future reference. Naturally the drier which has colored the oil least and left it most clean and thin, and which shows the smallest precipitate, is the most suitable for general use. The next important test is that of drying power, and is carried out as follows: A few drops of the sample are placed on a clear, clean glass plate, 4 x 6 inches, and rubbed evenly over with the fingers. The plate is then placed, clean side up, in a sloping position with the upper edge resting against a wall. In this way any excess of oil is run off and a very thin equal layer is obtained. It is best to start the test early in the morning as it can then be watched throughout the day. It should be remarked that the time from the “tacky” stage to complete dryness is usually very short, so that the observer must be constantly on the watch. If a good drier has been used, the time may be from 4 to 5 hours, and should not be more than 12 or at the very highest {639} 15. The bleaching of the layer should also be noted. Many of the layers, even after they have become as dry as they seem capable of becoming, show a slight stickiness. These tests should be set aside in a dust-free place for about 8 days, and then tested with the finger.
«SIGN LETTERS:»
«To Remove Black Letters from White Enameled Signs».—It frequently happens that a change has to be made on such signs, one name having to be taken off and another substituted. Priming with white lead followed by dull and glossy zinc white paint always looks like a daub and stands out like a pad. Lye, glass paper or steel chips will not attack the burned-in metallic enamel. The quickest plan is to grind down carefully with a good grindstone.
SIGN-LETTER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements.
SIGNS, TO REPAIR ENAMELED: See Enamels.
«SILK:»
«Artificial “Rubbered” Silk.»—A solution of caoutchouc or similar gum in acetone is added, in any desired proportion, to a solution of nitro-cellulose in acetone, and the mixture is made into threads by passing it into water or other suitable liquid. The resulting threads are stated to be very brilliant in appearance, extremely elastic, and very resistant to the atmosphere and to water. The product is not more inflammable than natural silk.
«Artificial Ageing of Silk Fabrics.»—To give silk goods the appearance of age, exposure to the sun is the simplest way, but as this requires time it cannot always be employed. A quicker method consists in preparing a dirty-greenish liquor of weak soap water, with addition of a little blacking and gamboge solution. Wash the silk fabric in this liquor and dry as usual, without rinsing in clean water, and calender.
«Bleaching Silk.»—The Lyons process of bleaching skeins of silk is to draw them rapidly through a sort of aqua regia bath. This bath is prepared by mixing 5 parts of hydrochloric acid with 1 of nitric, leaving the mixture for 4 or 5 days at a gentle heat of about 77° F., and then diluting with about 15 times its volume of water. This dilution is effected in large tanks cut from stone. The temperature of the bath should be from 68° to 85° F., and the skeins should not be in it over 15 minutes, and frequently not so long as that; they must be kept in motion during all that time. When taken out, the silk is immediately immersed successively in 2 troughs of water, to remove every trace of the acid, after which they are dried.
Hydrogen peroxide is used as a silk bleach, the silk being first thoroughly washed with an alkaline soap and ammonium carbonate to free it of its gummy matter. After repeated washings in the peroxide (preferably rendered alkaline with ammonia and soda), the silk is “blued” with a solution of blue aniline in alcohol.
«Washing of Light Silk Goods.»—The best soap may change delicate tints. The following method is therefore preferable: First wash the silk tissue in warm milk. Prepare a light bran infusion, which is to be decanted, and after resting for a time, passed over the fabric. It is then rinsed in this water, almost cold. It is moved about in all directions, and afterwards dried on a napkin.
SILK SENSITIZERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.
«Silver»
«Antique Silver» (see also Plating).—Coat the polished silver articles with a thin paste of powdered graphite, 6 parts; powdered bloodstone, 1 part; and oil of turpentine. After the drying take off the superfluous powder with a soft brush and rub the raised portions bright with a linen rag dipped in spirit. By treatment with various sulphides an old appearance is likewise imparted to silver. If, for example, a solution of 5 parts of liver of sulphur and 10 parts of ammonium carbonate are heated in 1 quart of distilled water to 180° F., placing the silver articles therein, the latter first turn pale gray, then dark gray, and finally assume a deep black-blue. In the case of plated ware, the silvering must not be too thin; in the case of thick silver plating or solid silver 1 quart of water is sufficient. The colors will then appear more quickly. If the coloring is spotted or otherwise imperfect dip the objects into a warm potassium cyanide solution, whereby the silver sulphide formed is immediately {640} dissolved. The bath must be renewed after a while. Silver containing much copper is subjected, previous to the coloring, to a blanching process, which is accomplished in a boiling solution of 15 parts of powdered tartar and 30 parts of cooking salt in 2 pints of water. Objects which are to be mat are coated with a paste of potash and water after the blanching, then dry, anneal, cool in water, and boil again.
«Imitation of Antique Silver.»—Plated articles may be colored to resemble old objects of art made of solid silver. For this purpose the deep-lying parts, those not exposed to friction, are provided with a blackish, earthy coating, the prominent parts retaining a leaden but bright color. The process is simple. A thin paste is made of finely powdered graphite and oil of turpentine (a little bloodstone or red ocher may be added, to imitate the copper tinge in articles of old silver) and spread over the whole of the previously plated article. It is then allowed to dry, and the particles not adhering to the surface removed with a soft brush. The black coating should then be carefully wiped off the exposed parts by means of a linen rag dipped in alcohol. This process is very effective in making imitations of objects of antique art, such as goblets, candlesticks, vessels of every description, statues, etc. If it is desired to restore the original brightness to the object, this can be done by washing with caustic soda or a solution of cyanide of potassium. Benzine can also be used for this purpose.
«Blanching Silver.»—I.—Mix powdered charcoal, 3 parts, and calcined borax, 1 part, and stir with water so as to make a homogeneous paste. Apply this paste on the pieces to be blanched. Put the pieces on a charcoal fire, taking care to cover them up well; when they have acquired a cherry red, withdraw them from the fire and leave to cool off. Next place them in a hot bath composed of 9 parts of water and 1 part of sulphuric acid, without causing the bath to boil. Leave the articles in for about 1 hour. Remove them, rinse in clean water, and dry.
II.—If the coat of tarnish on the surface of the silver is but light and superficial, it suffices to rub the piece well with green soap to wash it thoroughly in hot water; then dry it in hot sawdust and pass it through alcohol, finally rubbing with a fine cloth or brush. Should the coat resist this treatment, brush with Spanish white, then wash, dry, and pass through alcohol. The employment of Spanish white has the drawback of shining the silver if the application is strong and prolonged. If the oxidation has withstood these means and if it is desired to impart to the chain the handsome mat appearance of new goods, it should be annealed in charcoal dust and passed through vitriol, but this operation, for those unused to it, is very dangerous to the soldering and consequently may spoil the piece.
«Coloring Silver.»—A rich gold tint may be imparted to silver articles by plunging them into dilute sulphuric acid, saturated with iron rust.
«Frosting Polished Silver.»—Articles of polished silver may be frosted by putting them into a bath of nitric acid diluted with an equal volume of distilled water and letting them remain a few minutes. A better effect may be given by dipping the article frequently into the bath until the requisite degree of frosting has been attained. Then rinse and place for a few moments in a strong bath of potassium cyanide; remove and rinse. The fingers must not be allowed to touch the article during either process. It should be held with wooden forceps or clamps.
«Fulminating Silver.»—Dissolve 1 part of fine silver in 10 parts of nitric acid of 1.36 specific gravity at a moderate heat; pour the solution into 20 parts of spirit of wine (85 to 90 per cent) and heat the liquid. As soon as the mixture begins to boil, it is removed from the fire and left alone until cooled off. The fulminic silver crystallizes on cooling in very fine needles of dazzling whiteness, which are edulcorated with water and dried carefully in the air.
«Hollow Silverware.»—A good process for making hollow figures consists in covering models of the figures, made of a base or easily soluble metal, with a thin and uniform coating of a nobler metal, by means of the electric current in such a way that this coating takes approximately the shape of the model, the latter being then removed by dissolving it with acid. The model is cast from zinc in one or more pieces, a well-chased brass mold being used for this purpose, and the separate parts are then soldered together with an easily fusible solder. The figure is then covered with a galvanized coating of silver, copper, or other metal. Before receiving the coating of silver, the figure is first covered with a thin deposit of copper, the silver being added afterwards in the required thickness. But in order {641} that the deposit of silver may be of the same thickness throughout (this is essential if the figure is to keep the right shape), silver anodes, so constructed and arranged as to correspond as closely as possible to the outlines of the figure, should be suspended in the solution of silver and cyanide of potassium on both sides of the figure, and at equal distances from it. As soon as the deposit is sufficiently thick, the figure is removed from the bath, washed, and put into a bath of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, where it is allowed to remain till the zinc core is dissolved. The decomposition of the zinc can be accelerated by adding a pin of copper. The figure now requires only boiling in soda and potassic tartrate to acquire a white color. If the figure is to be made of copper, the zinc model must be covered first with a thin layer of silver, then with the copper coating, and then once more with a thin layer of silver, so that while the zinc is being dissolved, the copper may be protected on either side by the silver. Similar precautions must be taken with other metals, regard being paid to their peculiar properties. Another method is to cast the figures, entire or in separate parts, out of some easily fusible alloy in chased metal molds. The separate portions are soldered with the same solder, and the figure is then provided with a coating of copper, silver, etc., by means of the galvanic current. It is then placed in boiling water or steam, and the inner alloys melted by the introduction of the water or steam through holes bored for this purpose.
«Lustrous Oxide on Silver» (see also Plating and Silver, under Polishes).—Some experience is necessary to reproduce a handsome black luster. Into a cup filled with water throw a little liver of sulphur and mix well. Scratch the silver article as bright as possible with the scratch brush and dip into the warm liquid. Remove the object after 2 minutes and rinse off in water. Then scratch it up again and return it into the liquid. The process should be repeated 2 or 3 times, whereby a wonderful glossy black is obtained.
«Ornamental Designs on Silver.»—Select a smooth part of the silver, and sketch on it a monogram or any other design with a sharp lead pencil. Place the article in a gold solution, with the battery in good working order, and in a short time all the parts not sketched with the lead pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. After cleaning the article the black lead is easily removed with the finger, whereupon the silver ornament is disclosed. A gold ornament may be produced by reversing the process.
«Separating Silver from Platinum Waste.»—Cut the waste into small pieces, make red hot to destroy grease and organic substances, and dissolve in aqua regia (hydrochloric acid, 3 parts, and nitric acid, 1 part). Platinum and all other metals combined with it are thus dissolved, while silver settles on the bottom as chloride in the shape of a gray, spongy powder. The solution is then drawn off and tested by oxalic acid for gold, which is precipitated as a fine yellowish powder. The other metals remain untouched thereby. The platinum still present in the solution is now obtained by a gradual addition of sal ammoniac as a yellowish-gray powder. These different precipitates are washed with warm water, dried, and transformed into the metallic state by suitable fluxes. Platinum filings, however, have to be previously refined. They are also first annealed. All steel or iron filings are removed with a magnet and the rest is dipped into concentrated sulphuric acid and heated with this to the boiling point. This process is continued as long as an action of the acid is noticeable. The remaining powder is pure platinum. Hot sulphuric acid dissolves silver without touching the platinum. The liquid used for the separation of the platinum is now diluted with an equal quantity of water and the silver expelled from it by means of a saturated cooking salt solution. The latter is added gradually until no more action, i. e., separation, is perceptible. The liquid is carefully drawn off, the residue washed in warm water, dried and melted with a little soda ashes as flux, which yields pure metallic silver.
The old process for separating silver from waste was as follows: The refuse was mixed with an equal quantity of charcoal, placed in a crucible, and subjected to a bright-red heat, and in a short time a silver button formed at the bottom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux.
«Silvering Glass Globes.»—Take 1/3 ounce of clean lead, and melt it with an equal weight of pure tin; then immediately add 1/2 ounce of bismuth, and carefully skim off the dross; remove the alloy from the fire and before it grows cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and stir the whole well together; then put the fluid amalgam into a clean glass, and it is fit for use. When this amalgam is used for silvering {642} let it be first strained through a linen rag; then gently pour some ounces thereof into the globe intended to be silvered; the alloy should be poured into the globe by means of a paper or glass funnel reaching almost to the bottom of the globe, to prevent it splashing the sides; the globe should be turned every way very slowly, to fasten the silvering.
«Silvering Powder for Metals.»—Copper, brass, and some other metals may be silvered by rubbing well with the following powder: Potassium cyanide, 12 parts; silver nitrate, 6 parts; calcium carbonate, 30 parts. Mix and keep in a well-closed bottle. It must be applied with hard rubbing, the bright surface being afterwards rinsed with water, dried, and polished. Great care must be exercised in the use of the powder on account of its poisonous nature. It should not be allowed to come in contact with the hands.
«Silver Testing.»—For this purpose a cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate in pure nitric acid of 1.2 specific gravity is employed. After the article to be tested has been treated with spirit of wine for the removal of any varnish coating which might be present, a drop of the above test liquor is applied by means of a glass rod and the resultant spot rubbed off with a little water.
A testing solution of potassium bichromate, 1 ounce, pure nitric acid, 6 ounces, and water, 2 ounces, gives the following results on surfaces of the metals named:
───────────────+──────────────────+──────────────── Metal. │ Color in one │ Color of mark │ minute. │ left. ───────────────+──────────────────+──────────────── Pure silver │ Bright blood-red │ Grayish white .925 silver │ Dark red │ Dark brown .800 silver │ Chocolate │ Dark brown .500 silver │ Green │ Dark brown German silver │ Dark blue │ Light gray Nickel │ Turquoise blue │ Scarcely any Copper │ Very dark blue │ Cleaned copper Brass │ Dark brown │ Light brown Lead │ Nut brown │ Leaden Tin │ Reddish brown │ Dark Zinc │ Light chocolate │ Steel gray Aluminum │ Yellow │ No stain Platinum │ Vandyke brown │ No stain Iron │ Various │ Black 9-carat gold │ Unchanged │ No stain ───────────────+──────────────────+────────────────
The second column in the table shows such change of color as the liquid—not the metal—undergoes during its action for the period of 1 minute. The test liquid being then washed off with cold water, the third column shows the nature of the stain that is left.
In the case of faintly silvered goods, such as buttons, this test fails, since the slight quantity of resulting silver chromate does not become visible or dissolves in the nitric acid present. But even such a thin coat of silver can be recognized with the above test liquor, if the bichromate solution is used, diluted with the equal volume of water, or if a small drop of water is first put on the article and afterwards a little drop of the undiluted solution is applied by means of a capillary tube. In this manner a distinct red spot was obtained in the case of very slight silvering.
A simpler method is as follows: Rub the piece to be tested on the touchstone and moisten the mark with nitric acid, whereupon it disappears. Add a little hydrochloric acid with a glass rod. If a white turbidness (silver chloride) appears which does not vanish upon addition of water, or, in case of faint silvering or an alloy poor in silver, a weak opalescence, the presence of silver is certain. Even alloys containing very little silver give this reaction quite distinctly.
«Pink Color on Silver.»—To produce a beautiful pink color upon silver, dip the clean article for a few seconds into a hot and strong solution of cupric chloride, swill it in water and then dry it or dip it into spirit of wine and ignite the spirit.
SILVER, IMITATION: See Alloys.
SILVERING: See Plating.
SILVERING OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors.
SILVERING, TEST FOR: See Plating.
SILVER FOIL SUBSTITUTE: See Metal Foil.
SILVER NITRATE SPOTS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SILVER-PLATING: See Plating.
SILVER, RECOVERY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.
SILVER SOLDERS: See Solders. {643}
SILVER, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SILVER, TO RECOVER GOLD FROM: See Gold.
SILVERWARE POLISHES: See Polishes.
SIMILOR: See Alloys.
SINEWS, TREATMENT OF, IN MANUFACTURING GLUE: See Adhesives.
SYRUP (RASPBERRY): See Raspberry.
SYRUPS: See Essences and Extracts.
SIZING: See Adhesives.
SIZING WALLS FOR KALSOMINE: See Kalsomine.
SKIN-CLEANING PREPARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SKIN OINTMENTS: See Ointments.
SKIN FOODS: See Cosmetics.
SKIN TROUBLES: See Soap.
«SLATE:»
«Artificial Slate.»—The artificial slate coating on tin consists of a mixture of finely ground slate, lampblack, and a water-glass solution of equal parts of potash and soda water glass (1.25 specific gravity). The process is as follows:
I.—First prepare the water-glass solution by finely crushing equal parts of solid potash and soda water glass and pouring over this 6 to 8 times the quantity of soft river water, which is kept boiling about 1 1/2 hours, whereby the water glass is completely dissolved. Add 7 parts finely crushed slate finely ground with a little water into impalpable dust, 1 part lampblack, which is ground with it, and grind enough of this mass with the previously prepared water-glass solution as is necessary for a thick or thin coating. With this compound the roughened tin plates are painted as uniformly as possible. For roofing, zinc plate may be colored in the same manner. The coating protects the zinc from oxidation and consequently from destruction. For painting zinc plate, however, only pure potash water glass must be added to the mixture, as the paint would loosen or peel off from the zinc if soda water glass were used.
II.—Good heavy paper or other substance is saturated with linseed-oil varnish and then painted, several coats, one after another with the following mixture:
Copal varnish 1 part Oil of turpentine 2 parts Fine, dry sand, powdered 1 part Powdered glass 1 part Ground slate 2 parts Lampblack 1 part
SLIDES FOR LANTERNS: See Photography.
SLUGS ON ROSES: See Insecticides.
SMARAGDINE: See Alcohol (Solid).
SMUT, TREATMENT FOR: See Grain.
«SNAKE BITES.»
About 25 years ago, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell and Dr. Reichert published results of their investigations of snake venom which indicated that permanganate of potassium may prove of material value as an antidote to this lethal substance. Since that time permanganate has been largely used all over the world as a remedy when men and animals were bitten by poisonous snakes, and Sir Lauder Brunton devised an instrument by means of which the permanganate may be readily carried in the pocket, and immediately injected into, or into the neighborhood of, the wound. Captain Rodgers, of the Indian Medical Service, recently reported several cases treated by this method, the wounds being due to the bites of the cobra. After making free crucial incisions of the bitten part, the wound was thoroughly flushed with a hot solution of permanganate of potassium, and then bandaged. Recovery occurred in each instance, although the cauterant action of the hot solution of permanganate of potassium delayed healing so long that the part was not well for about 3 weeks. About 12 or 13 years ago, Dr. Amos Barber, of Cheyenne, Wyoming, reported cases in which excellent results had followed this method of treatment. {644}
«Soaps»
(See also Cleaning Compounds and Polishes.)
«ANTISEPTIC SOAP.»
I.—Various attempts have been made to incorporate antiseptics and cosmetics with soap, but for the most part unsuccessfully, owing to the unfavorable action of the added components, a good instance of this kind being sodium peroxide, which, though a powerful antiseptic, soon decomposes in the soap and loses its properties, while the caustic character of the oxide renders its use precarious, even when the soap is fresh, unless great care is taken. However, according to a German patent, zinc peroxide is free from these defects, since it retains its stability and has no corrosive action on the skin, while possessing powerful antiseptic and cosmetic properties, and has a direct curative influence when applied to cuts or wounds.
II.—The soap is prepared by melting 80 parts of household soap in a jacketed pan, and gradually adding 20 parts of moist zinc peroxide (50 per cent strength), the whole being kept well stirred all the time. The finished mixture will be about as stiff as dough, and is easily shaped into tablets of convenient size.
III.—Take 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda of 70 per cent, and free from carbonic acid, if possible; 200 parts, by weight, of sweet almond oil; 160 parts, by weight, of glycerine of 30° Bé.; and sufficient distilled water to make up 1,000 parts by weight. First, dissolve the alkali in double its weight of water, then add the glycerine and oil and stir together. Afterwards, add the remainder of the water and keep the whole on the water bath at a temperature of 140° to 158° F., for 24 to 36 hours; remove the oil not saponified, which gives a gelatinous mass. Mix 900 parts, by weight, of it with 70 parts, by weight, of 90 per cent alcohol and 10 parts, by weight, of lemon oil, and as much of the oil of bergamot and the oil of vervain. Heat for some hours at 140° F., then allow to cool and filter on wadding to eliminate the needles of stearate of potash. The liquid after filtering remains clear.
«Carpet Soap.»—
Fuller’s earth 4 ounces Spirits of turpentine 1 ounce Pearlash 8 ounces
Rub smooth and make into a stiff paste with a sufficiency of soft soap.
«To Cut Castile Soap.»—A thin spatula must be used. To cut straight, a trough with open ends made with 1/2-inch boards should be taken, the inside dimensions being 2 7/8 inches wide, 3 3/4 inches deep, and about 14 inches long. Near the end a perpendicular slit is sawed through the side pieces. Passing the spatula down through this slit the bar is cut neatly and straight. For trimming off the corners a carpenter’s small iron plane works well.
«COLORING SOAP.»
The first point to be observed is to select the proper shade of flower corresponding with the perfume used, for instance, an almond soap is left white; rose soap is colored pink or red; mignonette, green, etc.
The colors from which the soapmaker may select are numerous; not only are most of the coal-tar colors adapted for his purpose, but also a very great number of mineral colors. Until recently, the latter were almost exclusively employed, but the great advance in the tar-color industry has brought about a change. A prominent advantage of the mineral colors is their stability; they are not changed or in any way affected by exposure to light. This advantage, however, is offset in many cases by the more difficult method of application, the difficulty of getting uniform shades. The coal-tar colors give brilliant shades and tints, are easy to use, and produce uniform tints. The specific gravity of mineral colors being rather high, in most cases they will naturally tend to settle toward the bottom of soap, and their use necessitates crutching of the soap until it is too thick to allow the color to settle. For mottled soap, however, vermilion, red oxide, and ultramarine are still largely employed.
For transparent soap mineral colors are not applicable, as they would detract from their transparency; for milled toilet soap, on the other hand, they are very well adapted, as also for cold-made soaps which require crutching anyway until a sufficient consistency is obtained to keep the coloring material suspended.
A notable disadvantage in the use of aniline colors, besides their sensitiveness to the action of light, is the fact that many of them are affected and partly destroyed by the action of alkali. A few of them are proof against a small excess of lye, and these may be used with good effect. Certain firms have made a specialty of manufacturing colors answering the peculiar requirements of soap, being very easy of {645} application, as they are simply dissolved in boiling water and the solution stirred into the soap. To some colors a little weak lye is added; others are mixed with a little oil before they are added to the soap.
For a soluble red color there were formerly used alkanet and cochineal; at present these have been displaced to a great extent, on account of their high cost, by magenta, which is very cheap and of remarkable beauty. A very small amount suffices for an intense color, nor is a large proportion desirable, as the soap would then stain. Delicate tints are also produced by the eosine colors, of which rose bengal, phloxine, rhodamine, and eosine are most commonly used. These colors, when dissolved, have a brilliant fluorescence which heightens their beautiful effect.
The following minerals, after being ground and washed several times in boiling water, will produce the colors stated:
Hematite produces deep red.
Purple oxide iron produces purple.
Oxide of manganese produces brown.
Yellow ocher produces yellow.
Yellow ocher calcined produces orange.
Umber produces fawn.
Cinnabar produces medium red.
There are also a number of the azo dyes, which are suitable for soaps, and these, as well as the eosine colors, are used principally for transparent soaps. For opaque soaps both aniline and mineral reds are used, among the latter being vermilion, chrome red, and iron oxide. Chrome red is a basic chromate of lead, which is now much used in place of vermilion, but, as it becomes black on exposure to an atmosphere containing even traces only of sulphureted hydrogen, it is not essentially adapted for soap. Vermilion gives a bright color, but its price is high. Iron oxide, known in the trade as colcothar, rouge, etc., is used for cheap soaps only.
Among the natural colors for yellow are saffron, gamboge, turmeric, and caramel (sugar color); the first named of these is now hardly used, owing to its high cost. Of the yellow aniline colors special mention must be made of picric acid (trinitrophenol), martius yellow, naphthol yellow, acid yellow, and auramine. If an orange tint is wanted, a trace of magenta or safranine may be added to the yellow colors named. The use of some unbleached palm oil with the stock answers a similar purpose, but the color fades on exposure. A mineral yellow is chrome yellow (chromate of lead), which has the same advantages and disadvantages as chrome red.
Of the blue aniline colors, there may be used alkali blue, patent blue, and indigo extract. Alkali or aniline blue is soluble only in alkaline liquids; while patent blue is soluble in water and in alcohol. Both blues can be had in different brands, producing from green blues to violet blues. Indigo extract, which should be classed among the natural colors rather than among the tar colors, is added to the soap in aqueous solution.
Of ultramarine there are two modifications, the sulphate and the soda. Both of these are proof against the action of alkali, but are decomposed by acids or salts having an acid reaction. The former is much paler than the latter; the soda ultramarine is best adapted for coloring soda soaps blue. The ultramarine is added to the soap in the form of a fine powder. Smalt is unsuitable, although it gives soap a color of wonderful beauty because a considerable quantity of it is required to produce a deep color, and, furthermore, it makes the soap rough, owing to the gritty nature which smalt has even when in the finest powder. By mixing the blue and yellow colors named, a great variety of greens are obtained. Both component colors must be entirely free from any reddish tint, for the latter would cause the mixture to form a dirty-green color.
Of the colors producing green directly the two tar colors, Victoria and brilliant green, are to be noted; these give a bright color, but fade rapidly; thereby the soap acquires an unsightly appearance. For opaque soap of the better grades, green ultramarine or chrome green are used. Gray and black are produced by lampblack. For brown, there is Bismarck brown among the aniline colors and umber among the earthy pigments.
«Garment-Cleaning Soap.»—The following is excellent:
I.—White soap, rasped or shaved 12 parts Ammonia water 3 parts Boiling water 18 parts
Dissolve the soap in the water and when it cools down somewhat, add to the solution the ammonia water. Pour the solution into a flask of sufficient capacity (or holding about three times as much as the mixture) and add enough water to fill it about three-quarters full. Shake and add, a little at a time, under active agitation, enough benzine to make 100 parts. This constitutes the stock {646} bottle. To make up the mass or paste put a teaspoonful in an 8-ounce bottle and add, a little at a time, with constant agitation, benzine to about fill the bottle. This preparation is a rapid cleaner and does not injure the most delicate colors.
II.—Good bar soap, shaved up 165 parts Ammonia water 45 parts Benzine 190 parts Water sufficient to make 1,000 parts
Dissolve the soap in 600 parts of water by heating on the water bath, remove, and add the ammonia under constant stirring. Finally add the benzine, and stir until homogeneous, and quite cold. The directions to go with this paste are: Rub the soap well into the spot and lay the garment aside for a half hour. Then using a stiff brush, rub with warm water and rinse. This is especially useful in spots made by rosins, oils, grease, etc. Should the spot be only partially removed by the first application, repeat.
«Glycerine Soaps.»—Dr. Sarg’s liquid glycerine soap consists of 334 parts of potash soda soap, and 666 parts of glycerine free from lime, the mixture being scented with Turkish rose oil and orange blossom oil in equal proportions, the actual amount used being varied according to taste. The soap should be perfectly free from alkali; but as this is a condition difficult of attainment in the case of ordinary potash soaps, it is presupposed that the soap used has been salted out with potassium chloride, this being the only way to obtain a soap free from alkali.
Another variety of liquid glycerine soap is prepared from purified medicinal soft soap, 300 parts; glycerine free from lime, 300 parts; white sugar syrup, 300 parts; doubly rectified spirit (96 per cent), 300 parts. The mixture is scented with oil of cinnamon, 1 part; oil of sassafras, 2 parts; oil of citronella, 1/2 part; oil of wintergreen, 1 part; African geranium oil, 1 part; clove oil, 1/2 part; oil of bergamot, 3 parts; pure tincture of musk, 1/2 part. These oils are dissolved in spirit, and shaken up with the other ingredients; then left for 8 days with frequent shaking, and 3 days in absolute quiet, after which the whole is filtered, and is then ready for packing.
«Iodine Soaps.»—In British hospitals, preference is given to oleic acid over alcoholic preparations for iodine soaps, as the former do not stain and can be washed off with soap and water. The following formula is given:
I.—Iodine 1 av. ounce Oleic acid 1 fluidounce Alcohol 6 fluidrachms Stronger water of ammonia 2 fluidrachms
This makes a soapy paste soluble in all liquids, except fixed oils.
II.—Iodine 1 av. ounce Oleic acid 2 fluidounces Stronger water of ammonia 3 fluidrachms Paraffine oil, colorless, to make 20 fluidounces
III.—Iodine 1 av. ounce Alcohol 5 fluidounces Solution of ammonium oleate 1 fluidounce Glycerine to make 20 fluidounces
The solution of ammonium oleate is made from oleic acid and spirit of ammonia.
«Liquid Soaps.»—Liquid soaps, or, as they are sometimes called, soap essences, are made from pure olive-oil soap by dissolving it in alcohol and adding some potassium carbonate. Tallow or lard soaps cannot be used, as they will not make a transparent preparation. The soap is finely shaved and placed with the alcohol and potassium carbonate in a vessel over a water bath, the temperature slowly and gradually raised, while the mixture is kept in constant agitation by stirring. The soap should be of a pure white color and the alcohol gives the best product when it is about 80 per cent strength. After about three-quarters of an hour to one hour, solution will be complete and a perfectly transparent article obtained. This can be scented as desired by adding the proper essential oil as soon as the mixture is removed from the water bath.
If an antiseptic soap is wanted the addition of a small amount of benzoic acid, formaldehyde, or corrosive sublimate will give the desired product. Liquid soaps should contain from 20 to 40 per cent of genuine white castile soap and about 2 to 2 1/4 per cent of potassium carbonate.
This is a common formula:
By weight I.—Olive or cottonseed oil 60 parts Caustic potash, U.S.P. 15 parts Alcohol and water, sufficient of each.
{647}
Dissolve the potash in 1 ounce of water, heat the oil on a water bath, add the solution of potash previously warmed, and stir briskly. Continue the heat until saponification is complete. If oil globules separate out and refuse to saponify, the potash is not of proper strength, and more must be added—1 or 2 parts dissolved in water. If desired transparent add a little alcohol, and continue the heat without stirring until a drop placed in cold water first solidifies and then dissolves.
Commercial potash may be used, but the strength must be ascertained and adjusted by experiment. The soap thus made will be like jelly; it is dissolved in alcohol, 4 to 6 ounces of soap to 2 of alcohol, and after standing a day or two is filtered and perfumed as desired. A rancid oil would be easier to saponify, but the soap would likely be rancid or not as good.
II.—Ammonium sulphoichthyolate, 10 parts; distilled water, 15 parts; hebra’s soap spirit (a solution of potash soap, 120 parts, in 90 per cent spirit, 60 parts; and spirit of lavender, 5 parts), 75 parts.
«MEDICATED SOAPS.»
First make up a suitable soap body and afterwards add the medicament. For instance, carbolic soaps may be made as follows:
I.—Cocoanut oil 20 pounds Tallow 4 pounds Soda lye (38° to 40°B.) 12 pounds Phenol 1 pound
Prepare the body soap by stirring the liquefied fat into the lye at 113° F., and when combination has set in, incorporate the phenol and quickly pour into molds. Cover the latter well. Instead of the phenol 2 pounds of sulphur may be used, and a sulphur soap made.
Parts by weight II.—Cotton oil 200 Alcohol, 91 per cent 300 Water 325 Caustic soda 45 Potassium carbonate 10 Ether 15 Carbolic acid 25
The oil is mixed in a large bottle with water, 100 parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and caustic soda, 45 parts, and after saponification the remaining alcohol and the potassium carbonate dissolved in the rest of the water, and finally the carbolic acid and the ether are added and the whole well shaken. The mixture is filled in tightly closed bottles and stored at medium temperature. The preparation may be scented as desired, and the carbolic acid replaced with other antiseptics.
«Liquid Tar Soap.»—Mix 200 parts of tar with 400 parts of oleic acid, warm lightly and filter. In this way the aqueous content produces no trouble. Now warm the filtrate on the water bath, neutralize by stirring in an alcoholic potash solution. To the soap thus produced, add 100 parts of alcohol, and further a little olive oil, in order to avoid a separation of any overplus of alkaline matter. Finally, bring up to 1,000 parts with glycerine. This soap, containing 22 per cent of tar, answers all possible demands that may be made upon it. Mixed with 2 parts of distilled water it leaves no deposit on the walls of the container.
«Liquid Styrax Soap.»—The process is identical with the foregoing. For digestion with oleic acid, the crude balsam will answer, since filtration deprives the product of all contaminating substances. While this soap will separate, it is easily again rendered homogeneous with a vigorous shake. Preparations made with it should be accompanied with a “shake” label.
«Superfatted Liquid Lanolin-Glycerine Soap.»—Dissolve about 10 per cent of lanolin in oleic acid, saponify as in the tar soap, and perfume (for which a solution of coumarin in geranium oil is probably the most suitable agent). The prepared soap is improved by the addition of a little tincture of benzoin.
«Massage Soaps.»—I.—An excellent recipe for a massage soap is: Special cocoanut oil ground soap, 2,500 pounds; lanolin, 50 pounds; pine-needle oil, 20 pounds; spike oil, 3 pounds. Other massage soaps are made from olive oil ground soap, to which in special cases, as in the treatment of certain rheumatic affections, ichthyol is added. Massage soaps are always wanted white, so that Cochin cocoanut oil should be preferred to other kinds.
II.—Cocoanut oil, 1,000 pounds; caustic soda lye, 37° B., 500 pounds; pine-needle oil, 4 pounds; artificial bitter almond oil, 2 pounds. There is also a “massage cream,” which differs from the ordinary massage soaps in being made with a soft potash soap as a ground soap. The oils, etc., incorporated with the ground mass are exactly the same in the “cream” as in the soap. {648}
«Metallic Soaps.»—Metallic soaps are obtained by means of double decomposition. First a soap solution is produced which is brought to a boil. On the other hand, an equally strong solution of the metallic salt of which the combination is to be made (chlorides and sulphides are employed with preference) is prepared, the boiling solutions are mixed together, and the metallic soap obtained is gathered on a linen cloth. This is then put on enameled plates and dried, first at 104° F., later at 140° F.
Aluminum soap is the most important. Dissolved in benzine or oil of turpentine, it furnishes an excellent varnish. It has been proposed to use these solutions for the varnishing of leather; they furthermore serve for the production of waterproof linen and cloths, paper, etc. Jarry recommended this compound for impregnating railroad ties to render them weatherproof.
Manganese soap is used as a siccative in the preparation of linseed-oil varnish, as well as for a drier to be added to paints. Zinc soap is used in the same manner.
Copper soap enters into the composition of gilding wax, and is also employed for bronzing plaster of Paris articles. For the same purpose, a mixture is made use of consisting of copper soap and iron soap melted in white lead varnish and wax. Iron soap is used with aluminum soap for waterproofing purposes and for the production of a waterproof varnish. By using wax instead of a soap, insoluble metallic soaps are obtained, which, melted in oils or wax, impart brilliant colorings to them; but colored waterproof and weather-resisting varnishes may also be produced with them. Metallic rosin soaps may be produced by double decomposition of potash rosin soaps and a soluble metal salt. From these, good varnishes are obtained to render paper carriage covers, etc., waterproof; they may also be employed for floor wax or lacquers.
«Petroleum Soap.»—
I.—Beeswax, refined 4 parts Alcohol 5 parts Castile soap, finely grated 10 parts Petroleum 5 parts
Put the petroleum into a suitable vessel along with the wax and alcohol and cautiously heat on the water bath, with an occasional agitation, until complete solution is effected. Add the soap and continue the heat until it is dissolved. When this occurs remove from the bath and stir until the soap begins to set, then pour into molds.
II.—The hydrocarbons (as petroleum, vaseline, etc.) are boiled with a sufficient quantity of alkali to form a soap, during which process they absorb oxygen and unite with the alkali to form fatty acid salts. The resulting soap is dissolved in water containing alkali, and the solution is heated along with alkali and salt. The mass of soap separates out in three layers, the central one being the purest; and from this product the fatty acids may be recovered by treatment with sulphuric acid.
«Perfumes for Soap.»—From 1 to 2 ounces of the following mixtures are to be used to 10 pounds of soap:
I.—Oil of rose geranium 2 ounces Oil of patchouli 1/2 ounce Oil of cloves 1/2 ounce Oil of lavender flowers 1 ounce Oil of bergamot 1 ounce Oil of sandalwood 1 ounce
II.—Oil of bergamot 2 ounces Oil of orange flowers 2 ounces Oil of sassafras 2 ounces Oil of white thyme 3 ounces Oil of cassia 3 ounces Oil of cloves 3 ounces
III.—Oil of citronella 1 ounce Oil of cloves 1 ounce Oil of bitter almonds 2 ounces
«Pumice-Stone Soaps.»—These soaps are always produced by the cold process, either from cocoanut oil alone or in conjunction with tallow, cotton oil, bleached palm oil, etc. The oil is melted and the lye stirred in at about 90° F.; next, the powdered pumice stone is sifted into the soap and the latter is scented. Following are some recipes:
I.—Cocoanut oil 40,000 parts Cotton oil 10,000 parts Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 24,000 parts Caustic potash lye, 30° Bé 1,000 parts Powdered pumice stone 25,000 parts Cassia oil 150 parts Rosemary oil 100 parts Lavender oil 50 parts Safrol 50 parts Clove oil 10 parts
II.—Cocoanut oil 50,000 parts Caustic soda lye, 40° Bé 25,000 parts {649} Powdered pumice stone 50,000 parts Lavender oil 250 parts Caraway oil 80 parts
«Shaving Soaps.»
I.—Palm oil soap 5 pounds Oil of cinnamon 10 drachms Oil of caraway 2 drachms Oil of lavender 2 drachms Oil of thyme 1 drachm Oil of peppermint 45 minims Oil of bergamot 2 1/2 drachms
Melt the soap, color if desired, and incorporate the oils.
II.—Soap 10 pounds Alcohol 1 ounce Oil of bitter almonds 1 1/4 ounces Oil of bergamot 3/4 ounce Oil of mace 3 drachms Oil of cloves 1/2 ounce
Melt the soap with just enough water to convert it into a soft paste when cold; dissolve the oils in the alcohol, mix with the paste, and rub up in a mortar, or pass several times through a kneading machine.
III.—White castile soap 5 parts Alcohol 15 parts Rose water 15 parts
«SOAP POWDERS.»
The raw materials of which soap powder is made are soap and soda, to which ingredients an addition of talcum or water glass can be made, if desired, these materials proving very useful as a filling. An excellent soap powder has been made of 20 parts of crystallized soda, 5 parts of dark-yellow soap (rosin curd), and 1 part of ordinary soft soap. At first the two last mentioned are placed in a pan, then half the required quantity of soda is added, and the whole is treated. Here it must be mentioned that the dark-yellow curd soap, which is very rosinous, has to be cut in small pieces before placing the quantity into the pan. The heating process must continue very slowly, and the material has to be crutched continually until the whole of the substance has been thoroughly melted. Care must be taken that the heating process does not reach the boiling point. The fire underneath the pan must now be extinguished, and then the remaining half of the crystallized soda is added to be crutched with the molten ingredients, until the whole substance has become liquid. The liquefaction is assisted by the residual heat of the first heated material and the pan. The slow cooling facilitates the productive process by thickening the mass, and when the soda has been absorbed, the whole has become fairly thick. With occasional stirring of the thickened liquid the mass is left for a little while longer, and when the proper moment has arrived the material contained in the pan is spread on sheets of thin iron, and these are removed to a cool room, where, after the first cooling, they must be turned over by means of a shovel, and the turning process has to be repeated at short intervals until the material has quite cooled down and the mixture is thoroughly broken. The soap is now in a very friable condition, and the time has now come to make it into powder, for which purpose it is rubbed through the wire netting or the perforated sieves. Generally the soap is first rubbed through a coarse sieve, and then through finer ones, until it has reached the required conditions of the powder. Some of the best soap powders are coarse, but other manufacturers making an equally good article prefer the finer powder, which requires a little more work, since it has to go through three sieves, whereas the coarse powder can do with one or at most two treatments. But this is, after all, a matter of local requirements or personal taste.
The powder obtained from the above-mentioned ingredients is fine and yellow colored, and it has all the qualities needed for a good sale. Instead of the dark-yellow soap, white stock soap can also be used, and this makes only a little difference in the coloring. But again white stock soap can be used, and the same color obtained by the use of palm oil, or other coloring ingredients, as these materials are used for giving the toilet soaps their manifold different hues. Many makers state that this process is too expensive, and not only swallows up all the profit, but some of the color materials influence the soap and not to its advantage.
Soft soap is used only to make the powder softer and easier soluble, and for this reason the quantity to be used varies a little and different manufacturers believe to have a secret by adding different quantities of this material. As a general statement it may be given that the quantity of soft soap for the making of soap powder should not overstep the proportion of one to three, compared with the quantity of hard soap; any excess in this direction would frustrate the desires of the maker, and land him with a product which has become smeary and moist, forming into balls and lumping together {650} in bags or cases, to become discolored and useless. It is best to stick to the proportion as given, 5 parts of hard and 1 part of soft soap, when the produced powder will be reliable and stable and not form into balls even if the material is kept for a long while.
This point is of special importance, since soap powder is sold mostly in weighed-out packages of one and a half pounds. Most manufacturers will admit that loose soap powder forms only a small part of the quantities produced, as only big laundries and institutions purchase same in bags or cases. The retail trade requires the soap powder wrapped up in paper, and if this has to be done the powder must not be too moist, as the paper otherwise will fall to pieces. This spoils the appearance of the package, and likely a part of the quantity may be lost. When the powder is too moist or absorbs easily external moisture, the paper packages swell very easily and burst open.
The best filling material to be employed when it is desired to produce a cheaper article is talcum, and in most cases this is preferred to water glass. The superiority of the former over the latter is that water glass hardens the powder, and this is sometimes done to such an extent, when a large quantity of filling material is needed, that it becomes very difficult to rub the soap through the sieves. In case this difficulty arises, only one thing can be done to lighten the task, and that is to powderize the soap when the mixed materials are still warm, and this facilitates the work very much. It is self-evident that friction under these conditions leaves a quantity of the soap powder material on the sieves, and this cannot be lost. Generally it is scraped together and returned to the pan to be included in the next batch, when it is worked up, and so becomes useful, a need which does not arise when talcum has been used as a filling material. Again, the soap powder made with the addition of water glass is not so soluble, and at the same time much denser than when the preparation has been made without this material. It is thus that the purchaser receives by equal weight a smaller-looking quantity, and as the eye has generally a great influence when the consumer determines a purchase, the small-sized parcels will impress him unfavorably. This second quality of soap powder is made of the same ingredients as the other, except that an addition of about 6 parts of talcum is made, and this is stirred up with the other material after all the soda has been dissolved. Some makers cheapen the products also by reducing the quantity of hard soap from 5 to 3 parts and they avoid the filling; the same quantity of soda is used in all cases. On the same principle a better quality is made by altering the proportions of soda and soap the other way. Experiments will soon show which proportions are most suitable for the purpose.
So-called ammonia-turpentine soap powder has been made by crutching oil of turpentine and ammonia with the materials just about the time before the whole is taken out of the heating pan. Some of the powder is also scented, and the perfume is added at the same time and not before. In most of the latter cases mirbane oil is used for the purpose.
These powders are adaptable to hard water, as their excess of alkali neutralizes the lime that they contain:
I.—Curd (hard) soap, powdered 4 parts Sal soda 3 parts Silicate of soda 2 parts
Make as dry as possible, and mix intimately.
«Borax Soap Powder.»—
II.—Curd (hard) soap, in powder 5 parts Soda ash 3 parts Silicate of soda 2 parts Borax (crude) 1 part
Each ingredient is thoroughly dried, and all mixed together by sieving.
«London Soap Powder.»—
III.—Yellow soap 6 parts Soda crystals 3 parts Pearl ash 1 1/2 parts Sulphate of soda 1 1/2 parts Palm oil 1 part
«TOILET SOAPS.»
The question as to the qualities of toilet soaps has a high therapeutical significance. Impurity of complexion and morbid anomalies of the skin are produced by the use of poor and unsuitable soaps. The latter, chemically regarded, are salts of fatty acids, and are prepared from fats and a lye, the two substances being mixed in a vessel and brought to a boil, soda lye being used in the preparation of toilet soaps. In boiling together a fat and a lye, the former is resolved into its component parts, a fatty acid and glycerine. The {651} acid unites with the soda lye, forming a salt, which is regarded as soap. By the addition of sodium chloride, this (the soap) is separated and swims on the residual liquid as “kern,” or granulated soap. Good soaps were formerly made only from animal fats, but some of the vegetable oils or fats have been found to also make excellent soap. Among them the best is cacao butter.
From a hygienic standpoint it must be accepted as a law that a good toilet soap must contain no free (uncombined) alkali, every particle of it must be chemically bound up with fatty acid to the condition of a salt, and the resultant soap should be neutral in reaction. Many of the soaps found in commerce to-day contain free alkali, and exert a harmful effect upon the skin of those who use them. Such soaps may readily be detected by bringing them into contact with the tongue. If free alkali be present it will make itself known by causing a burning sensation—something that a good toilet soap should never do.
The efficiency of soap depends upon the fact that in the presence of an abundance of water the saponified fat is decomposed into acid and basic salts, in which the impurities of the skin are dissolved and are washed away by the further application of water. Good soap exerts its effects on the outer layer of the skin, the so-called horny (epithelial) layer, which in soapy water swells up and is, in fact, partially dissolved in the medium and washed away. This fact, however, is unimportant, since the superficial skin cells are reproduced with extraordinary rapidity and ease. When a soap contains or carries free alkali, the caustic effects of the latter are carried further and deeper, reaching below the epithelial cells and attacking the true skin, in which it causes minute rifts and splits and renders it sore and painful. Good soap, on the contrary, makes the skin smooth and soft.
Since the employment of poor soaps works so injuriously upon the skin, many persons never, or rarely ever, use soap, but wash the face in water alone, or with a little almond bran added. Their skins cannot bear the regular application of poor soap. This, however, applies only to poor, free-alkali containing soaps. Any skin can bear without injury any amount of a good toilet soap, free from uncombined alkali and other impurities. The habit of washing the face with water only, without the use of soap, must be regarded as one altogether bad, since the deposits on the skin, mostly dust-particles and dead epithelial cells, mingling with the oily or greasy matter exuded from the fat glands of the skin—excellent nutrient media for colonies of bacteria—cannot be got rid of by water alone. Rubbing only forces the mass into the openings in the skin (the sweat glands, fat glands, etc.), and stops them up. In this way are produced the so-called “black heads” and other spots and blotches on the skin usually referred to by the uneducated, or partially educated, as “parasites.” The complexion is in this manner injured quite as much by the failure to use good soap as by the use of a poor or bad article.
All of the skin troubles referred to may be totally avoided by the daily use of a neutral, alkali-free soap, and the complexion thus kept fresh and pure. Completely neutral soaps, however, are more difficult to manufacture—requiring more skill and care than those in which no attention is paid to excess of alkali—and consequently cost more than the general public are accustomed, or, in fact, care to pay for soaps. While this is true, one must not judge the quality of a soap by the price demanded for it. Some of the manufacturers of miserable soaps charge the public some of the most outrageous prices. Neither can a soap be judged by its odor or its style of package and putting on the market.
To give a soap an agreeable odor the manufacturers add to it, just when it commences to cool off, an etheric oil (such as attar of rose, oil of violets, bergamot oil, etc.), or some balsamic material (such as tincture of benzoin, for instance). It should be known, however, that while grateful to the olfactory nerves, these substances do not add one particle to the value of the soap, either as a detergent or as a preserver of the skin or complexion.
Especially harmful to the skin are soaps containing foreign substances, such, for instance, as the starches, gelatin, clay, chalk, gums, or rosins, potato flour, etc., which are generally added to increase the weight of soap. Such soaps are designated, very significantly, “filled soaps,” and, as a class, are to be avoided, if for no other reason, on account of their lack of true soap content. The use of these fillers should be regarded as a criminal falsification under the laws regarding articles of domestic use, since they are sold at a relatively high price, yet contain foreign matter, harmful to health. {652}
«RECIPES FOR COLD-STIRRED TOILET SOAPS.»
Parts by weight I.—Cocoanut oil 30 Castor oil 3 Caustic soda lye (38° Bé) 17 1/2
Pink Soap.—
Parts by weight II.—Pink No. 114 10 Lemon oil 60 Cedar-wood oil 60 Citronella oil 50 Wintergreen oil 15
Pale-Yellow Soap.—
Parts by weight III.—Orange No. 410 10 Citronella oil 60 Sassafras oil 60 Lavender oil 45 Wintergreen oil 15 Aniseed oil 25
Toilet Soap Powder.—
Marseilles soap, powdered 100 parts Bran of almonds 50 parts Lavender oil 5 parts Thyme oil 3 parts Spike oil 2 parts Citronella oil 2 parts
Soft Toilet Soaps.—Soft toilet soaps or creams may be prepared from fresh lard with a small addition of cocoanut oil and caustic potash solution, by the cold process or by boiling. For the cold process, 23 parts of fresh lard and 2 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are warmed in a jacketed pan, and when the temperature reaches 113° F. are treated with 9 parts of caustic potash and 2 1/2 parts of caustic soda solution, both of 38° Bé. strength, the whole being stirred until saponification is complete. The soap is transferred to a large marble mortar and pounded along with the following scenting ingredients: 0.15 parts of oil of bitter almonds and 0.02 parts of oil of geranium rose, or 0.1 part of the latter, and 0.05 parts of lemon oil. The warm process is preferable, experience having shown that boiling is essential to the proper saponification of the fats. In this method, 80 parts of lard and 20 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are melted together in a large pan, 100 parts of potash lye (20° Bé.) being then crutched in by degrees, and the mass raised to boiling point. The combined influence of the heat and crutching vaporizes part of the water in the lye, and the soap thickens. When the soap has combined, the fire is made up, and another 80 parts of the same potash lye are crutched in gradually. The soap gets thicker and thicker as the water is expelled and finally throws up “roses” on the surface, indicating that it is nearly finished. At this stage it must be crutched vigorously, to prevent scorching against the bottom of the pan and the resulting more or less dark coloration. The evaporation period may be shortened by using only 50 to 60 parts of lye at first, and fitting with lye of 25° to 30° strength. For working on the large scale iron pans heated by steam are used, a few makers employing silver-lined vessels, which have the advantage that they are not attacked by the alkali. Tinned copper pans are also useful. The process takes from 7 to 8 hours, and when the soap is finished it is transferred into stoneware vessels for storage. Clear vegetable oils (castor oil) may be used, but the soaps lack the requisite nacreous luster required.
«TRANSPARENT SOAPS.»
The mode of production is the same for all. The fats are melted together, sifted into a double boiler, and the lye is stirred in at 111° F. Cover up for an hour, steam being allowed to enter slowly. There is now a clear, grain-like soap in the kettle, into which the sugar solution and the alcohol are crutched, whereupon the kettle is covered up. If cuttings are to be used, they are now added. When same are melted, the kettle will contain a thin, clear soap, which is colored and scented as per directions, and subsequently filled into little iron molds and cooled.
«Rose-Glycerine Soap.»—
I.—Cochin cocoanut oil 70,000 parts Compressed tallow 40,000 parts Castor oil 30,000 parts Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 79,000 parts Sugar 54,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water 60,000 parts Alcohol 40,000 parts Geranium oil (African) 250 parts Lemon oil 200 parts Palmarosa oil 1,200 parts Bergamot oil 80 parts
«Benzoin-Glycerine Soap.»—
II.—Cochin cocoanut oil 66,000 parts Compressed tallow 31,000 parts {653} Castor oil 35,000 parts Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 66,000 parts Sugar 35,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water 40,000 parts Alcohol 35,000 parts Brown, No. 120 200 parts Powdered benzoin (Siam) 4,200 parts Styrax liquid 1,750 parts Tincture of benzoin 1,400 parts Peru balsam 700 parts Lemon oil 200 parts Clove oil 70 parts
«Sunflower-Glycerine Soap.»—
III.—Cochin cocoanut oil 70,000 parts Compressed tallow 50,000 parts Castor oil 23,000 parts Caustic soda lye, 39° Bé 71,000 parts Sugar 40,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water 30,000 parts Alcohol 40,000 parts Brown, No. 55 250 parts Geranium oil 720 parts Bergamot oil 300 parts Cedar-wood oil 120 parts Palmarosa oil 400 parts Vanillin 10 parts Tonka tincture 400 parts
«MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS:»
«Szegedin Soap.»—Tallow, 120 parts; palm kernel oil, 80 parts. Saponify well with about 200 parts of lye of 24° Bé. and add, with constant stirring, the following fillings in rotation, viz., potash solution, 20° Bé., 150 parts, and cooling salt solution 20° Bé., 380 parts.
«Instrument Soap.»—A soap for cleaning surgical instruments, and other articles of polished steel, which have become specked with rust by exposure, is made by adding precipitated chalk to a strong solution of cyanide of potassium in water, until a cream-like paste is obtained. Add to this white castile soap in fine shavings, and rub the whole together in a mortar, until thoroughly incorporated. The article to be cleaned should be first immersed, if possible, in a solution of 1 part of cyanide of potash in 4 parts of water, and kept there until the surface dirt and rust disappears. It should then be polished with the soap, made as above directed.
«Stain-Removing Soaps.»—These are prepared in two ways, either by making a special soap, or by mixing ordinary soap with special detergents. A good recipe is as follows:
I.—Ceylon cocoanut or palm seed oil 320 pounds Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 160 pounds Carbonate of potash, 20° Bé 56 pounds Oil of turpentine 9 pounds Finely powdered kieselguhr 280 pounds Brilliant green 2 pounds
The oil having been fused, the dye is mixed with some of it and stirred into the contents of the pan. The kieselguhr is then crutched in from a sieve, then the lye, and then the carbonate of potash. These liquids are poured in in a thin stream. When the soap begins to thicken, add the turpentine, mold, and cover up the molds.
II.—Rosin grain soap 1,000 pounds Talc (made to a paste with weak carbonate of potash) 100 pounds Oil of turpentine 4 pounds Benzine 3 pounds
Mix the talc and soap by heat, and when cool enough add the turpentine and benzine, and mold.
III.—Cocoanut oil 600 pounds Tallow 400 pounds Caustic soda lye 500 pounds Fresh ox gall 200 pounds Oil of turpentine 12 pounds Ammonia (sp. gr., 0.91) 6 pounds Benzine 5 pounds
Saponify by heat, cool, add the gall and the volatile liquids, and mold.
«Soap Substitutes.»—
I.—Linseed oil 28 pounds Sulphur 8 pounds Aluminum soap 28 pounds Oil of turpentine 4 pounds
II.—Aluminum soap 15 pounds Almadina 25 pounds Caoutchouc 50 pounds Sulphur 6 pounds Oleum succini 4 pounds
«Shampoo Soap.»—
Linseed oil 20 parts Malaga olive oil 20 parts Caustic potash 9 1/2 parts Alcohol 1 part Water 30 parts
{654}
Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the potash and water in another vessel, heating both to 158° F., and adding the latter hot solution to the hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly mix the alcohol. Stop stirring, keep the heat at 158° F. until the mass becomes clear and a small quantity dissolves in boiling water without globules of oil separating. Set aside for a few days before using to make the liquid soap.
The alcohol may be omitted if a transparent product is immaterial.
«Sapo Durus.»—
Olive oil 100 parts Soda lye, sp. gr., 1.33 50 parts Alcohol (90 per cent) 30 parts
Heat on a steam bath until saponification is complete. The soap thus formed is dissolved in 300 parts of hot distilled water, and salted out by adding a filtered solution of 25 parts of sodium chloride and 5 parts of crystallized sodium carbonate in 80 parts of water.
«Sapo Mollis.»—
Olive oil 100 parts Solid potassium hydroxide 21 parts Water 100 parts Alcohol (90 per cent) 20 parts
Boil by means of a steam bath until the oil is saponified, adding, if necessary, a little more spirit to assist the saponification.
«Sand Soap.»—Cocoa oil, 24 parts; soda lye, 38° Bé., 12 parts; sand, finely sifted, 28 parts; cassia oil, .0100 parts; sassafras oil, .0100 parts.
«Salicylic Soap.»—When salicylic acid is used in soap it decomposes, as a rule, and an alkali salicylate is formed which the skin does not absorb. A German chemist claims to have overcome this defect by thoroughly eliminating all water from potash or soda soap, then mixing it with vaseline, heating the mixture, and incorporating free salicylic acid with the resulting mass. The absence of moisture prevents any decomposition of the salicylic acid.
«Olein Soap Substitute.»—Fish oil or other animal oil is stirred up with sulphuric acid, and then treated with water. After another stirring, the whole is left to settle, and separate into layers, whereupon the acid and water are drawn off, and caustic soda solution is stirred in with the oil. The finishing stage consists in stirring in refined mineral oil, magnesium chloride, borium chloride, and pure seal or whale oil, in succession.
«Mottled Soap.»—Tallow, 30 parts; palm kernel oil, 270 parts; lye, 20°, 347 1/2 parts; potassium chloride solution, 20°, 37 1/2 parts. After everything has been boiled into a soap, crutch the following dye solution into it: Water, 5 1/2 parts; blue, red, or black, .0315 parts; water glass, 38°, 10 parts; and lye, 38°, 1 1/2 parts.
«Laundry Soap.»—A good, common hard soap may be made from clean tallow or lard and caustic soda, without any very special skill in manipulation. The caustic soda indicated is a crude article which may now be obtained from wholesale druggists in quantities to suit, at a very moderate price. A lye of average strength is made by dissolving it in water in the proportion of about 2 pounds to the gallon. For the saponification of lard, a given quantity of the grease is melted at a low heat, and 1/4 its weight of lye is then added in small portions with constant stirring; when incorporation has been thoroughly effected, another portion of lye equal to the first is added, as before, and the mixture kept at a gentle heat until saponification appears to be complete. If the soap does not readily separate from the liquid, more lye should be added, the soap being insoluble in strong lye. When separation has occurred, pour off the lye, add water to the mass, heat until dissolved, and again separate by the use of more strong lye or a strong solution of common salt. The latter part of the process is designed to purify the soap and may be omitted where only a cruder article is required. The soap is finally remelted on a water bath, kept at a gentle heat until as much water as possible is expelled, and then poured into frames or molds to set.
«Dog Soap.»—
Petroleum 5 parts by weight Wax 4 parts by weight Alcohol 5 parts by weight Good laundry soap. 15 parts by weight
Heat the petroleum, wax, and alcohol on a water bath until they are well mixed, and dissolve in the mixture the soap cut in fine shavings. This may be used on man or beast for driving away vermin.
«Liquid Tar Soap» (Sapo Picis liquidus).—
Wood tar 25 parts Hebra’s soap spirit 75 parts
«Ox-Gall Soap for Cleansing Silk Stuffs.»—To wash fine silk stuffs, such as {655} piece goods, ribbons, etc., employ a soap containing a certain amount of ox gall, a product that is not surpassed for the purpose. In making this soap the following directions will be found of advantage: Heat 1 pound of cocoanut oil to 100° F. in a copper kettle. While stirring vigorously add 1/2 pound of caustic soda lye of 30° Baumé. In a separate vessel heat 1/2 pound of white Venice turpentine, and stir this in the soap in the copper kettle. Cover the kettle well, and let it stand, mildly warmed for 4 hours, when the temperature can be again raised until the mass is quite hot and flows clear; then add the pound of ox gall to it. Now pulverize some good, perfectly dry grain soap, and stir in as much of it as will make the contents of the copper kettle so hard that it will yield slightly to the pressure of the fingers. From 1 to 2 pounds is all the grain soap required for the above quantity of gall soap. When cooled, cut out the soap and shape into bars. This is an indispensable adjunct to the dyer and cleaner, as it will not injure the most delicate color.
«SOAP-BUBBLE LIQUIDS.»
I.—White hard soap 25 parts Glycerine 15 parts Water 1,000 parts
II.—Dry castile soap 2 parts Glycerine 30 parts Water 40 parts
SOAP POLISHES: See Polishes.
SOAP, TOOTH: See Dentifrice.
SODA PAINT: See Paint.
SODA WATER: See Beverages.
SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE: See Photography.
SODIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.
SODIUM SALTS, EFFERVESCENT: See Salts.
«Solders»
«SOLDERING OF METALS AND THE PREPARATION OF SOLDERS.»
The object of soldering is to unite two portions of the same metal or of different metals by means of a more fusible metal or metallic alloy, applied when melted, and known by the name of solder. As the strength of the soldering depends on the nature of the solder used, the degree of strength required for the joint must be kept in view in choosing a solder. The parts to be joined must be free from oxide and thoroughly clean; this can be secured by filing, scouring, scraping, or pickling with acids. The edges must fit exactly, and be heated to the melting point of the solder. The latter must have a lower melting point than either of the portions of metal that require to be joined, and if possible only those metals should be chosen for solder which form alloys with them. The solder should also as far as possible have the same color and approximately the same strength as the article whose edges are to be united.
To remove the layers of oxide which form during the process of soldering, various so-called “fluxes” are employed. These fluxes are melted and applied to the joint, and act partly by keeping off the air, thus preventing oxidation, and partly by reducing and dissolving the oxides themselves. The choice of a flux depends on the quantity of heat required for soldering.
Solders are classed as soft and hard solders. Soft solders, also called tin solders or white solders, consist of soft, readily fusible metals or alloys, and do not possess much strength; they are easy to handle on account of their great fusibility. Tin, lead-tin, and alloys of tin, lead, and bismuth are used for soft solders, pure tin being employed only for articles made of the same metal (pure tin).
The addition of some lead makes the solder less fusible but cheaper, while that of bismuth lowers the melting point. Soft solders are used for soldering easily fusible metals such as Britannia metal, etc., also for soldering tin plate. To prepare solder, the metals are melted together in a graphite crucible at as low a temperature as possible, well stirred with an iron rod, and cast into ingots in an iron mold. To melt the solder when required for soldering, the soldering iron is used; the latter should be kept as free from oxidation as possible, and the part applied should be tinned over.
To make so-called “Sicker” solder, equal parts of lead and tin are melted together, well mixed, and allowed to stand till the mixture begins to set, the part still in a liquid condition being then poured off. This mixture can, however, {656} be more easily made by melting together 37 parts of lead and 63 parts of tin (exactly measured).
Soldering irons are usually made of copper, as copper is easily heated and easily gives up its heat to the solder. The point of the iron must be “tinned.” To do this properly, the iron should be heated hot enough easily to melt the solder; the point should then be quickly dressed with a smooth flat file to remove the oxide, and rubbed on a piece of tin through solder and sal ammoniac. The latter causes the solder to adhere in a thin, even coat to the point of the iron. A gas or gasoline blow torch or a charcoal furnace is best for heating the iron, but a good, clean coal fire, well coked, will answer the purpose.
When in use, the iron should be hot enough to melt the solder readily. A cold iron produces rough work. This is where the beginner usually fails. If possible, it is well to warm the pieces before applying the iron. The iron must not be heated too hot, however, or the tin on the point will be oxidized. The surfaces to be soldered must be clean. Polish them with sandpaper, emery cloth, a file, or a scraper. Grease or oil will prevent solder from sticking.
Some good soldering fluid should be used. A very good fluid is made by dissolving granulated zinc in muriatic acid. Dissolve as much zinc as possible in the acid. The gas given off will explode if ignited. To granulate the zinc, melt it in a ladle, and pour it slowly into a barrel of water. A brush or swab should be used to spread the fluid on the surfaces to be soldered. If the point of the soldering iron becomes dirty, it should be wiped on a cloth or piece of waste that has been dampened with the soldering fluid.
«Soldering of Metallic Articles.»—In a recently invented process the parts to be united are covered, on the surfaces not to be soldered, with a protective mass, which prevents an immediate contact of the solder with the surfaces in question, and must be brushed off only after the soldered pieces have cooled perfectly, whereby the possibility of a change of position of these pieces seems precluded.
For the execution of this process the objects to be soldered, after the surfaces to be united have been provided with a water-glass solution as the soldering agent and placed together as closely as possible or united by wires or rivets, are coated in the places where no solder is desired with a protective mass, consisting essentially of carbon (graphite, coke, or charcoal), powdered talc or asbestos, ferric hydrate (with or without ferrous hydrate), and, if desired, a little aluminum oxide, together with a binding agent of the customary kind (glue solution, beer).
Following are some examples of the composition of these preparations:
I.—Graphite, 50 parts; powdered coke, 5 parts; powdered charcoal, 5 parts; powdered talc, 10 parts; glue solution, 2.5 parts; drop beer, 2.5 parts; ferric hydrate, 10 parts; aluminum oxide, 5 parts.
II.—Graphite, burnt, 4 parts; graphite, unburnt, 6 parts; powdered charcoal, 3 parts; powdered asbestos, 1 part; ferric hydrate, 3 parts; ferrous hydrate, 2 parts; glue solution, 1 part.
The article thus prepared is plunged, after the drying of the protective layer applied, in the metal bath serving as solder (molten brass, copper, etc.), and left to remain therein until the part to be soldered has become red hot, which generally requires about 50 to 60 seconds, according to the size of the object. In order to avoid, in introducing the article into the metal bath, the scattering of the molten metal, it is well previously to warm the article and to dip it warm. After withdrawal from the metal bath the soldered articles are allowed to cool, and are cleaned with wire brushes, so as to cause the bright surfaces to reappear.
The process is especially useful for uniting iron or steel parts, such as machinery, arms, and bicycle parts in a durable manner.
«Soldering Acid.»—A very satisfactory soldering acid may be made by the use of the ordinary soldering acid for the base and introducing a certain proportion of chloride of tin and sal ammoniac. This gives an acid which is superior in every way to the old form. To make 1 gallon of this soldering fluid take 3 quarts of common muriatic acid and allow it to dissolve as much zinc as it will take up. This method, of course, is the usual one followed in the manufacture of ordinary soldering acid. The acid, as is well known, must be placed in an earthenware or glass vessel. The zinc may be sheet clippings or common plate spelter broken into small pieces. Place the acid in the vessel and add the zinc in small portions so as to prevent the whole from boiling over. When all the zinc has been added and the action has stopped, it indicates that enough has been taken up. Care must be taken to see that there is a little zinc left in the bottom, as {657} otherwise the acid will be in excess. The idea is to have the acid take up as much zinc as it can.
After this has been done there will remain some residue in the form of a black precipitate. This is the lead which all zinc contains, and which is not dissolved by the muriatic acid. This lead may be removed by filtering through a funnel in the bottom of which there is a little absorbent cotton, or the solution may be allowed to remain overnight until the lead has settled and the clear solution can then be poured off. This lead precipitate is not particularly injurious to the soldering fluid, but it is better to get rid of it so that a good, clear solution may be obtained. Next, dissolve 6 ounces of sal ammoniac in a pint of warm water. In another pint dissolve 4 ounces of chloride of tin. The chloride of tin solution will usually be cloudy, but this will not matter. Now mix the 3 solutions together. The solution will be slightly cloudy when the 3 have been mixed, and the addition of a few drops of muriatic acid will render it perfectly clear. Do not add any more acid than is necessary to do this, as the solution would then contain too much of this ingredient and the results would be injurious.
This soldering acid will not spatter when the iron is applied to it. It has also been found that a poorer grade of solder may be used with it than with the usual soldering acid.
«ALUMINUM SOLDERS.»
To solder aluminum it is necessary previously to tin the parts to be soldered. This tinning is done with the iron, using a composition of aluminum and tin. Replace the ordinary soldering iron by an iron of pure aluminum. Preparation of aluminum solder: Commence by fusing the copper; then add the aluminum in several installments, stir the mixture well with a piece of iron; next add the zinc and a little tallow or benzine at the same time. Once the zinc is added do not heat too strongly, to avoid the volatilization of the zinc.
I.—Take 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum. Solder with the iron or with the blowpipe, according to the article in question.
II.—The pieces to be soldered are to be tinned, but instead of using pure tin, alloys of tin with other metals are employed, preferably those of tin and aluminum. For articles to be worked after soldering, 45 parts of tin and 10 parts of aluminum afford a good alloy, malleable enough to be hammered, cut, or turned. If they are not to be worked, the alloy requires less aluminum and may be applied in the usual manner as in soldering iron.
«Aluminum Bronze.»—I.—Strong solder: Gold, 89 parts; fine silver, 5 parts; copper, 6 parts.
II.—Medium solder: Gold, 54 parts; fine silver, 27 parts; copper, 19 parts.
III.—Weak solder: Gold, 14 parts; silver, 57 parts; copper, 15 parts; brass, 14 parts.
«BRASS SOLDERS.»
Brass solder consists of brass fusible at a low temperature, and is made by melting together copper and zinc, the latter being in excess. A small quantity of tin is often added to render the solder more fusible. Hard solders are usually sold in the form of granules. Although many workers in metals make their own solder, it is advisable to use hard solder made in factories, as complete uniformity of quality is more easily secured where large quantities are manufactured.
In making hard solder the melted metal is poured through birch twigs in order to granulate it. The granules are afterwards sorted by passing them through sieves.
When brass articles are soft-soldered, the white color of the solder contrasts unpleasantly with the brass. If this is objected to, the soldered part can be colored yellow in the following manner:
Dissolve 10 parts of copper sulphate in 35 parts of water; apply the solution to the solder, and stir with a clean iron wire. This gives the part the appearance of copper. To produce the yellow color, paint the part with a mixture consisting of 1 part of a solution of equal parts of zinc and water (1 part each) and 2 parts of a solution of 10 to 35 parts respectively of copper sulphate and water and rub on with a zinc rod. The resulting yellow color can, if desired, be improved by careful polishing.
The quality of soft solder is always judged in the trade from the appearance of the surface of the castings, and it is considered important that this surface should be radiant and crystalline, showing the so-called “flowers.” These should be more brilliant than the dull background, the latter being like mat silver in appearance. If the casting has a uniform whitish-gray color, this is an indication that the alloy contains an insufficient quantity of tin. In this case {658} the alloy should be remelted and tin added, solder too poor in tin being extremely viscid.
Most of the varieties of brass used in the arts are composed of from 68 to 70 per cent copper and from 32 to 30 per cent zinc. Furthermore, there are some kinds of brass which contain from 24 to 40 per cent zinc. The greater the quantity of zinc the greater will be the resemblance of the alloy to copper. Consequently, the more crystalline will the structure become. For hard soldering only alloys can be employed which, as a general rule, contain no more than 34 per cent of zinc. With an increase in copper there follows a rise in the melting point of the brass. An alloy containing 90 per cent of copper will melt at 1,940° F.; 80 per cent copper, at 1,868° F.; 70 per cent copper, at 1,796° F.; 60 per cent copper, at 1,742° F. Because an increase in zinc causes a change in color, it is sometimes advisable to use tin for zinc, at least in part, so that the alloy becomes more bronze-like in its properties. The durability of the solder is not seriously affected, but its fusibility is lowered. If more than a certain proportion of tin be added, thin and very fluid solders are obtained of grayish-white color, and very brittle—indeed, so brittle that the soldering joints are apt to open if the object is bent. Because too great an addition of tin is injurious, the utmost caution must be exercised. If very refractory metals are to be soldered, brass alone can be used. In some cases, a solder can be produced merely by melting brass and adding copper. The following hard solders have been practically tested and found of value.
«YELLOW HARD SOLDERS:»
Applebaum’s Compositions.—
I.—Copper 58 parts Zinc 42 parts
II.—Sheet brass 85.42 parts Zinc 13.58 parts
Karmarsch’s Composition.—
III.—Brass 7 parts Zinc 1