part 6

. A strong cement, without body, for metals (other than copper or alloys of same), porcelain, and glass is made by letting 1 part of finely powdered shellac stand with 10 parts of ammonia water until solution is effected.

VII. Rubber.—Because of its toughness, elasticity, and resistance to alterative influences, rubber is a very useful constituent in lutes, but its price makes its use very limited.

Leather Cement.

1. Asphalt 1 part Rosin 1 part Gutta percha 4 parts Carbon disulphide 20 parts

To stand acid vapors:

2. Rubber 1 part Linseed oil 3 parts Fire clay 3 parts

3. Plain Rubber Cement.—Cut the crude rubber in small pieces and then add the solvent. Carbon disulphide is the best, benzol good and much cheaper, but gasoline is probably most extensively used because of its cheapness.

4. To make corks and wood impervious to steam and water, soak them in a rubber solution as above; if it is desired to protect them from oil vapors, use glue composition. (See Section IX.)

VIII. Linseed Oil.—This is one of the most generally useful substances we have for luting purposes, if absorbed by a porous substance that is inert.

Formulas: 1. China clay of general utility for aqueous vapors.

Linseed oil of general utility for aqueous vapors.

2. Lime forming the well-known putty.

Linseed oil forming the well-known putty.

3. Red or white lead and linseed oil.

These mixtures become very strong when set and are best diluted with powdered glass, clay, or graphite. There are almost an endless number of lutes using metallic oxides and linseed oil. A very good one, not getting as hard as those containing lead, is:

4. Oxide of iron and linseed oil.

IX. Casein, Albumen, and Glue.—These, if properly made, become very tough and tenacious; they stand moderate heat and oil vapors, but not acid vapors.

1. Finely powdered casein 12 parts Slaked lime (fresh) 50 parts Fine sand 50 parts Water to thick mush.

A very strong cement which stands moderate heat is the following:

2. Casein in very fine powder 1 part Rubbed up with silicate of soda 3 parts

A strong lute for general purposes, {35} which must be used promptly when made:

3. White of egg made into a paste with slaked lime.

A composition for soaking corks, wood, packing, etc., to render them impervious to oil vapors, is:

Gelatine or good glue 2 parts Glycerine 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 part Water 6 parts Oil of wintergreen, etc., to keep from spoiling.

X. Silicate of Oxychloride Cements.—For oil vapors, standing the highest heat:

1. A stiff paste of silicate of soda and asbestos.

Gaskets for superheated steam, retorts, furnaces, etc.:

2. Silicate of soda and powdered glass; dry the mixture and heat.

Not so strong, however, as the following:

3. Silicate of soda 50 parts Asbestos 15 parts Slaked lime 10 parts

Metal Cement:

4. Silicate of soda 1 part Oxides of metal, such as zinc oxide; litharge, iron oxide, singly or mixed 1 part

Very hard and extra strong compositions:

5. Zinc oxide 2 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Water to make a paste.

6. Magnesium oxide 2 parts Magnesium chloride 1 part Water to make a paste.

XI. Flour and Starch Compositions.—

1. The well-known flaxseed poultice sets very tough, but does not stand water or condensed steam.

2. Flour and molasses, made by making a stiff composition of the two. This is an excellent lute to have at hand at all times for emergency use, etc.

3. Stiff paste of flour and strong zinc-chloride solution forms a more impervious lute, and is more permanent as a cement. This is good for most purposes, at ordinary temperature, where it would not be in contact with nitric-acid vapors or condensing steam.

4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand makes a good composition, mainly used as core compound.

XII. Miscellaneous.—

1. Litharge. Glycerine.

Mixed to form a stiff paste, sets and becomes very hard and strong, and is very useful for inserting glass tubes, etc., in iron or brass.

For a high heat:

2. Alumina 1 part Sand 4 parts Slaked lime 1 part Borax 1⁠/⁠2 part Water sufficient.

A class of mixtures that can be classified only according to their intended use are core compounds.

I.—Dextrine, about 1 part Sand, about 10 parts With enough water to form a paste.

II.—Powdered anthracite coal, with molasses to form a stiff paste.

III.—Rosin, partly saponified by soda lye 1 part Flour 2 parts Sand (with sufficient water) 4 parts

(These proportions are approximate and the amount of sand can be increased for some purposes.)

IV.—Glue, powdered 1 part Flour 4 parts Sand (with sufficient water) 6 parts

For some purposes the following mixture is used. It does not seem to be a gasket or a core compound:

V.—Oats (or wheat) ground 25 parts Glue, powdered 6 parts Sal ammoniac 1 part

_Paper read by Samuel S. Sadtler before the Franklin Institute._

«PASTES:»

«Dextrine Pastes.»—

I.—Borax, powdered 60 parts Dextrine, light yellow 480 parts Glucose 50 parts Water 420 parts

By the aid of heat, dissolve the borax in the water and add the dextrine and glucose. Continue the heat, but do not let the mixture boil, and stir constantly until a homogeneous solution is obtained, from time to time renewing the water lost by evaporation with hot water. Finally, bring up to full weight (1,000 parts) by the addition of hot water, then strain through flannel. Prepared in this manner the paste remains bright and clear for a long time. It has extraordinary adhesive properties and dries very rapidly. If care is not taken to keep the cooking temperature below the boiling point of water, the paste is apt to become brown and to be very brittle on drying. {36}

II.—Dissolve in hot water a sufficient quantity of dextrine to bring it to the consistency of honey. This forms a strong adhesive paste that will keep a long time unchanged, if the water is not allowed to evaporate. Sheets of paper may be prepared for extempore labels by coating one side with the paste and allowing it to dry; by slightly wetting the gummed side, the label will adhere to glass. This paste is very useful in the office or laboratory.

III.—Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine 450 parts of soft water and stir the mixture for 10 minutes. After the dextrine has absorbed the water, put the mixture over the fire, or, preferably, on a water bath, and heat, with lively stirring for 5 minutes, or until it forms a light milk-like liquid, on the surface of which little bubbles begin to form and the liquid is apparently beginning to boil. Do not allow it to come to a boil. Remove from the fire and set in a bucket of cold water to cool off. When cold add to every 1,000 parts of the solution 51 parts glycerine and as much salicylic acid as will stand on the tip of a knife blade. If the solution is too thick, thin it with water that has been boiled and cooled off again. Do not add any more glycerine or the solution will never set.

IV.—Soften 175 parts of thick dextrine with cold water and 250 parts of boiling water added. Boil for 5 minutes and then add 30 parts of dilute acetic acid, 30 parts glycerine, and a drop or two of clove oil.

V.—Powder coarsely 400 parts dextrine and dissolve in 600 parts of water. Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glucose and heat to 90° C. (195° F.).

VI.—Stir 400 parts of dextrine with water and thin the mass with 200 parts more water, 20 parts glucose, and 10 parts aluminum sulphate. Heat the whole to 90° C. (195° F.) in the water bath until the whole mass becomes clear and liquid.

VII.—Warm 2 parts of dextrine, 5 parts of water, 1 part of acetic acid, 1 part of alcohol together, with occasional stirring until a complete solution is attained.

VIII.—Dissolve by the aid of heat 100 parts of builders’ glue in 200 parts of water add 2 parts of bleached shellac dissolved previously in 50 parts of alcohol. Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of dextrine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two solutions by stirring the second slowly into the first. Strain the mixture through a cloth into a shallow dish and let it harden. When needed cut off a piece of sufficient size and warm until it becomes liquid and if necessary or advisable thin with water.

IX.—Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with sufficient water to make a thick broth. Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25 parts of sodium water glass.

X.—Dissolve 5 parts of dextrine in water and add 1 part of alum.

«Fastening Cork to Metal.»—In fastening cork to iron and brass, even when these are lacquered, a good sealing wax containing shellac will be found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax prepared with rosin is not suitable. The cork surface is painted with the melted sealing wax. The surface of the metal is heated with a spirit flame entirely free from soot, until the sealing wax melts when pressed upon the metallic surface. The wax is held in the flame until it burns, and it is then applied to the hot surface of the metal. The cork surface painted with sealing wax is now held in the flame, and as soon as the wax begins to melt the cork is pressed firmly on the metallic surface bearing the wax.

«To Paste Celluloid on Wood, Tin, or Leather.»—To attach celluloid to wood, tin, or leather, a mixture of 1 part of shellac, 1 part of spirit of camphor, 3 to 4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90°) is well adapted, in which 1 part of camphor is dissolved without heating in 7 parts of spirit of wine of 0.832 specific gravity, adding 2 parts of water.

«To Paste Paper Signs on Metal or Cloth.»—A piece of gutta percha of the same size as the label is laid under the latter and the whole is heated. If the heating cannot be accomplished by means of a spirit lamp the label should be ironed down under a protective cloth or paper in the same manner as woolen goods are pressed. This method is also very useful for attaching paper labels to minerals.

«Paste for Fastening Leather, Oilcloth, or Similar Stuff to Table or Desk Tops, etc.»—Use the same paste for leather as for oilcloth or other goods, but moisten the leather before applying the paste. Prepare the paste as follows: Mix 2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds of good wheat flour with 2 tablespoonfuls of pulverized gum arabic or powdered rosin and 2 tablespoonfuls of pulverized alum in a clean dish with water enough to make a uniformly thick batter; set it over a slow fire and stir continuously until the paste is uniform and free from lumps. When the mass has become so stout that the wooden spoon or stick will stand in it {37} upright, it is taken from the fire and placed in another dish and covered so that no skin will form on top. When cold, the table or desk top, etc., is covered with a thin coat of the paste, the cloth, etc., carefully laid on and smoothed from the center toward the edges with a rolling pin. The trimming of edges is accomplished when the paste has dried. To smooth out the leather after pasting, a woolen cloth is of the best service.

«To Paste Paper on Smooth Iron.»—Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight, of water; while stirring add 50 parts, by weight, of acetic acid, 50 parts alcohol, and 50 parts, by weight, of pulverized alum. The spot upon which it is desired to attach the paper must first be rubbed with a bit of fine emery paper.

«Paste for Affixing Cloth to Metal.»—

Starch 20 parts Sugar 10 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Water 100 parts

Mix the ingredients and stir until a perfectly smooth liquid results entirely free from lumps, then warm gradually until the liquid thickens.

«To Fix Paper upon Polished Metal.»—Dissolve 400 parts, by weight, of dextrine in 600 parts, by weight, of water; add to this 10 parts, by weight, of glucose, and heat almost to boiling.

«Albumen Paste.»—Fresh egg albumen is recommended as a paste for affixing labels on bottles. It is said that labels put on with this substance, and well dried at the time, will not loosen even when bottles are put into water and left there for some time. Albumen, dry, is almost proof against mold or ferments. As to cost, it is but little if any higher than gum arabic, the white of one egg being sufficient to attach at least 100 medium-sized labels.

«Paste for Parchment Paper.»—The best agent is made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax.

«Medical Paste.»—As an adhesive agent for medicinal purposes Professor Reihl, of Leipsic, recommends the viscous substance contained in the white mistletoe. It is largely present in the berries and the bark of the plant; it is called viscin, and can be produced at one-tenth the price of caoutchouc. Solutions in benzine may be used like those of caoutchouc without causing any irritation if applied mixed with medicinal remedies to the skin.

«Paste That Will Not Mold.»—Mix good white flour with cold water into a thick paste. Be sure to stir out all the lumps; then add boiling water, stirring all the time until thoroughly cooked. To 6 quarts of this add 1⁠/⁠2 pound light brown sugar and 1⁠/⁠4 ounce corrosive sublimate, dissolved in a little hot water. When the paste is cool add 1 drachm oil of lavender. This paste will keep for a long time.

«Pasting Wood and Cardboard on Metal.»—In a little water dissolve 50 parts of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum. In another receptacle dissolve 75 parts of gum arabic in 2,000 parts of water. Into this gum-arabic solution pour 500 parts of flour, stirring constantly, and heat gradually to the boiling point. Mingle the solution first prepared with the second solution. It should be kept in mind that, owing to the lead acetate, this preparation is poisonous.

«Agar Agar Paste.»—The agar agar is broken up small, wetted with water, and exposed in an earthenware vessel to the action of ozone pumped under pressure into the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus. About an hour of this bleaches the agar agar and makes it freely soluble in boiling water, when solutions far more concentrated than has hitherto been possible can be prepared. On cooling, the solutions assume a milky appearance, but form no lumps and are readily reliquefied by heating. If the solution is completely evaporated, as of course happens when the adhesive is allowed to dry after use, it leaves a firmly holding mass which is insoluble in cold water. Among the uses to which the preparation can be applied are the dressing of textile fabrics and paper sizing, and the production of photographic papers, as well as the ordinary uses of an adhesive.

«Strongly Adhesive Paste.»—Four parts glue are soaked a few hours in 15 parts cold water, and moderately heated till the solution becomes perfectly clear, when 65 parts boiling water are added, while stirring. In another vessel 30 parts boiled starch are previously stirred together with 20 parts cold water, so that a thin, milky liquid without lumps results. The boiling glue solution is poured into this while stirring constantly, and the whole is kept boiling another 10 minutes.

«Paste for Tissue Paper.»—

(_a_) Pulverized gum arabic 2 ounces White sugar 4 drachms Boiling water 3 fluidounces {38} (_b_) Common laundry starch 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces Cold water 3 fluidounces

Make into a batter and pour into

Boiling water 32 fluidounces

Mix (_a_) with (_b_), and keep in a wide-mouthed bottle.

«Waterproof and Acidproof Pastes.»—

I.—Chromic acid 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts Stronger ammonia 15 parts Sulphuric acid 1⁠/⁠2 part Cuprammonium solution 30 parts Fine white paper 4 parts II.—Isinglass, a sufficient quantity Acetic acid 1 part Water 7 parts

Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mixture of acetic acid and water to make a thin mucilage.

One of the solutions is applied to the surface of one sheet of paper and the other to the other sheet, and they are then pressed together.

III.—A fair knotting varnish free from surplus oil is by far the best adhesive for fixing labels, especially on metal surfaces. It dries instantly, insuring a speedy job and immediate packing, if needful, without fear of derangement. It has great tenacity, and is not only absolutely damp-proof itself, but is actually repellent of moisture, to which all water pastes are subject. It costs more, but the additional expense is often infinitesimal compared with the pleasure of a satisfactory result.

«Balkan Paste.»—

Pale glue 4 ounces White loaf sugar 2 ounces Powdered starch 1 ounce White dextrine 1⁠/⁠4 pound Pure glycerine 3 ounces Carbolic acid 1⁠/⁠4 ounce Boiling water 32 ounces

Cut up the glue and steep it in 1⁠/⁠2 pint boiling water; when softened melt in a saucepan; add sugar, starch, and dextrine, and lastly the glycerine, in which carbolic acid has been mixed; add remainder of water, and boil until it thickens. Pour into jars or bottles.

«Permanent Paste.»—

I.—Wheat flour 1 pound Water, cold 1 quart Nitric acid 4 fluidrachms Boric acid 40 grains Oil of cloves 20 minims

Mix the flour, boric acid, and water, then strain the mixture; add the nitric acid, apply heat with constant stirring until the mixture thickens; when nearly cold add the oil of cloves. This paste will have a pleasant smell, will not attract flies, and can be thinned by the addition of cold water as needed.

II.—Dissolve 4 ounces alum in 4 quarts hot water. When cool add as much flour as will make it of the usual consistency; then stir into it 1⁠/⁠2 ounce powdered rosin; next add a little water in which a dozen cloves have been steeped; then boil it until thick as mush, stirring from the bottom all the time. Thin with warm water for use.

«Preservatives for Paste.»—Various antiseptics are employed for the preservation of flour paste, mucilage, etc. Boric and salicylic acids, oil of cloves, oil of sassafras, and solution of formaldehyde are among those which have given best service. A durable starch paste is produced by adding some borax to the water used in making it. A paste from 10 parts (weight) starch to 100 parts (weight) water with 1 per cent borax added will keep many weeks, while without this addition it will sour after six days. In the case of a gluing material prepared from starch paste and joiners’ glue, borax has also demonstrated its preserving qualities. The solution is made by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch into a paste with water and adding 10 parts (weight) glue soaked in water to the hot solution; the addition of 1⁠/⁠10 part (weight) of borax to the solution will cause it to keep for weeks. It is equal to the best glue, but should be warmed and stirred before use.

«Board-Sizing.»—A cheap sizing for rough, weather-beaten boards may be made by dissolving shellac in sal soda and adding some heavy-bodied pigment. This size will stick to grease spots. Linseed oil may be added if desired. Limewater and linseed oil make a good heavy sizing, but hard to spread. They are usually used half and half, though these proportions may be varied somewhat.

«Rice Paste.»—Mix the rice flour with cold water, and boil it over a gentle fire until it thickens. This paste is quite white and becomes transparent on drying. It is very adherent and of great use for many purposes.

«Casein Paste.»—A solution of tannin, prepared from a bark or from commercial tannin, is precipitated with limewater, the lime being added until the solution just turns red litmus paper blue. The supernatant liquid is then decanted, {39} and the precipitate is dried without artificial heat. The resulting calcium tannate is then mixed, according to the purpose for which the adhesive is intended, with from 1 to 10 times its weight of dry casein by grinding in a mill. The adhesive compound is soluble in water, petroleum, oils, and carbon bisulphide. It is very strong, and is applied in the form of a paste with water.

«PASTES FOR PAPERHANGERS.»

I.—Use a cheap grade of rye or wheat flour, mix thoroughly with cold water to about the consistency of dough, or a little thinner, being careful to remove all lumps; stir in a tablespoonful of powdered alum to a quart of flour, then pour in boiling water, stirring rapidly until the flour is thoroughly cooked. Let this cool before using, and thin with cold water.

II.—Venetian Paste.—

(_a_) 4 ounces white or fish glue 8 fluidounces cold water (_b_) 2 fluidounces Venice turpentine (_c_) 1 pound rye flour 16 fluidounces (1 pint) cold water (_d_) 64 fluidounces (1⁠/⁠2 gallon) boiling water

Soak the 4 ounces of glue in the cold water for 4 hours; dissolve on a water bath (glue pot), and while hot stir in the Venice turpentine. Make up (_c_) into a batter free from lumps and pour into (_d_). Stir briskly, and finally add the glue solution. This makes a very strong paste, and it will adhere to a painted surface, owing to the Venice turpentine in its composition.

III.—Strong Adhesive Paste.—

(_a_) 4 pounds rye flour 1⁠/⁠2 gallon cold water (_b_) 1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons boiling water (_c_) 2 ounces pulverized rosin

Make (_a_) into a batter free from lumps; then pour into (_b_). Boil if necessary, and while hot stir in the pulverized rosin a little at a time. This paste is exceedingly strong, and will stick heavy wall paper or thin leather. If the paste be too thick, thin with a little hot water; never thin paste with cold water.

IV.—Flour Paste.—

(_a_) 2 pounds wheat flour 32 fluidounces (1 quart) cold water (_b_) 1 ounce alum 4 fluidounces hot water (_c_) 96 fluidounces (1⁠/⁠2 gallon) boiling water

Work the wheat flour into a batter free from lumps with the cold water. Dissolve the alum as designated in (_b_). Now stir in (_a_) and (_c_) and, if necessary, continue boiling until the paste thickens into a semitransparent mucilage, after which stir in solution (_b_). The above makes a very fine paste for wall paper.

V.—Elastic or Pliable Paste.—

(_a_) 4 ounces common starch 2 ounces white dextrine 10 fluidounces cold water

(_b_) 1 ounce borax 3 fluidounces glycerine 64 fluidounces (1⁠/⁠2 gallon) boiling water

Beat to a batter the ingredients of (_a_). Dissolve the borax in the boiling water; then add the glycerine, after which pour (_a_) into solution (_b_). Stir until it becomes translucent. This paste will not crack, and, being very pliable, is used for paper, cloth, leather, and other material where flexibility is required.

VI.—A paste with which wall paper can be attached to wood or masonry, adhering to it firmly in spite of dampness, is prepared, as usual, of rye flour, to which, however, are added, after the boiling, 8 1⁠/⁠3 parts, by weight, of good linseed-oil varnish and 8 1⁠/⁠3 parts, by weight, of turpentine to every 500 parts, by weight.

VII.—Paste for Wall Paper.—Soak 18 pounds of bolus (bole) in water, after it has been beaten into small fragments, and pour off the supernatant water. Boil 10 ounces of glue into glue water, mix it well with the softened bolus and 2 pounds plaster of Paris and strain through a sieve by means of a brush. Thin the mass with water to the consistency of a thin paste. The paste is now ready for use. It is not only much cheaper than other varieties, but has the advantage over them of adhering better to whitewashed walls, and especially such as have been repeatedly coated over the old coatings which were not thoroughly removed. For hanging fine wall paper this paste is less commendable, as it forms a white color, with which the paper might easily become soiled if great care is not exercised in applying it. If the fine wall paper is mounted on ground paper, however, it can be recommended for pasting the ground paper on the wall.

«LABEL PASTES:»

«Pastes to Affix Labels to Tin.»—Labels separate from tin because the paste becomes too dry. Some moisture is presumably always present; but more is required to cause continued adhesion in the case of tin than where the container is of {40} glass. Paste may be kept moist by the addition of calcium chloride, which is strongly hygroscopic, or of glycerine.

The following formulas for pastes of the type indicated were proposed by Leo Eliel:

I.—Tragacanth 1 ounce Acacia 4 ounces Thymol 14 grains Glycerine 4 ounces Water, sufficient to make 2 pints

Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain, and add the glycerine, in which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it sufficiently for use.

II.—Rye flour 8 ounces Powdered acacia 1 ounce Glycerine 2 ounces Oil of cloves 40 drops

Rub the rye flour and acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of boiling water, and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.

III.—Rye flour 5 parts Venice turpentine 1 part Liquid glue, a sufficient quantity

Rub up the flour with the turpentine and then add sufficient freshly prepared glue (glue or gelatine dissolved in water) to make a stiff paste. This paste dries slowly.

IV.—Dextrine 2 parts Acetic acid 1 part Water 5 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent. 1 part

Dissolve the dextrine and acetic acid in water by heating together in the water bath, and to the solution add the alcohol.

V.—Dextrine 3 pounds Borax 2 ounces Glucose 5 drachms Water 3 pints 2 ounces

Dissolve the borax in the water by warming, then add the dextrine and glucose, and continue to heat gently until dissolved.

Another variety is made by dissolving a cheap Ghatti gum in limewater, but it keeps badly.

VI.—Add tartaric acid to thick flour paste. The paste is to be boiled until quite thick, and the acid, previously dissolved in a little water, is added, the proportion being about 2 ounces to the pint of paste.

VII.—Gum arabic, 50 parts; glycerine, 10 parts; water, 30 parts; liq. Stibii chlorat., 2 parts.

VIII.—Boil rye flour and strong glue water into a mass to which are added, for 1,000 parts, good linseed-oil varnish 30 parts and oil of turpentine 30 parts. This mixture furnishes a gluing agent which, it is claimed, even renders the labels proof against being loosened by moisture.

IX.—Pour 140 parts of distilled cold water over 100 parts of gum arabic in a wide-necked bottle and dissolve by frequent shaking. To the solution, which is ready after standing for about 3 days, add 10 parts of glycerine; later, 20 parts of diluted acetic acid, and finally 6 parts of aluminum sulphate, then straining it through a fine-hair sieve.

X.—Good glue is said to be obtained by dissolving 1 part of powdered sugar in 4 parts of soda water glass.

XI.—A glue for bottle labels is prepared by dissolving borax in water; soak glue in this solution and dissolve the glue by boiling. Carefully drop as much acetic acid into the solution as will allow it to remain thin on cooling. Labels affixed with this agent adhere firmly and do not become moldy in damp cellars.

XII.—Dissolve some isinglass in acetic acid and brush the labels over with it. There will be no cause to complain of their coming off, nor of striking through the paper. Take a wide-mouthed bottle, fill about two-thirds with commercial acetic acid, and put in as much isinglass as the liquid will hold, and set aside in a warm place until completely dissolved. When cold it should form a jelly. To use it place the bottle in hot water. The cork should be well-fitting and smeared with vaseline or melted paraffine.

«How to Paste Labels on Tin.»—Brush over the entire back of the label with a flour paste, fold the label loosely by sticking both ends together without creasing the center, and throw to one side until this process has been gone through with the whole lot. Then unfold each label and place it on the can in the regular manner. The paste ought not to be thicker than maple syrup. When of this consistency it soaks through the label and makes it pliable and in a condition to be easily rubbed into position. If the paste is too thick it dries quickly, and does not soak through the label sufficiently. After the labels have been placed upon the cans the latter must be {41} kept apart until dry. In putting the paste upon the labels in the first place, follow the method of placing the dry labels over one another, back sides up, with the edge of each just protruding over the edge of the one beneath it, so that the fingers may easily grasp the label after the pasting has been done.

«Druggists’ Label Paste.»—This paste, when carefully made, is an admirable one for label use, and a very little will go a long way:

Wheat flour 4 ounces Nitric acid 1 drachm Boric acid 10 grains Oil of cloves 5 drops Carbolic acid 1⁠/⁠2 drachm

Stir flour and water together, mixing thoroughly, and add the other ingredients. After the stuff is well mixed, heat it, watching very carefully and removing the instant it stiffens.

«To Attach Glass Labels to Bottles.»—Melt together 1 part of rosin and 2 parts of yellow wax, and use while warm.

«Photographic Mountants (see also Photography).»—Owing to the nature of the different papers used for printing photographs, it is a matter of extreme importance to use a mountant that shall not set up decomposition in the coating of the print. For example, a mountant that exhibits acidity or alkalinity is injurious with most varieties of paper; and in photography the following formulas for pastes, mucilages, etc., have therefore been selected with regard to their absolute immunity from setting up decomposition in the print or changing its tone in any way. One of the usual mountants is rice starch or else rice water. The latter is boiled to a thick jelly, strained, and the strained mass used as an agglutinant for attaching photographic prints to the mounts. There is nothing of an injurious nature whatever in this mountant, neither is there in a mucilage made with gum dragon.

This gum (also called gum tragacanth) is usually in the form of curls (i.e., leaf gum), which take a long time to properly dissolve in water—several weeks, in fact—but during the past few years there has been put on the market a powdered gum dragon which does not occupy so many days in dissolving. To make a mucilage from gum dragon a very large volume of water is required. For example, 1 ounce of the gum, either leaf or powder, will swell up and convert 1 gallon of water into a thickish mucilage in the course of 2 or 3 weeks. Only cold water must be used, and before using the mucilage, all whitish lumps (which are

## particles of undissolved gum) should be picked out or else the mucilage

strained. The time of solution can be considerably shortened (to a few hours) by acidifying the water in which the gum is placed with a little sulphuric or oxalic acid; but as the resultant mucilage would contain traces of their presence, such acids are not permissible when the gum-dragon mucilage is to be used for mounting photographs.

Glycerine and gum arabic make a very good adhesive of a fluid nature suited to mounting photographs; and although glycerine is hygroscopic by itself, such tendency to absorb moisture is checked by the reverse nature of the gum arabic; consequently an ideal fluid mucilage is produced. The proportions of the several ingredients are these:

Gum arabic, genuine (gum acacia, not Bassora gum) 4 ounces Boiling water 12 ounces Glycerine, pure 1 ounce

First dissolve the gum in the water, and then stir in the glycerine, and allow all _débris_ from the gum to deposit before using. The following adhesive compound is also one that is free from chemical reactions, and is suited for photographic purposes:

Water 2 pints Gum dragon, powdered 1 ounce Gum arabic, genuine 4 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces

Mix the gum arabic with half the water, and in the remainder of the water dissolve the gum dragon. When both solids are dissolved, mix them together, and then stir in the glycerine.

The following paste will be found a useful mountant:

Gum arabic, genuine 1 ounce Rice starch 1 ounce White sugar 4 ounces Water, q. s.

Dissolve the gum in just sufficient water to completely dissolve it, then add the sugar, and when that has completely dissolved stir in the starch paste, and then boil the mixture until the starch is properly cooked.

A very strong, stiff paste for fastening cardboard mounts to frames, wood, and other materials is prepared by making a bowl of starch paste in the usual way, and then adding 1 ounce of Venice turpentine per pound of paste, and {42} boiling and stirring the mixture until the thick turpentine has become well incorporated. Venice turpentine stirred into flour paste and boiled will also be found a very adhesive cement for fastening cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, and skiver leather to wood or metal; but owing to the resinous nature of the Venice turpentine, such pastes are not suitable for mounting photographic prints. The following half-dozen compounds are suitable mountants to use with silver prints:

Alcohol, absolute 10 ounces Gelatine, good 1 ounce Glycerine 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 ounce

Soak the gelatine in water for an hour or two until it is completely softened; take the gelatine out of the water, and allow it to drain, and put it into a bottle and pour alcohol over it; add the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up very well. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the prints from stretching or cockling, as they are apt to, under the influence of the gelatine.

In the following compound, however, only sufficient alcohol is used to serve as an antiseptic, and prevent the agglutinant from decomposing: Dissolve 4 ounces of photographic gelatine in 16 ounces of water (first soaking the gelatine therein for an hour or two until it is completely softened), then remove the gelatine from the water, allow it to drain, and put it into the bottle, and pour the alcohol over it, and put in the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up well and mix thoroughly. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the print from stretching or cockling up under the influence of the gelatine.

The following paste agglutinant is one that is very permanent and useful for all purposes required in a photographic studio: Take 5 pints of water, 10 ounces of arrowroot, 1 ounce of gelatine, and a 1⁠/⁠2 pint (10 fluidounces) of alcohol, and proceed to combine them as follows: Make arrowroot into a thick cream with a little of the water, and in the remainder of the water soak the gelatine for a few hours, after which melt the gelatine in the water by heating it, add the arrowroot paste, and bring the mixture to the boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5 minutes, then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol, adding a few drops of oil of cloves.

Perhaps one of the most useful compounds for photographic purposes is that prepared as follows: Soak 4 ounces of hard gelatine in 15 ounces of water for a few hours, then melt the gelatine by heating it in a glue pot until the solution is quite clear and free from lumps, stir in 65 fluidounces of cold water so that it is free from lumps, and pour in the boiling-hot solution of gelatine and continue stirring, and if the starch is not completely cooked, boil up the mixture for a few minutes until it “blows,” being careful to keep it well stirred so as not to burn; when cold add a few drops of carbolic acid or some essential oil as an antiseptic to prevent the compound from decomposing or becoming sour.

A useful photographic mucilage, which is very liquid, is obtained by mixing equal bulks of gum-arabic and gum-dragon mucilages of the same consistence. The mixture of these mucilages will be considerably thinner than either of them when alone.

As an agglutinant for general use in the studio, the following is recommended: Dissolve 2 ounces of gum arabic in 5 ounces of water, and for every 250 parts of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solution of sulphate of aluminum, prepared by dissolving 1 part of the sulphate in 20 parts of water (common alum should not be used, only the pure aluminum sulphate, because common alum is a mixture of sulphates, and usually contaminated with iron salts). The addition of the sulphate solution to the gum mucilage renders the latter less hygroscopic, and practically waterproof, besides being very adhesive to any materials,

## particularly those exhibiting a smooth surface.

«MUCILAGES:»

«For Affixing Labels to Glass and Other Objects.»—I.—The mucilage is made by simply pouring over the gum enough water to a little more than cover it, and then, as the gum swells, adding more water from time to time in small portions, until the mucilage is brought to such consistency that it may be easily spread with the brush. The mucilage keeps fairly well without the addition of any antiseptic.

II.—Tragacanth 1 ounce Acacia 4 ounces Thymol 14 grains Glycerine 4 ounces Water, sufficient to make 2 pints

{43}

Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain and add the glycerine, in which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it sufficiently for use.

III.—Rye flour 8 ounces Powdered acacia 1 ounce Glycerine 2 ounces Oil of cloves 40 drops Water, a sufficient quantity.

Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of boiling water and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.

IV.—One part, by weight, of tragacanth, when mixed with 95-per-cent alcohol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a liquid in which a portion of the tragacanth is dissolved and the remainder suspended; this remains permanently fluid, never deteriorates, and can be used in place of the present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to each ounce of mixture is sufficient to suspend any of the insoluble substances usually given in mixtures.

V.—To 250 parts of gum-arabic mucilage add 20 parts of water and 2 parts of sulphate of alumina and heat until dissolved.

VI.—Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 pound gum tragacanth, powdered, 1⁠/⁠4 pound gum arabic, powdered, cold water to the desired consistency, and add 40 drops carbolic acid.

«Mucilage of Acacia.»—Put the gum, which should be of the best kind, in a flask the size of which should be large enough to contain the mucilage with about one-fifth of its space to spare (i. e., the product should fill it about four-fifths full). Now tare, and wash the gum with distilled water, letting the latter drain away as much as possible before proceeding further. Add the requisite quantity of distilled water slowly, which, however, should first have added to it about 10 per cent of limewater. Now cork the flask, and lay it, without shaking, horizontally in a cool place and let it remain quietly for about 3 hours, then give it a half turn to the right without disturbing its horizontal position. Repeat this operation three or four times during the day, and keep it up until the gum is completely dissolved (which will not be until the fourth day probably), then strain through a thin cloth previously wet with distilled water, avoiding, in so doing, the formation of foam or bubbles. This precaution should also be observed in decantation of the percolate into smaller bottles provided with paraffine corks. The small amount of limewater, as will be understood, is added to the solvent water in order to prevent the action of free acid.

«Commercial Mucilage.»—Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 pound white glue in equal parts water and strong vinegar, and add 1⁠/⁠4 as much alcohol and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce alum dissolved in a little water. To proceed, first get good glue and soak in cold water until it swells and softens. Use pale vinegar. Pour off the cold water, then melt the glue to a thick paste in hot water, and add the vinegar hot. When a little cool add the alcohol and alum water.

«To Render Gum Arabic More Adhesive.»—I.—Add crystallized aluminum sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved in 20 parts of water to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (75 parts of gum in 175 parts of water).

II.—Add to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (2 parts of gum in 5 parts of water) 2 parts of crystallized aluminum sulphate dissolved in 20 parts of water. This mixture glues even unsized paper, pasteboard on pasteboard, wood on wood, glass, porcelain, and other substances on which labels frequently do not adhere well.

«Envelope Gum.»—The gum used by the United States Government on postage stamps is probably one of the best that could be used not only for envelopes but for labels as well. It will stick to almost any surface. Its composition is said to be the following:

Gum arabic 1 part Starch 1 part Sugar 4 parts Water, sufficient to give the desired consistency.

The gum arabic is first dissolved in some water, the sugar added, then the starch, after which the mixture is boiled for a few minutes in order to dissolve the starch, after which it is thinned down to the desired consistency.

Cheaper envelope gums can be made by substituting dextrine for the gum arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding boric acid to preserve and help stiffen it.

«Mucilage to Make Wood and Pasteboard Adhere to Metals.»—Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of lead acetate together with 5 parts, by weight, of alum in a little water. Make a separate solution of 75 parts, by weight, of gum arabic in 2,000 parts, by weight, of water, stir in this 500 {44} parts, by weight, of flour, and heat slowly to boiling, stirring the while. Let it cool somewhat, and mix with it the solution containing the lead acetate and alum, stirring them well together.

«Preservation of Gum Solution.»—Put a small piece of camphor in the mucilage bottle. Camphor vapors are generated which kill all the bacterial germs that have entered the bottle. The gum maintains its adhesiveness to the last drop.

ADULTERANTS IN FOODS: See Foods.

ADUROL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

ÆSCO-QUININE: See Horse Chestnut.

AGAR AGAR PASTE: See Adhesives.

«AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL.»

Prepare a mixture or frit of 33 parts of quartz sand, 65 parts calcium phosphate, and 2 parts of potash. The frit, which has been reduced by heat to the fusing point, is finely ground, intimately mingled with a small quantity of kaolin and pressed in molds which yield button-shaped masses. These masses, after having been fired, are given a transparent glaze by any of the well-known processes.

AGATE (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.

AGING OF SILK: See Silk.

AGING, SILVER AND GOLD: See Plating.

«AIR BATH.»

This air bath is employed in cases in which, upon drying or heating substances, acid vapors arise because the walls of the bath are not attacked by them. For the production of the drying apparatus take a flask with the bottom burst off or a bell jar tubulated above. This is placed either upon a sand bath or upon asbestos paper, previously laid upon a piece of sheet iron. The sand bath or the sheet iron is put on a tripod, so that it can be heated by means of a burner placed underneath. The substance to be dried is placed in a glass or porcelain dish, which is put under the bell jar, and if desired the drying dish may be hung on the tripod. For regulating the temperature the tubulure of the jar is closed with a pierced cork, through whose aperture the thermometer is thrust. In order to permit the vapors to escape, the cork is grooved lengthwise along the periphery.

AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE: See Gelatine.

AIR, EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLUTIONS: See Photography.

«AIR-PURIFYING.»

«Ozonatine» is a fragrant air-purifying preparation consisting of dextrogyrate turpentine oil scented with slight quantities of fragrant oils.

ALABASTER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ALBATA METAL: See Alloys.

«ALBUMEN IN URINE, DETECTION OF.»

Patein (_Pharm. Zeit._) recommends the following test for albumen in urine: Dissolve 250 grams of citric acid in a sufficient quantity of water, add enough ammonia to neutralize, then 50 grams of alcohol, and finally enough water to make 1 liter. To the acid (or acidulated) urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammonium-citrate solution made as above is added, and the whole heated in the usual manner. The appearance of the faintest turbidity is said to indicate with positive certainty the presence of albumen.

ALBUMEN PAPER: See Photography.

ALBUMEN PASTE: See Adhesives.

«Alcohol»

After the manuscript of this book was ready for the press, Congress passed the bill which has since become a law, whereby the prohibitive tax on industrial or denatured alcohol is removed. So important is this legislative measure that the Editor has deemed it wise to insert an article on the sources of alcohol and the manufacture of alcohol from farm products. Because the first portion of the book was in type when this step was decided upon, the Editor was compelled to relegate to a later page a monograph which should properly have appeared here. The reader will find the matter on alcohol referred to under the heading {45} “Spirit”; likewise methods of denaturing and a list of denaturants.

ALCOHOL, DILUTION OF: See Tables.

«Alcohol, Tests for Absolute.»—The committee for the compilation of the German Arzneibuch established the following tests for the determination of absolute alcohol:

Absolute alcohol is a clear, colorless, volatile, readily imflammable liquid which burns with a faintly luminous flame. Absolute alcohol has a peculiar odor, a burning taste, and does not affect litmus paper. Boiling point, 78.50. Specific gravity, 0.795 to 0.797. One hundred parts contain 99.7 to 99.4 parts, by volume, or 99.6 to 99.0 parts, by weight, of alcohol.

Absolute alcohol should have no foreign smell and should mix with water without cloudiness.

After the admixture of 5 drops of silver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not become turbid or colored even on heating.

A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic centimeter of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic centimeter should not exhibit an odor of fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute sulphuric acid.

Five cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, carefully covered, in a test tube, with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol, should not form a rose-colored zone at the surface of contact, even on standing for some time.

The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 1 cubic centimeter of potassium-permanganate solution should not pass into yellow before 20 minutes.

Absolute alcohol should not be dyed by hydrogen sulphide water or by aqueous ammonia.

Five cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not leave behind a weighable residue after evaporation on water bath.

«Absolute Alcohol.»—If gelatine be suspended in ordinary alcohol it will absorb the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol, that substance will remain behind, and thus nearly absolute alcohol will be obtained without distillation.

«Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol.»—

East India lemon oil 1,250 parts Mirbane oil 1,000 parts Cassia oil 50 parts Clove oil 75 parts Lemon oil 100 parts Amyl acetate 500 parts Spirit (95 per cent) 7,000 parts

Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add the amyl acetate. The mixture serves for destroying the bad odor of denaturized spirit in distilling. Use 50 parts of the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit.

«Solid Alcohol.»—I.—Heat 1,000 parts of denaturized alcohol (90 per cent) in a flask of double the capacity on the water bath to about 140° F., and then mix with 28 to 30 parts of well-dried, rasped Venetian soap and 2 parts of gum lac. After repeated shaking, complete dissolution will take place. The solution is put, while still warm, into metallic vessels, closing them up at once and allowing the mixture to cool therein. The admixture of gum lac effects a better preservation and also prevents the evaporation of the alcohol. On lighting the solid spirit the soap remains behind.

II.—Smaragdine is a trade name for solidified alcohol. It consists of alcohol and gun cotton, colored with malachite green. It appears in the market in the form of small cubes.

«Alcohol in Fermented Beers.»—Experience has shown that 1⁠/⁠4 pound of sugar to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent of proof spirit, or about 1 per cent of absolute alcohol. Beyond this amount it is not safe to go, if the legal limit is to be observed, yet a ginger beer brewed with 1⁠/⁠4 pound per gallon of sugar would be a very wishy-washy compound, and there is little doubt that a much larger quantity is generally used. The more sugar that is used—up to 1 1⁠/⁠2 or 1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds per gallon—the better the drink will be and the more customers will relish it; but it will be as “strong” as lager and contain perhaps 5 per cent of alcohol, which will make it anything but a “temperance” drink. Any maker who is using as much as even 1⁠/⁠2 pound of sugar per gallon is bound to get more spirit than the law allows. Meanwhile it is scarcely accurate to term ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic.

«Alcohol Deodorizer.»—

Alcohol 160 ounces Powdered quicklime 300 grains Powdered alum 150 grains Spirit of nitrous ether 1 1⁠/⁠4 drachms

Mix the lime and alum intimately by trituration; add the alcohol and shake well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether; set aside for 7 days and filter through animal charcoal.

«Denaturized Alcohol.»—There are two general classes or degrees of denaturizing, viz., the “complete” and the “incomplete,” according to the purpose for {46} which the alcohol so denaturized is to be ultimately used.

I.—Complete denaturization by the German system is accomplished by the addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26 1⁠/⁠2 gallons) of spirits:

(_a_) Two and one-half liters of the “standard” denaturizer, made of 4 parts of wood alcohol, 1 part of pyridine (a nitrogenous base obtained by distilling bone oil or coal tar), with the addition of 50 grams to each liter of oil of lavender or rosemary.

(_b_) One and one-fourth liters of the above “standard” and 2 liters of benzol with every 100 liters of alcohol.

II.—Incomplete denaturization—i. e., sufficient to prevent alcohol from being drunk, but not to disqualify it from use for various special purposes, for which the wholly denaturized spirits would be unavailable—is accomplished by several methods as follows, the quantity and nature of each substance given being the prescribed dose for each 100 liters (26 1⁠/⁠2 gallons) of spirits:

(_c_) Five liters of wood alcohol or 1⁠/⁠2 liter of pyridine.

(_d_) Twenty liters of solution of shellac, containing 1 part gum to 2 parts alcohol of 90-per-cent purity. Alcohol for the manufacture of celluloid and pegamoid is denaturized.

(_e_) By the addition of 1 kilogram of camphor or 2 liters oil of turpentine or 1⁠/⁠2 liter benzol to each 100 liters of spirits. Alcohol to be used in the manufacture of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white lead, bromo-silver gelatines, photographic papers and plates, electrode plates, collodion, salicylic acid and salts, aniline chemistry, and a great number of other purposes, is denaturized by the addition of—

(_f_) Ten liters sulphuric ether, or 1 part of benzol, or 1⁠/⁠2 part oil of turpentine, or 0.025 part of animal oil.

For the manufacture of varnishes and inks alcohol is denaturized by the addition of oil of turpentine or animal oil, and for the production of soda soaps by the addition of 1 kilogram of castor oil. Alcohol for the production of lanolin is prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to each hectoliter of spirits.

«ALE.»

The ale of the modern brewer is manufactured in several varieties, which are determined by the wants of the consumer and the particular market for which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East India, Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough fermentation, contain only a small quantity of undecomposed sugar and gum, varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly “hopped” or “bittered,” the further to promote their preservation during transit and change of temperature. Mild or sweet ales, on the contrary, are less accentuated by lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine and gummy matter. They are, therefore, more nutritious, though less intoxicating, than those previously referred to.

In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale malt and the best hops of the current season’s growth are always employed; and when it is desired to produce a liquor possessing little color, very great attention is paid to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conducted with more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and in warm weather, when a slight color is not objectionable, one-fifth, or even one-fourth of amber malt may be advantageously employed. From 4 1⁠/⁠2 to 6 pounds of hops is the quantity commonly used to the one-fourth of malt, for ordinary ales; and 7 pounds to 10 pounds for “keeping” ales. The proportions, however, must greatly depend on the intended quality and description of the brewing and the period that will be allowed for its maturation.

The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8 per cent of “absolute alcohol”; ordinary strong ale, 4 1⁠/⁠2 to 6 per cent; mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale, 1 to 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent (each by volume); together with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop, some acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and variable quantities of mineral and saline matter.

Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale), sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 pounds of crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse strainer and become lukewarm, is fermented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely bunged up for draft or is at once put into strong stoneware bottles, which are then well corked and wired.

White ale is said to be very nutritious, though apt to prove laxative to those {47} unaccustomed to its use. It is drunk in a state of effervescence or lively fermentation; the glass or cup containing it being kept in constant motion, when removed from the mouth, until the whole is consumed, in order that the thicker portion may not subside to the bottom.

ALE, GINGER: See Beverages.

ALFENIDE METAL: See Alloys.

ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT: See Soaps.

ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO: See Atropine.

«Alloys»

No general rules can be given for alloying metals. Alloys differing greatly in fusibility are commonly made by adding the more fusible ones, either in the melted state or in small portions at a time, to the other melted or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually effected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction and prevent volatilization and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus, in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown upon the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac; and in combining some metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Mercury or quicksilver combines with many metals in the cold, forming AMALGAMS, or easily fusible alloys (q. v.).

Alloys generally possess characteristics unshared by their component metals. Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which has a different density, hardness, and color from either of its constituents. Whether the metals tend to unite in atomic proportions or in any definite ratio is still undetermined. The evidence afforded by the natural alloys of gold and silver, and by the phenomena accompanying the cooling of several alloys from the state of fusion, goes far to prove that such is the case (Rudberg). The subject is, however, one of considerable difficulty, as metals and metallic compounds are generally soluble in each other, and unite by simple fusion and contact. That they do not combine indifferently with each other, but exercise a species of elective affinity not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly shown by the homogeneity and superior quality of many alloys in which the constituent metals are in atomic proportion. The variation of the specific gravity and melting points of alloys from the mean of those of their component metals also affords strong evidence of a chemical change having taken place. Thus, alloys generally melt at lower temperatures than their separate metals. They also usually possess more tenacity and hardness than the mean of their constituents.

Matthiessen found that when weights are suspended to spirals of hard-drawn wire made of copper, gold, or platinum, they become nearly straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal dimensions composed of copper-tin (12 per cent of tin), silver-platinum (36 per cent of platinum), and gold-copper (84 per cent of copper) scarcely undergo any permanent change in form when subjected to tension by the same weight.

The same chemist gives the following approximate results upon the tenacity of certain metals and wires hard-drawn through the same gauge (No. 23):

Pounds Copper, breaking strain 25–30 Tin, breaking strain under 7 Lead, breaking strain under 7 Tin-lead (20% lead) about 7 Tin-copper (12% copper) about 7 Copper-tin (12% tin) about 80–90 Gold (12% tin) 20–25 Gold-copper (8.4% copper) 70–75 Silver (8.4% copper) 45–50 Platinum (8.4% copper) 45–50 Silver-platinum (30% platinum) 75–80

On the other hand, the malleability, ductility, and power of resisting oxygen of alloys is generally diminished. The alloy formed of two brittle metals is always brittle; that of a brittle and a ductile metal, generally so; and even two ductile metals sometimes unite to form a brittle compound. The alloys formed of metals having different fusing points are usually malleable while cold and brittle while hot. The action of the air on alloys is generally less than on their simple metals, unless the former are heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely acted on at common temperatures; but at a red heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when strongly heated, decomposes both moist air and steam with rapidity.

The specific gravity of alloys is rarely {48} the arithmetical mean of that of their constituents, as commonly taught; and in many cases considerable condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong affinity between two metals, the density of their alloy is generally greater than the calculated mean; and vice versa, as may be seen in the following table:

ALLOYS HAVING A DENSITY Greater than the Mean of their Constituents:

Copper and bismuth, Copper and palladium, Copper and tin, Copper and zinc, Gold and antimony, Gold and bismuth, Gold and cobalt, Gold and tin, Gold and zinc, Lead and antimony, Palladium and bismuth, Silver and antimony, Silver and bismuth, Silver and lead, Silver and tin, Silver and zinc.

Less than the Mean of their Constituents:

Gold and copper, Gold and iridium, Gold and iron, Gold and lead, Gold and nickel, Gold and silver, Iron and antimony, Iron and bismuth, Iron and lead, Nickel and arsenic, Silver and copper, Tin and antimony, Tin and lead, Tin and palladium, Zinc and antimony.

«Compounding Alloys.»—Considerable experience is necessary to insure success in compounding alloys, especially when the metals employed vary greatly in fusibility and volatility. The following are rules supplied by an experienced workman:

1. Melt the least fusible, oxidizable, and volatile first, and then add the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. Thus, if it is desired to make an alloy of exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc, it will be impossible to do so by putting proportions of the metals in a crucible and exposing the whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly off in vapor before the copper was melted. First, melt the copper and add the zinc, which has been melted in another crucible. The zinc should be in excess, as some of it will be lost anyway.

2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc, copper and arsenic, may be formed by exposing heated plates of the least fusible metal to the vapor of the other. In making brass in the large way, thin plates of copper are dissolved, as it were, in melted zinc until the proper proportions have been obtained.

3. The surface of all oxidizable metals should be covered with some protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones, rosin for lead and tin, charcoal for zinc, copper, etc.

4. Stir the metal before casting and if possible, when casting, with a whitewood stick; this is much better for the purpose than an iron rod.

5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new. If the alloy is required to make sharp castings and strength is not a very great object, the proportion of old alloy to the new should be increased. In all cases a new or thoroughly well-cleansed crucible should be used.

To obtain metals and metallic alloys from their compounds, such as oxides, sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately patented makes use of the reducing qualities of aluminum or its alloys with magnesium. The finely powdered material (e. g., chromic oxide) is placed in a crucible mixed with aluminum oxide. The mixture is set afire by means of a soldering pipe or a burning magnesium wire, and the desired reaction takes place. For igniting, one may also employ with advantage a special priming cartridge consisting of pulverized aluminum to which a little magnesium may be mixed, and peroxide of magnesia, which is shaped into balls and lighted with a magnesium wire. By suitable additions to the pulverized mixture, alloys containing aluminum, magnetism, chromium, manganese, copper, iron, boron, silicic acid, etc., are obtained.

«ALUMINUM ALLOYS.»

M. H. Pecheux has contributed to the _Comptes Rendus_, from time to time, the results of his investigations into the alloys of aluminum with soft metals, and the following constitutes a brief summary of his observations:

«Lead.»—When aluminum is melted and lead is added in proportion greater than 10 per cent, the metals separate on cooling into three layers—lead, aluminum, and between them an alloy containing from 90 to 97 per cent of aluminum. {49} The alloys with 93, 95, and 98 per cent have densities of 2.745, 2.674, and 2.600 respectively, and melting points near that of aluminum. Their color is like that of aluminum, but they are less lustrous. All are malleable, easily cut, softer than aluminum, and have a granular fracture. On remelting they become somewhat richer in lead, through a tendency to liquation. They do not oxidize in moist air, nor at their melting points. They are attacked in the cold by hydrochloric and by strong sulphuric acid, with evolution of hydrogen, and by strong nitric acid when hot; strong solution of potassium hydroxide also attacks them. They are without action on distilled water, whether cold or hot.

«Zinc.»—Well-defined alloys were obtained, corresponding to the formulas Zn_〈3〉Al, Zn_〈2〉Al, ZnAl, ZnAl_〈2〉, ZnAl_〈3〉, ZnAl_〈4〉, ZnAl_〈6〉, ZnAl_〈10〉, ZnAl_〈12〉. Their melting points and densities all lie between those of zinc and aluminum, and those containing most zinc are the hardest. They are all dissolved by cold hydrochloric acid and by hot dilute nitric acid. Cold concentrated nitric acid attacks the first three, and cold dilute acid the first five. The Zn_〈3〉Al, ZnAl_〈6〉, ZnAl_〈10〉, and ZnAl_〈12〉 are only slightly affected by cold potassium-hydroxide solution; the others are strongly attacked, potassium zincate and aluminate probably being formed.

«Tin.»—A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy plunged in cold water gives off for some minutes bubbles of gas, composed of hydrogen and oxygen in explosive proportions. An unfiled rod, or a filed rod of either aluminum or tin, is without action, though the unfiled rod of alloy will act on boiling water. The filed rod of alloy, in faintly acid solution of copper or zinc sulphate, becomes covered with a deposit of copper or zinc, while bubbles of oxygen are given off. M. Pecheux believes that the metals are truly alloyed only at the surface, and that filing lays bare an almost infinitely numerous series of junctions of the two metals, which, heated by the filing, act as thermocouples.

«Bismuth.»—By the method used for lead, bismuth alloys were obtained containing 75, 85, 88, and 94 per cent of aluminum, with densities 2.86, 2.79, 2.78, and 2.74 respectively. They were sonorous, brittle, finely grained, and homogeneous, silver-white, and with melting points between those of their constituents, but nearer that of aluminum. They are not oxidized in air at the temperature of casting, but are readily attacked by acids, concentrated or dilute, and by potassium-hydroxide solution. The filed alloys behave like those of tin, but still more markedly.

«Magnesium.»—These were obtained with 66, 68, 73, 77, and 85 per cent of aluminum, and densities 2.24, 2.47, 2.32, 2.37, 2.47. They are brittle, with large granular fracture, silver-white, file well, take a good polish, and have melting points near that of aluminum. Being viscous when melted, they are difficult to cast, and when slowly cooled form a gray, spongy mass which cannot be remelted. They do not oxidize in air at the ordinary temperatures, but burn readily at a bright-red heat. They are attacked violently by acids and by potassium-hydroxide solution, decompose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly decompose water even in the cold.

«Tin, Bismuth, and Magnesium.»—The action of water on these alloys just referred to has been recently demonstrated on a larger scale, 5 to 6 cubic centimeters of hydrogen having been obtained in 20 minutes from 2 cubic centimeters of the filed tin alloy. The bismuth alloy yielded more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and the magnesium alloy more than the bismuth alloy. The oxygen of the decomposed water unites with the aluminum. Larger quantities of hydrogen are obtained from copper-sulphate solution, apart from the decomposition of this solution by precipitation of copper at the expense of the metal alloyed with the aluminum. The alloys of aluminum with zinc and lead do not decompose pure water, but do decompose the water of copper-sulphate solution, and, more slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution.

Aluminum is a metal whose properties are very materially influenced by a proportionately small addition of copper. Alloys of 99 per cent aluminum and 1 per cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish in color; 95 per cent of aluminum and 5 per cent of copper give an alloy which can be hammered, but with 10 percent of copper the metal can no longer be worked. With 80 per cent and upward of copper are obtained alloys of a beautiful yellow color, and these mixtures, containing from 5 to 10 percent of aluminum and from 90 to 95 per cent of copper, are the genuine aluminum bronzes. The 10-per-cent alloys are of a pure golden-yellow color; with 5 per cent of aluminum they are reddish yellow, like gold heavily alloyed with copper, and a 2-per-cent admixture is of an almost pure copper red. {50} As the proportion of copper increases, the brittleness is diminished, and alloys containing 10 per cent and less of aluminum can be used for industrial purposes, the best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and 10 of aluminum. The hardness of this alloy approaches that of the general bronzes, whence its name. It can be stretched out into thin sheets between rollers, worked under the hammer, and shaped as desired by beating or pressure, in powerful stamping presses. On account of its hardness it takes a fine polish, and its peculiar greenish-gold color resembles that of gold alloyed with copper and silver together.

Alloys with a still greater proportion of copper approach this metal more and more nearly in their character; the color of an alloy, for instance, composed of 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of aluminum, can be distinguished from pure gold only by direct comparison, and the metal is very hard, and also very malleable.

«Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys.»—During three years’ exposure to the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys in one test gradually diminished in conductivity in proportion to the amount of copper they contained. The nickel-copper aluminum alloys, which show such remarkably increased tensile strength as compared with good commercial aluminum, considerably diminished in total conductivity. On the other hand, the manganese-copper aluminum alloys suffered comparatively little diminution in total conductivity, and one of them retained comparatively high tensile strength. It was thought that an examination of the structure of these alloys by aid of microphotography might throw some light on the great difference which exists between some of their physical properties. For instance, a nickel-copper aluminum alloy has 1.6 times the tensile strength of ordinary commercial aluminum. Under a magnification of 800 diameters practically no structure could be discovered. Considering the remarkable crystalline structure exhibited by ordinary commercial aluminum near the surface of an ingot, when allowed to solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of structure in these alloys must be attributed to the process of drawing down. The inference is that the great difference which exists between their tensile strengths and other qualities is not due to variation in structure.

«Colored Alloys of Aluminum.»—A purple scintillating composition is produced by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22 parts aluminum. With platinum a gold-colored alloy is obtained; with palladium a copper-colored one; and with cobalt and nickel one of a yellow color. Easily fusible metals of the color of aluminum give white alloys. Metal difficult of fusion, such as iridium, osmium, titanium, etc., appear in abnormal tones of color through such alloyages.

«Aluminum-Brass.»—Aluminum, 1 per cent; specific gravity, 8.35; tensile strength, 40. Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific gravity, 8.33; tensile strength, 65. The last named is harder than the first.

«Aluminum-Copper.»—Minikin is principally aluminum with a small percentage of copper and nickel. It is alloyed by mixing the aluminum and copper, then adding the nickel. It resembles palladium and is very strong.

«Aluminum-Silver.»—I.—Silver, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. A handsome color.

II.—A silver aluminum that is easily worked into various articles contains about one-fourth silver and three-fourths of aluminum.

«Aluminum-Tin.»—Bourbon metal is composed of equal parts of aluminum and tin; it solders readily.

«Aluminum-Tungsten.»—A new metal alloy consisting of aluminum and tungsten is used of late in France in the construction of conveyances, especially carriages, bicycles, and motor vehicles. The French call it partinium; the composition of the new alloy varies according to the purposes for which it is used. It is considerably cheaper than aluminum, almost as light, and has a greater resistance. The strength is stated at 32 to 37 kilograms per square millimeter.

«Aluminum-Zinc.»—Zinc, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. Very ductile, white, and harder than aluminum.

AMALGAMS: See Fusible Alloys.

«Anti-Friction Bearing or Babbitt Metals.»—These alloys are usually supported by bearings of brass, into which it is poured after they have been tinned, and heated and put together with an exact model of the axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being previously applied, in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mold. Soft gun metal is also excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all become less heated in working than the {51} harder metals, and less grease or oil is consequently required when they are used.

I.—An anti-friction metal of excellent quality and one that has been used with success is made as follows: 17 parts zinc; 1 part copper; 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts antimony; prepared in the following way: Melt the copper in a small crucible, then add the antimony, and lastly the zinc, care being taken not to burn the zinc. Burning can be prevented by allowing the copper and antimony to cool slightly before adding the zinc. This metal is preferably cast into the shape desired and is not used as a lining metal because it requires too great a heat to pour. It machines nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing surfaces. It has the appearance of aluminum when finished. Use a lubricating oil made from any good grade of machine oil to which 3 parts of kerosene have been added.

II.—Copper, 6 parts; tin, 12 parts; lead, 150 parts; antimony, 30 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. For certain purposes the composition is modified as follows: Copper, 16 parts; tin, 40 parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony, 24 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. In both cases the wrought iron is cut up in small pieces, and in this state it will melt readily in fused copper and cast iron. After the mixture has been well stirred, the tin, lead, and antimony are added; these are previously melted in separate crucibles, and when mingled the whole mass is again stirred thoroughly. The product may then be run into ingots, to be employed when needed. When run into the molds the surface should be well skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes rapidly. The proportions may be varied without materially affecting the results.

III.—From tin, 16 to 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; fused together, and then blended with copper, 80 parts. Used where there is much friction or high velocity.

IV.—Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; copper, 20 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to violent shocks.

V.—Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to heat.

VI.—Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part.

VII.—(Fenton’s.) Tin, with some zinc, and a little copper.

VIII.—(Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or without a small portion of antimony or copper. Without the last it is apt to spread out under the weight of heavy machinery. Used for the bearings of locomotives, etc.

The following two compositions are for motor and dynamo shafts: 100 pounds tin; 10 pounds copper; 10 pounds antimony.

83 1⁠/⁠2 pounds tin; 8 1⁠/⁠4 pounds antimony; 8 1⁠/⁠4 pounds copper.

IX.—Lead, 75 parts; antimony, 23 parts; tin, 2 parts.

X.—Magnolia Metal.—This is composed of 40 parts of lead, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts of antimony, 2 1⁠/⁠2 of tin, 1⁠/⁠8 of bismuth, 1⁠/⁠8 of aluminum, and 1⁠/⁠4 of graphite. It is used as an anti-friction metal, and takes its name from its manufacturer’s mark, a magnolia flower.

ARGENTAN: See German Silver, under this title.

«BELL METAL.»

The composition of bell metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:

I.—(Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; fused together and cast. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition.

II.—(Founder’s Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts. Slightly paler and inferior to No. I.

III.—Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, etc.

IV.—Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, etc.

V.—Copper, 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) part. Somewhat brittle. In fracture, semivitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large bells.

VI.—Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10 1⁠/⁠4 parts; zinc, 5 1⁠/⁠2 parts; lead, 4 1⁠/⁠4 parts. English bell metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of the alloy.

VII.—Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts. Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash-gray. Best proportions for house bells, hand bells, etc.; for which, however, 2 of copper and 1 of tin is commonly substituted by the founders.

VIII.—Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 1⁠/⁠2 parts; iron, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts. Used by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks.

IX.—Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small bells.

X.—Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; {52} zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeating watches.

XI.—Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the required object, it should be made red-hot, and then plunged immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

XII.—Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be hammered out with frequent annealing.

XIII.—Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; This is superior to the former, and it can be rolled out. For tam-tams and gongs.

XIV.—Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron 1⁠/⁠44 part. Used in making the bells of ornamental French clocks.

Castings in bell metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent, have a color varying from a dark ash-gray to grayish-white, which is darkest in the more cuprous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often used to modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crystalline grain to the alloy. All these conditions are, however, prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence M. D’Arcet recommends that the “pieces” be heated to a cherry-red after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, that they be submitted to well-regulated pressure by skillful hammering, until they assume their proper form; after which they are to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, etc., a casing of sheet iron being employed by them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use commercially pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; while that of silver increases it.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform through its whole substance; nor can the specific gravity from any given portion of its constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or, in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer-toned will be the bell. In general, it is found necessary to take about one-tenth more metal than the weight of the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the operations of fusing and casting.

«BISMUTH ALLOYS.»

Bismuth possesses the unusual quality of expanding in cooling. It is, therefore, introduced in many alloys to reduce or check shrinkage in the mold.

For delicate castings, and for taking impressions from dies, medals, etc., various bismuth alloys are in use, whose composition corresponds to the following figures:

I II III IV Bismuth 6 5 2 8 Tin 3 2 1 3 Lead 13 3 1 5

V.—Cliché Metal.—This alloy is composed of tin, 48 parts; lead, 32.5; bismuth, 9; and antimony, 10.5. It is especially well adapted to dabbing rollers for printing cotton goods, and as it possesses a considerable degree of hardness, it wears well.

VI.—For filling out defective places in metallic castings, an alloy of bismuth 1 part, antimony 3, lead 8, can be advantageously used.

VII.—For Cementing Glass.—Most of the cements in ordinary use are dissolved, or at least softened, by petroleum. An alloy of lead 3 parts, tin 2, bismuth 2.5, melting at 212° F., is not affected by petroleum, and is therefore very useful for cementing lamps made of metal and glass combined.

LIPOWITZ’S BISMUTH ALLOY: See Cadmium Alloys.

«BRASS.»

In general brass is composed of two-thirds copper and one-third zinc, but a little lead or tin is sometimes advantageous, as the following:

I.—Red copper, 66 parts; zinc, 34 parts; lead, 1 part.

II.—Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.

III.—Copper, 64.5 parts; zinc, 33.5 parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 0.5 part.

«Brass-Aluminum.»—A small addition of aluminum to brass (1.5 to 8 per cent) {53} greatly increases its hardness and elasticity, and this alloy is also easily worked for any purpose. Brass containing 8 per cent of aluminum has the valuable property of being but slightly affected by acids or gases. A larger percentage of aluminum makes the brass brittle. It is to be noted that aluminum brass decreases very materially in volume in casting, and the casts must be cooled slowly or they will be brittle. It is an alloy easily made, and its low price, combined with its excellent qualities, would seem to make it in many cases an advantageous substitute for the expensive phosphorous bronze.

«Bristol Brass (Prince’s Metal).»—This alloy, which possesses properties similar to those of French brass, is prepared in the following proportions:

I II III Copper 75.7 67.2 60.8 Zinc 24.3 32.8 39.2

## Particular care is required to prevent the zinc from evaporating during

the fusing, and for this purpose it is customary to put only half of it into the first melting, and to add the remainder when the first mass is liquefied.

«Brass-Iron (Aich’s Metal).»—This is a variety of brass with an admixture of iron, which gives it a considerable degree of tenacity. It is especially adapted for purposes which require a hard and, at the same time, tenacious metal. Analyses of the various kinds of this metal show considerable variation in the proportions. Even the amount of iron, to which the hardening effect must be attributed, may vary within wide limits without materially modifying the tenacity which is the essential characteristic of this alloy.

I.—The best variety of Aich’s metal consists of copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.8. The predominating quality of this alloy is its hardness, which is claimed to be not inferior to that of certain kinds of steel. It has a beautiful golden-yellow color, and is said not to oxidize easily, a valuable property for articles exposed to the action of air and water.

II.—Copper, 60.2 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.6. The permissible variations in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 3 per cent.

Sterro metal may properly be considered in connection with Aich’s metal, since its constituents are the same and its properties very similar. The principal difference between the two metals is that sterro metal contains a much larger amount of iron. The composition of this alloy varies considerably with different manufacturers.

III.—Two varieties of excellent quality are the product of the Rosthorn factory, in Lower Austria—copper, 55.33 parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66. Also

IV.—English sterro metal (Gedge’s alloy for ship sheathing), copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.125; iron, 1.5.

The great value of this alloy lies in its strength, which is equaled only by that of the best steel. As an illustration of this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the enormous pressure of 763 atmospheres without cracking. Besides its remarkable strength, it possesses a high degree of elasticity, and is, therefore, particularly suitable for purposes which require the combination of these two qualities, such as the construction of hydraulic cylinders. It is well known that these cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to sweat, that is, the interior pressure is so great that the water permeates through the pores of the steel. With a sterro metal cylinder, the pressure can be considerably increased without any moisture being perceptible on the outside of the cylinder.

Sterro metal can be made even more hard and dense, if required for special purposes, but this is effected rather by mechanical manipulation than by any change in the chemical composition. If rolled or hammered in heat, its strength is increased, and it acquires, in addition, an exceedingly high degree of tenacity. Special care must be taken, however, in hammering not to overheat the metal, as in this case it would become brittle and might crack under the hammer. Sterro metal is especially suitable for all the purposes for which the so-called red metal has been in the past almost exclusively used. Axle bearings, for example, made of sterro metal have such excellent qualities that many machine factories are now using this material entirely for the purpose.

«Cast Brass.»—The various articles of bronze, so called, statuettes, clock cases, etc., made in France, where this industry has attained great perfection and extensive proportions, are not, in many cases, genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. Following are the compositions of a few mixtures of metals most frequently used by French manufacturers:

Copper Zinc Tin Lead I 63.70 33.55 2.50 0.25 II 64.45 32.44 0.25 2.86 III 70.90 24.05 2.00 3.05 IV 72.43 22.75 1.87 2.95

{54}

Their special advantage is that they can be readily cast, worked with file and chisel, and easily gilded.

«To Cast Yellow Brass.»—If good, clean, yellow brass sand castings are desired, the brass should not contain over 30 per cent of zinc. This will assure an alloy of good color and one which will run free and clean. Tin or lead may be added without affecting the property of casting clean. A mixture of 7 pounds of copper, 3 pounds of spelter, 4 ounces of tin, and 3 ounces of lead makes a good casting alloy and one which will cut free and is strong. If a stronger alloy be desired, more tin may be added, but 4 ounces is usually sufficient. If the alloy be too hard, reduce the proportion of tin.

«Leaf Brass.»—This alloy is also called Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts; zinc, 15.5 to 22.25. Its color is pale or bright yellow or greenish, according to the proportions of the metals. It has an unusual degree of ductility.

«Malleable Brass.»—This metal is affected less by sea water than pure copper, and was formerly much used for ship sheathing, and for making nails and rivets which were to come in contact with sea water. At the present day it has lost much of its importance, since all the larger ships are made of steel. It is usually composed of copper, 60 to 62 parts; and zinc, 40 to 38 parts. It is sometimes called yellow metal, or Müntz metal (called after its inventor), and is prepared with certain precautions, directed toward obtaining as fine a grain as possible, experience having shown that only a fine-grained alloy of uniform density can resist the action of the sea water evenly. A metal of uneven density will wear in holes. To obtain as uniform a grain as possible, small samples taken from the fused mass are cooled quickly and examined as to fracture. If they do not show the desired uniform grain, some zinc is added to the mass. After it has permeated the whole mass, a fresh sample is taken and tested, this being continued until the desired result is reached. It is scarcely necessary to remark that considerable experience is required to tell the correct composition of the alloy from the fracture. The mass is finally poured into molds and rolled cold. Malleable brass can be worked warm, like iron, being ductile in heat, a valuable quality.

Experiments with malleable brass show that all alloys containing up to 58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67 per cent of zinc are malleable. There is, in addition, a second group of such alloys, with 61.54 per cent of copper and 38.46 per cent of zinc, which are also malleable in heat.

The preparation of these alloys requires considerable experience, and is best accomplished by melting the metals together in the usual manner, and heating the fused mass as strongly as possible. It must be covered with a layer of charcoal dust to prevent oxidation of the zinc. The mass becomes thinly fluid, and an intimate mixture of the constituents is effected. Small pieces of the same alloy are thrown into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a reflecting surface, when it is cast into ingots in iron molds. The ingots are plunged into water while still red-hot, and acquire by this treatment a very high degree of ductility. The alloy, properly prepared, has a fibrous fracture and a reddish-yellow color.

«Sheet Brass» (For Sheet and Wire).—In the preparation of brass for the manufacture of wire, an especially pure quality of copper must be used; without this, all efforts to produce a suitable quality of brass will be in vain. That pure copper is indispensable to the manufacture of good, ductile brass may be seen from the great difference in the composition of the various kinds, all of which answer their purpose, but contain widely varying quantities of copper and zinc. The following table shows the composition of some excellent qualities of brass suitable for making sheet and wire:

───────────────────+──────+──────+──────+───── Brass Sheet—Source │Copper│ Zinc │ Lead │ Tin ───────────────────+──────+──────+──────+───── Jemappes │ 64.6 │ 33.7 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 Stolberg │ 64.8 │ 32.8 │ 2.0 │ 0.4 Romilly │ 70.1 │ 29.26│ 0.38 │ 0.17 Rosthorn (Vienna) │ 68.1 │ 31.9 │ — │ — Rosthorn (Vienna) │ 71.5 │ 28.5 │ — │ — Rosthorn (Vienna) │ 71.1 │ 27.6 │ 1.3 │ — Iserlohn & Romilly │ 70.1 │ 29.9 │ — │ — Lüdenscheid │ 72.73│ 27.27│ — │ — (Brittle) │ 63.66│ 33.02│ 2.52 │ — Hegermühl │ 70.16│ 27.45│ 0.79 │ 0.20 Oker │ 68.98│ 29.54│ 0.97 │ — │ │ │ │ Brass Wire— │ │ │ │ England │ 70.29│ 29.26│ 0.28 │ 0.17 Augsburg │ 71.89│ 27.63│ 0.85 │ — Neustadt │ 70.16│ 27.45│ 0.2 │ 0.79 Neustadt │ 71.36│ 28.15│ — │ — Neustadt │ 71.5 │ 28.5 │ — │ — Neustadt │ 71.0 │ 27.6 │ — │ — (Good quality) │ 65.4 │ 34.6 │ — │ — (Brittle) │ 65.5 │ 32.4 │ 2.1 │ — For wire and sheet │ 67.0 │ 32.0 │ 0.5 │ 0.5 ───────────────────+──────+──────+──────+─────

{55}

As the above figures show, the percentage of zinc in the different kinds of brass lies between 27 and 34. Recently, alloys containing a somewhat larger quantity of zinc have been used, it having been found that the toughness and ductility of the brass are increased thereby, without injury to its tenacity. Alloys containing up to 37 per cent of zinc possess a high degree of ductility in the cold, and are well adapted for wire and sheet.

«Gilders’ Sheet Brass.»—Copper, 1 part; zinc, 1 part; tin, 1⁠/⁠10 part; lead, 1⁠/⁠10 part. Very readily fusible and very dense.

«White Brass.»—Birmingham platina is an alloy of a pure white, almost silver-white color, remaining unaffected by tolerably long exposure to the atmosphere. Unfortunately this alloy is so brittle that it can rarely be shaped except by casting. It is used only in the manufacture of buttons. The alloy is poured into molds giving rather sharp impressions and allowing the design on the button (letters or coat of arms) to stand out prominently with careful stamping. The composition of this alloy, also known by the name of platinum lead, is as follows:

I II Copper 46.5 4 Zinc 53.5 16

III.—Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 10 parts; iron, 10 parts.

«BRITANNIA METAL.»

Britannia metal is an alloy consisting principally of tin and antimony. Many varieties contain only these two metals, and may be considered simply as tin hardened with antimony, while others contain, in addition, certain quantities of copper, sometimes lead, and occasionally, though rarely on account of its cost, bismuth. Britannia metal is always of a silvery-white color, with a bluish tinge, and its hardness makes it capable of taking a high polish, which is not lost through exposure to the air. Ninety per cent of tin and 10 per cent of antimony gives a composition which is the best for many purposes, especially for casting, as it fills out the molds well, and is readily fusible. In some cases, where articles made from it are to be subjected to constant wear, a harder alloy is required. In the proportions given above, the metal is indeed much harder than tin, but would still soon give way under usage.

A table is appended, giving the composition of some of the varieties of Britannia metal and their special names.

───────────────────────+─────+────────+──────+──────+──── │ Tin │Antimony│Copper│ Zinc │Lead ───────────────────────+─────+────────+──────+──────+──── English │81.90│ 16.25 │ 1.84 │ — │ — English │90.62│ 7.81 │ 1.46 │ — │ — English │90.1 │ 6.3 │ 3.1 │ 0.5 │ — English │85.4 │ 9.66 │ 0.81 │ 3.06 │ — Pewter │81.2 │ 5.7 │ 1.60 │ — │11.5 Pewter │89.3 │ 7.6 │ 1.8 │ — │ 1.8 Tutania │91.4 │ — │ 0.7 │ 0.3 │ 7.6 Queen’s metal │88.5 │ 7.1 │ 3.5 │ 0.9 │ — German │72.0 │ 24.0 │ 4.0 │ — │ — German │84.0 │ 9.0 │ 2.0 │ 5.0 │ — German (for casting) │20.0 │ 64.0 │ 10.0 │ 6.0 │ — Malleable (for casting)│48.0 │ — │ 3.0 │48.0 │ 1.0 ───────────────────────+─────+────────+──────+──────+────

Britannia metal is prepared by melting the copper alone first, then adding a part of the tin and the whole of the antimony. The heat can then be quickly moderated, as the melting point of the new alloy is much lower than that of copper. Finally, the rest of the tin is added, and the mixture stirred constantly for some time to make it thoroughly homogeneous.

An alloy which bears a resemblance to Britannia metal is Ashberry metal, for which there are two formulas.

I II Copper 2 3 Tin 8 79 Antimony 14 15 Zinc 1 2 Nickel 2 1

«BRONZES.»

The composition of bronze must be effected immediately before the casting, for bronze cannot be kept in store ready prepared. In forming the alloy, the refractory compound, copper, is first melted separately, the other metals, tin, zinc, etc., previously heated, being then added; the whole is then stirred and the casting carried out without loss of time. The process of forming the alloy must be effected quickly, so that there may be no loss of zinc, tin, or lead through oxidation, and also no interruption to the flow of metal, as metal added after an interval of time will not combine perfectly with the metal already poured in. It is important, therefore, to ascertain the specific weights of the metals, for the heavier metal will naturally tend to sink to the bottom and the lighter to collect at the top. Only in this way, and by vigorous stirring, can the complete blending of the two metals be secured. In adding the zinc, great care {56} must be taken that the latter sinks at once to the level of the copper, otherwise a considerable portion will be volatilized before reaching the copper. When the castings are made, they must be cooled as quickly as possible, for the components of bronze have a tendency to form separate alloys of various composition, thus producing the so-called tin spots. This is much more likely to occur with a slow than with a sudden cooling of the mass.

«Annealing Bronze.»—This process is more particularly employed in the preparation of alloys used in the manufacture of cymbals, gongs, bells, etc. The alloy is naturally brittle, and acquires the properties essential to the purpose for which it is intended only after casting. The instruments are plunged into cold water while red-hot, hammered, reheated, and slowly cooled, when they become soft and sonorous. The alloy of copper and tin has the peculiar property that, whereas steel becomes hard through cooling, this mixture, when cooled suddenly, becomes noticeably soft and more malleable. The alloy is heated to a dark-red heat, or, in the case of thin articles, to the melting point of lead, and then plunged in cold water. The alloy may be hammered without splitting or breaking.

«Aluminum Bronze.»—This is prepared by melting the finest copper in a crucible, and adding the aluminum. The copper is cooled thereby to the thickly fluid point, but at the moment of the combination of the two metals, so much heat is released that the alloy becomes white hot and thinly fluid. Aluminum bronze thus prepared is usually brittle, and acquires its best qualities only after having been remelted several times. It may be remarked that, in order to obtain a bronze of the best quality, only the very purest copper must be used; with an inferior quality of copper, all labor is wasted. Aluminum bronze is not affected by exposure to the air; and its beautiful color makes it very suitable for manufacturing various ornamental articles, including clock cases, door knobs, etc.

Aluminum bronze wire is almost as strong as good steel wire, and castings made from it are almost as hard as steely iron; its resistance to bending or sagging is great.

I.—A good formula is 90 to 95 per cent of aluminum and 5 to 10 per cent of copper, of golden color, which keeps well in the air, without soon becoming dull and changing color like pure copper and its alloys with tin and zinc (bronze, brass, etc.). It can be cast excellently, can be filed well and turned, possesses an extraordinary hardness and firmness, and attains a high degree of polish; it is malleable and forgeable. On the latter quality are founded applications which were formerly never thought of, viz.: forged works of art for decorative purposes. An alloy of 95 parts aluminum and 5 parts copper is used here. The technical working of bronze is not materially different from that of iron. The metal, especially in a hot condition, is worked like iron on the anvil, with hammer and chisel, only that the temperature to be maintained in forging lies between dark and light cherry red. If the articles are not forged in one piece and the putting together of the separate parts becomes necessary, riveting or soldering has to be resorted to. Besides forging, aluminum bronze is well suited for embossing, which is not surprising considering the high percentage of copper. After finishing the pieces, the metal can be toned in manifold ways by treatment with acid.

II.—Copper, 89 to 98 per cent; aluminum and nickel, 1 to 2 per cent. Aluminum and nickel change in the opposite way, that is to say, in increasing the percentage of nickel the amount of aluminum is decreased by the equal quantity. It should be borne in mind that the best ratio is aluminum, 9.5 per cent; nickel, 1 to 1.5 per cent at most. In preparing the alloy a deoxidizing agent is added, viz., phosphorus to 0.5 per cent; magnesium to 1.5 per cent. The phosphorus should always be added in the form of phosphorous copper or phosphor aluminum of exactly determined percentage. It is first added to the copper, then the aluminum and the nickel, and finally the magnesium, the last named at the moment of liquidity, are admixed.

III.—A gold bronze, containing 3 to 5 per cent aluminum; specific gravity, 8.37 to 8.15. Handsome golden color. This alloy oxidizes less on heating than copper and iron, and is therefore especially adapted for locomotive fireboxes and spindles, etc.

IV.—A steel bronze containing on an average 8.5 per cent aluminum (including 1 per cent silicium); specific gravity, 7.7. Very ductile and tough, but slightly elastic; hence its use is excluded where, with large demands upon tension and pressure, no permanent change of form must ensue. This is changed by working, such as rolling, drawing, etc. {57} Especially useful where infrangibility is desired, as in machinery, ordnance, etc. At high temperature this bronze loses its elasticity again.

V.—This contains 8.5 per cent aluminum and 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 per cent silicium. Its use is advisable in cases where the metal is to possess a good elasticity, even in the cast state, and to retain it after being worked in red heat.

VI.—An acid bronze, containing 10 per cent aluminum; specific gravity, 7.65. Especially serviceable to resist oxidation and the action of acids.

VII.—Diamond bronze, containing 10 per cent aluminum and 2 per cent silicium. Specific gravity, 7.3. Very hard; of great firmness, but brittle.

«Art Bronzes.» (See also Aluminum Bronzes and Japanese Bronzes under this title.)—I.—Copper, 84 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 5 parts.

II.—Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 6 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts.

III.—Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts.

IV.—Copper, 90 parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; lead, 1 part.

V.—Copper, 85 parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.

VI.—Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 23 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.

«Statuary Bronze.»—Many of the antique statues were made of genuine bronze, which has advantages for this purpose, but has been superseded in modern times by mixtures of metals containing, besides copper and tin—the constituents of real bronze—a quantity of zinc, the alloy thus formed being really an intermediate product between bronze and brass. The reason for the use of such mixtures lies partly in the comparative cheapness of their production as compared with genuine bronze, and

## partly in the purpose for which the metal is to be used. A thoroughly

good statuary bronze must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill the molds out sharply, allow of being easily worked with the file, and must take on the beautiful green coating called patina, after being exposed to the air for a short time.

Genuine bronze, however strongly heated, does not become thin enough to fill out the molds well, and it is also difficult to obtain homogeneous castings from it. Brass alone is also too thickly fluid, and not hard enough for the required fine chiseling or chasing of the finished object. Alloys containing zinc and tin, in addition to copper, can be prepared in such a manner that they will become very thinly fluid, and will give fine castings which can easily be worked with the file and chisel. The best proportions seem to be from 10 to 18 per cent of zinc and from 2 to 4 per cent of tin. In point of hardness, statuary bronze holds an intermediate position between genuine bronze and brass, being harder and tougher than the latter, but not so much so as the former.

Since statuary bronze is used principally for artistic purposes, much depends upon the color. This can be varied from pale yellow to orange yellow by slightly varying the content of tin or zinc, which must, of course, still be kept between the limits given above. Too much tin makes the alloy brittle and difficult to chisel; with too much zinc, on the other hand, the warm tone of color is lost, and the bronze does not acquire a fine patina.

The best proportions for statuary bronze are very definitely known at the present day; yet it sometimes happens that large castings have not the right character. They are either defective in color, or they do not take on a fine patina, or they are difficult to chisel. These phenomena may be due to the use of impure metals—containing oxides, iron, lead, etc.—or to improper treatment of the alloy in melting. With the most careful work possible, there is a considerable loss in melting—3 per cent at the very least, and sometimes as much as 10. This is due to the large proportion of zinc, and it is evident that, in consequence of it, the nature of the alloy will be different from what might be expected from the quantities of metals used in its manufacture.

It has been remarked that slight variations in composition quickly change the color of the alloy. The following table gives a series of alloys of different colors, suitable for statuary bronze:

──────+────────+───────+──────+─────────────── │ Copper │ Zinc │ Tin │ Color ──────+────────+───────+──────+─────────────── I │ 84.42 │ 11.28 │ 4.30 │ Reddish yellow II │ 84.00 │ 11.00 │ 5.00 │ Orange red III │ 83.05 │ 13.03 │ 3.92 │ Orange red IV │ 83.00 │ 12.00 │ 5.00 │ Orange red V │ 81.05 │ 15.32 │ 3.63 │ Orange yellow VI │ 81.00 │ 15.00 │ 4.00 │ Orange yellow VII │ 78.09 │ 18.47 │ 3.44 │ Orange yellow VIII │ 73.58 │ 23.27 │ 3.15 │ Orange yellow IX │ 73.00 │ 23.00 │ 4.00 │ Pale orange X │ 70.36 │ 26.88 │ 2.76 │ Pale yellow XI │ 70.00 │ 27.00 │ 3.00 │ Pale yellow XII │ 65.95 │ 31.56 │ 2.49 │ Pale yellow ──────+────────+───────+──────+───────────────

{58}

Perhaps the most satisfactory bronze metal is the alloy used in France for more than a century. It contains 91.60 per cent of copper, 5.33 per cent of zinc, 1.70 per cent of tin, and 1.37 per cent of lead. Somewhat more zinc is taken for articles to be gilded.

«Bismuth Bronze.»—Copper, 52 parts; nickel, 30 parts; zinc, 12 parts; lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 part. For metallic mirrors, lamp reflectors, etc.

Gun Bronze.—See Phosphor Bronze under this title.

«Japanese Bronzes.»—The formulas given below contain a large percentage of lead, which greatly improves the patina. The ingredients and the ratio of their parts for several sorts of modern Japanese bronze follow:

I.—Copper, 81.62 per cent; tin, 4.61 per cent; lead, 10.21 per cent.

II.—Copper, 76.60 per cent; tin, 4.38 per cent; lead, 11.88 per cent; zinc, 6.53 per cent.

III.—Copper, 88.55 per cent; tin, 2.42 per cent; lead, 4.72 per cent; zinc, 3.20 per cent.

Sometimes a little antimony is added just before casting, and such a composition would be represented more nearly by this formula:

IV.—Copper, 68.25 per cent; tin, 5.47 per cent; zinc, 8.88 per cent; lead, 17.06 per cent; antimony, 0.34 per cent.

For imitation Japanese bronze, see Plating under Bronzing.

«Machine Bronze.»—I.—Copper, 89 per cent; tin, 11 per cent.

II.—Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 16 per cent.

«Phosphor Bronze.»—Phosphor bronze is bronze containing varying amounts of phosphorus, from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to 1 or 2 per cent. Bronze containing simply copper and tin is very liable to be defective from the presence of oxygen, sulphur, or occluded gases. Oxygen causes the metal to be spongy and weak. Sulphur and occluded gases cause porosity. Oxygen gets into the metal by absorption from the air. It can be eliminated by adding to the metal something which combines with the oxygen and then fluxes off. Such deoxidizers are zinc, antimony, aluminum, manganese, silicon, and phosphorus. Sulphur and occluded gases can be eliminated by melting the metal, exposing it to the air, and letting it thus absorb some oxygen, which then burns the sulphur and gas. The oxygen can then be removed by adding one of the above-mentioned deoxidizers. The important use of phosphorus in bronze is, therefore, to remove oxygen and also indirectly to destroy occluded gas and sulphur.

A bronze is sometimes made with an extra high percentage of phosphorus, namely, 6 per cent. This alloy is made so as to have phosphorus in convenient form for use, and the process of manufacture is as follows: Ninety pounds of copper are melted under charcoal in a No. 70 crucible, which holds about 200 pounds of metal when full; 11 pounds of tin are added and the metal is allowed to become hot. The crucible is then removed from the furnace and 7 pounds of phosphorus are introduced in the following manner: A 3-gallon stone jar, half full of dilute solution of blue vitriol, is weighed. Then the weights are increased 7 pounds, and phosphorus in sticks about 4 inches long is added till the scales balance again. The phosphorus is left in this solution half an hour or longer, the phosphorus being given a coating of copper, so that it may be dried and exposed to the air without igniting. Have ready a pan about 30 inches square and 6 inches deep, containing about 2 inches of water. Over the water is a wire netting, which is laid loose on ledges or supports along the inner sides of the pan. On the netting is blotting paper, and on this the phosphorus is laid to dry when taken out of the blue-vitriol solution. The pan also has a lid which can be put down in case of ignition of the phosphorus.

The phosphorus is now ready for introduction into the metal. This is done by means of a cup-shaped instrument called a retort or phosphorizer. One man holds the retort on the rim of the crucible in a horizontal position. A second man takes about three pieces of phosphorus and throws them into the retort. The first man then immediately plunges the mouth of the retort below the surface of the metal before the phosphorus has a chance to fall or flow out. Of course the phosphorus immediately melts and also begins to volatilize. As the phosphorus comes in contact with the metal, it combines with it. This process is continued till all the 7 pounds of phosphorus has been put into the metal. The metal is then poured into slabs about 3 inches by 4 inches by 1 inch thick. The metal is so hard that a greater thickness would make it difficult to break it up. When finished, the metal contains, by analysis, 6 per cent of phosphorus. When phosphorus is to be added to metal, a little of this hardener is employed.

Copper is a soft, ductile metal, with its melting point at about 2,000° F. {59} Molten copper has the marked property of absorbing various gases. It is for this reason that it is so difficult to make sound castings of clear copper. Molten copper combines readily with the oxygen of the air, forming oxide of copper, which dissolves in the copper and mixes homogeneously with it.

A casting made from such metal would be very spongy. The bad effect of oxygen is intended to be overcome by adding zinc to the extent of 1 per cent or more. This result can be much more effectively attained by the use of aluminum, manganese, or phosphorus. The action of these substances is to combine with the oxygen, and as the product formed separates and goes to the surface, the metal is left in a sound condition. Aluminum and manganese deoxidize copper and bronze very effectively, and the oxide formed goes to the surface as a scum. When a casting is made from such metal, the oxide or scum, instead of freeing itself from the casting perfectly, generally remains in the top part of the casting mixed with the metal, as a fractured surface will show. Phosphorus deoxidizes copper, and the oxide formed leaves the metal in the form of a gas, so that a casting made from such metal shows a clean fracture throughout, although the metal is not so dense as when aluminum or manganese is used.

Copper also has the property of absorbing or occluding carbon monoxide. But the carbonic oxide thus absorbed is in a different condition from the oxygen absorbed. When oxygen is absorbed by copper, the oxygen combines chemically with the copper and loses its own identity as a gas. But when coal gas is absorbed by the copper, it keeps its own physical identity and simply exists in the copper in a state of solution. All natural waters, such as lake water, river water, spring water, etc., contain air in solution or occlusion. When such water is cooled and frozen, just at the time of changing from the liquid to the solid state, the dissolved gas separates and forms air bubbles, which remain entangled in the ice. The carbonic oxide which is dissolved or occluded in copper acts in exactly the same way.

Hydrogen acts in exactly the same manner as carbonic oxide. Sulphur also has a bad effect upon copper and bronze. Sulphur combines with copper and other metals, forming sulphide of copper, etc. When molten copper or bronze containing sulphur comes in contact with air it absorbs some oxygen, and this in turn combines with the sulphur present, forming sulphur dioxide, which is a gas which remains occluded in the metal.

Tin is a soft, white metal, melting at 440° F. Toward gases it acts something like copper, but not in so marked a degree. Although copper and tin are both soft, yet when mixed they make a harder metal. When bronze cools from the molten state, the copper and the copper-tin alloy tend to crystallize by themselves. The quicker the cooling occurs the less separation will there be, and also the fracture will be more homogeneous in appearance.

Gun bronze contains copper and tin in the proportion of 9 or 10 parts of copper to 1 of tin. This is the metal used when an ordinary bronze casting is wanted. A harder bronze is copper and tin in the ratio of 6 to 1. This is often used as a bearing metal. When either of these metals is to be turned in the machine shop, they should contain about 3 per cent of lead, which will make them work very much better, but it also decreases their tensile strength. Bearing metal now generally contains about 10 per cent of lead, with copper and tin in varying ratios. The large percentage of lead is put in that the metal may wear away slower. Lead, although a metal having properties similar to tin, acts entirely different toward copper. Copper and tin have a good deal of affinity for each other, but copper and lead show no attraction at all for each other. Copper and tin mix in all proportions, but copper and lead mix only to a very limited extent. About 3 per cent of lead can be mixed with copper. With bronze about 15 per cent to 20 per cent of lead can be mixed. In bearing bronze the lead keeps its own physical properties, so that the constituent lead melts long before the metal attains a red heat. It sometimes happens when a bearing runs warm that the lead actually sweats out and forms pimples on the metal. Or, sometimes, in remelting a bearing bronze casting the lead may be seen to drop out while the metal is warming up. All of these metals, however, should contain something to flux or deoxidize them, such as zinc, manganese, aluminum, silicon, antimony, or phosphorus.

The phosphor bronze bearing metal in vogue has the following composition: Copper, 79.7 per cent; tin, 10 per cent; lead, 10 percent; and phosphorus, 0.3 per cent.

Melt 140 pounds of copper in a No. 70 pot, covering with charcoal. When copper is all melted, add 17 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of tin to 17 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of lead, and allow the metal to become sufficiently warm, but {60} not any hotter than is needed. Then add 10 pounds of “hardener” (made as previously described) and stir well. Remove from furnace, skim off the charcoal, cool the metal with gates to as low a temperature as is consistent with getting a good casting, stir well again, and pour. The molds for this kind of work are faced with plumbago.

There are several firms that make phosphor-bronze bearings with a composition similar to the above one, and most of them, or perhaps all, make it by melting the metals and then charging with phosphorus to the extent of 0.7 to 1 per cent. But some metal from all brands contains occluded gas. So that after such metal is cast (in about two minutes or so) the metal will ooze or sweat out through the gate, and such a casting will be found to be porous. But not one such experience with metal made as described above has yet been found.

This practical point should be heeded, viz., that pig phosphor bronze should be brought to the specifications that the metal should have shrunk in the ingot mold in cooling, as shown by the concave surface of the upper side, and that it should make a casting in a sand mold without rising in the gate after being poured.

In bearing metal, occluded gas is very objectionable, because the gas, in trying to free itself, shoves the very hard copper-tin compound (which has a low melting point and remains liquid after the copper has begun to set) into spots, and thus causes hard spots in the metal.

Phosphorus is very dangerous to handle, and there is great risk from fire with it, so that many would not care to handle the phosphorus itself. But phosphor copper containing 5 per cent of phosphorus, and phosphor tin containing 2 to 7 per cent of phosphorus, and several other such alloys can be obtained in the market. It may be suggested to those who wish to make phosphor bronze, but do not want to handle phosphorus itself, to make it by using the proper amounts of one of these high phosphorus alloys. In using phosphorus it is only necessary to use enough to thoroughly deoxidize the metal, say 0.3 per cent. More than this will make the metal harder, but not any sounder.

Phosphor bronze is not a special kind of alloy, but any bronze can be made into phosphor bronze; it is, in fact, simply a deoxidized bronze, produced under treatment with phosphorus compounds.

Although the effect of phosphorus in improving the quality of bronze has been known for more than fifty years, it is only of late that the mode for preparing phosphor bronze has been perfected. It is now manufactured in many localities. Besides its action in reducing the oxides dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another very material influence upon the properties of the bronze. The ordinary bronzes consist of mixtures in which the copper is really the only crystallized constituent, since the tin crystallizes with great difficulty. As a consequence of this dissimilarity in the nature of the two metals, the alloy is not so solid as it would be if both were crystallized. The phosphorus causes the tin to crystallize, and the result is a more homogeneous mixture of the two metals.

If enough phosphorus is added, so that its presence can be detected in the finished bronze, the latter may be considered an alloy of crystallized phosphor tin with copper. If the content of phosphor is still more increased, a part of the copper combines with the phosphorus, and the bronze then contains, besides copper and tin, compounds of crystallized copper phosphide with phosphide of tin. The strength and tenacity of the bronze are not lessened by a larger amount of phosphorus, and its hardness is considerably increased. Most phosphor bronzes are equal in this respect to the best steel, and some even surpass it in general properties.

The phosphorus is added to the bronze in the form of copper phosphide or phosphide of tin, the two being sometimes used together. They must be specially prepared for this purpose, and the best methods will be here given. Copper phosphide is prepared by heating a mixture of 4 parts of superphosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated copper, and 1 part of finely pulverized coal in a crucible at a temperature not too high. The melted copper phosphide, containing 14 per cent of phosphorus, separates on the bottom of the crucible.

Tin phosphide is prepared as follows: Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solution of tin chloride. The tin will be separated in the form of a sponge-like mass. Collect it, and put it into a crucible, upon the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin tightly into the crucible, and expose to a gentle heat. Continue the heating until flames of burning phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. The pure tin phosphide, in the form of a coarsely crystalline mass, tin-white in color, will be found on the bottom of the crucible.

To prepare the phosphor bronze, the {61} alloy to be treated is melted in the usual way, and small pieces of the copper phosphide and tin phosphide are added.

Phosphor bronze, properly prepared, has nearly the same melting point as that of ordinary bronze. In cooling, however, it has the peculiarity of passing directly from the liquid to the solid state, without first becoming thickly fluid. In a melted state it retains a perfectly bright surface, while ordinary bronze in this condition is always covered with a thin film of oxide.

If phosphor bronze is kept for a long time at the melting point, there is not any loss of tin, but the amount of phosphorus is slightly diminished.

The most valuable properties of phosphor bronze are its extraordinary tenacity and strength. It can be rolled, hammered, and stretched cold, and its strength is nearly double that of the best ordinary bronze. It is principally used in cases where great strength and power of resistance to outward influences are required, as, for instance, in objects which are to be exposed to the action of sea water.

Phosphor bronze containing about 4 per cent of tin is excellently well adapted for sheet bronze. With not more than 5 per cent of tin, it can be used, forged, for firearms. Seven to 10 per cent of tin gives the greatest hardness, and such bronze is especially suited to the manufacture of axle bearings, cylinders for steam fire engines, cogwheels, and, in general, for parts of machines where great strength and hardness are required. Phosphor bronze, if exposed to the air, soon becomes covered with a beautiful, closely adhering patina, and is therefore well adapted to purposes of art. The amount of phosphorus added varies from 0.25 to 2.5 per cent, according to the purpose of the bronze. The composition of a number of kinds of phosphor bronze is given below:

─────+──────+─────+─────+─────+────+─────── │Copper│ Tin │ Zinc│ Lead│Iron│Phosp- │ │ │ │ │ │horus ─────+──────+─────+─────+─────+────+─────── I.│ 85.55│ 9.85│ 3.77│ 0.62│trs.│ 0.05 II.│ — │ 4–15│ — │ 4–15│ — │ 0.5–3 III.│ — │ 4–15│ 8–20│ 4–15│ — │ .25–2 IV.│ 77.85│11.00│ 7.65│ — │ — │ — V.│ 72.50│ 8.00│17.00│ — │ — │ — VI.│ 73.50│ 6.00│19.00│ — │ — │ — VII.│ 74.50│11.00│11.00│ — │ — │ — VIII.│ 83.50│ 8.00│ 3.00│ — │ — │ — IX.│ 90.34│ 8.90│ — │ — │ — │ 0.76 X.│ 90.86│ 8.56│ — │ — │ — │ 0.196 XI.│ 94.71│ 4.39│ — │ — │ — │ 0.053 ─────+──────+─────+─────+─────+────+───────

I for axle bearings, II and III for harder and softer axle bearings, IV to VIII for railroad purposes, IV especially for valves of locomotives, V and VI axle bearings for wagons, VII for connecting rods, VIII for piston rods in hydraulic presses.

«Steel Bronze».—Copper, 60; ferromanganese (containing 70 to 80 per cent manganese), 40; zinc, 15.

«Silicon Bronze.»—Silicon, similarly to phosphorus, acts as a deoxidizing agent, and the bronzes produced under its influence are very ductile and elastic, do not rust, and are very strong. On account of these qualities silicon bronze is much used for telegraph and telephone wires. The process of manufacture is similar to that of phosphor bronze; the silicon is used in the form of copper silicide. Some good silicon bronzes are as follows:

I II Copper 97.12 97.37 Tin 1.14 1.32 Zinc 1.10 1.27 Silicon 0.05 0.07

«Sun Bronze.»—The alloy called sun bronze contains 10 parts of aluminum, 30 to 50 parts of copper, and 40 to 60 parts of cobalt. The mixture known by the name of metalline has 25 per cent of aluminum, 30 of copper, 10 of iron, and 35 of cobalt. These alloys melt at a point approaching the melting point of copper, are tenacious, ductile, and very hard.

«Tobin Bronze.»—This alloy is nearly similar in composition and properties to Delta metal.

I II III IV Copper 61.203 59.00 61.20 82.67 Zinc 27.440 38.40 37.14 3.23 Tin 0.906 2.16 0.90 12.40 Iron 0.180 0.11 0.18 0.10 Lead 0.359 0.31 0.35 2.14 Silver — — — 0.07 Phosphorus — — — 0.005

The alloy marked IV is sometimes called deoxidized bronze.

Violet-colored bronze is 50 parts copper and 50 parts antimony.

«CADMIUM ALLOYS:»

See also Fusible Alloys.

«Lipowitz’s Alloy.»—I.—This alloy is composed of cadmium, 3 parts; tin, 4; bismuth, 15; and lead, 8. The simplest method of preparation is to heat the metals, in small pieces, in a crucible, stirring constantly, as soon as fusion {62} begins, with a stick of hard wood. The stirring is important, in order to prevent the metals, whose specific gravity varies considerably, from being deposited in layers. The alloy softens at 140° F. and melts completely at 158° F. The color is silvery white, with a luster like polished silver, and the metal can be bent, hammered, and turned. These properties would make it valuable for many purposes where a beautiful appearance is of special importance, but on account of the considerable amount of cadmium and bismuth which it contains, it is rather expensive, and therefore limited in use. Casts of small animals, insects, lizards, etc., have been prepared from it, which were equal in sharpness to the best galvanoplastic work. Plaster of Paris is poured over the animal to be cast, and after sharp drying, the animal is removed and the mold filled up with Lipowitz’s metal. The mold is placed in a vessel of water, and by heating to the boiling point the metal is melted and deposited in the finest impressions of the mold.

This alloy is most excellent for soldering tin, lead, Britannia metal, and nickel, being especially adapted to the last two metals on account of its silver-white color. But here again its costliness prevents its general use, and cheaper alloys possessing the same properties have been sought. In cases where the silver-white color and the low melting point are not of the first importance, the alloys given below may very well be used in the place of it.

II.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 170° F.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 3; lead, 11; bismuth, 16.

III.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 167° F.): Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3; lead, 8; bismuth, 8.

Cadmium alloys (melting point, 203° F.):

IV V VI Cadmium 1 1 1 parts Tin 2 3 1 parts Bismuth 3 5 2 parts

VII.—A very fusible alloy, melting at 150° F., is composed of tin, 1 or 2 parts; lead, 2 or 3; bismuth, 4 or 15; cadmium, 1 or 2.

VIII.—Wood’s alloy melts between 140° and 161.5° F. It is composed of lead, 4 parts; tin, 2; bismuth, 5 to 8; cadmium, 1 to 2. In color it resembles platinum, and is malleable to a certain extent.

IX.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 179.5° F.): Cadmium, 1 part; lead, 6 parts; bismuth, 7. This, like the preceding, can be used for soldering in hot water.

X.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 300° F.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 4; lead, 2. This is an excellent soft solder, with a melting point about 86 degrees below that of lead and tin alone.

«Cadmium Alloys with Gold, Silver, and Copper.»—I.—Gold, 750 parts; silver, 166 parts; cadmium, 84 parts. A malleable and ductile alloy of green color.

II.—Gold, 750 parts; silver, 125 parts; and cadmium, 125 parts. Malleable and ductile alloy of yellowish-green hue.

III.—Gold, 746 parts; silver, 114 parts; copper, 97 parts; and cadmium, 43 parts. Likewise a malleable and ductile alloy of a peculiar green shade. All these alloys are suitable for plating. As regards their production, each must be carefully melted together from its ingredients in a covered crucible lined with coal dust, or in a graphite crucible. Next, the alloy has to be remelted in a graphite crucible with charcoal (or rosin powder) and borax. If, in spite thereof, a considerable portion of the cadmium should have evaporated, the alloy must be re-fused once more with an addition of cadmium.

«ALLOYS FOR CASTING COINS, MEDALLIONS, ETC.»

Alloys which fulfill the requirements of the medalist, and capable, therefore, of reproducing all details, are the following:

I II Tin 3 6 parts Lead 13 8 parts Bismuth 6 14 parts

III.—A soft alloy suitable to take impressions of woodcuts, coins, metals, engravings, etc., and which must melt at a low degree of heat, is made out of bismuth, 3 parts; tin, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts; lead, 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts; and worn-out type, 1 part.

«Acid-proof Alloy.»—This alloy is characterized by its power of resisting the action of acids, and is therefore especially adapted to making cocks, pipes, etc., which are to come in contact with acid fluids. It is composed of copper, zinc, lead, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt, and antimony, in the following proportions:

Copper 74.75 parts Zinc 0.61 parts Lead 16.35 parts Tin 0.91 parts Iron 0.43 parts Nickel or Cobalt 0.24 parts Antimony 6.78 parts

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«Albata Metal.»—Copper, 40 parts; zinc, 32 parts; and nickel, 8 parts.

«Alfenide Metal.»—Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 30; nickel, 10; traces of iron.

«Bath Metal.»—This alloy is used especially in England for the manufacture of teapots, and is very popular owing to the fine white color it possesses. It takes a high polish, and articles made from this alloy acquire in the course of time, upon only being rubbed with a white cloth, a permanent silver luster. The composition of Bath metal is copper, 55 parts; zinc, 45 parts.

«Baudoin Metal.»—This is composed of 72 parts of copper, 16.6 of nickel, 1.8 of cobalt, 1 of zinc; 1⁠/⁠2 per cent of aluminum may be added.

«CASTING COPPER:»

«Macht’s Yellow Metal.»—I.—This alloy consists of 33 parts of copper and 25 of zinc. It has a dark golden-yellow color, great tenacity, and can be forged at a red heat, properties which make it especially suitable for fine castings.

II.—Yellow.—Copper, 67 to 70 parts; zinc, 33 to 30 parts.

III.—Red.—Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts.

«Copper Arsenic.»—Arsenic imparts to copper a very fine white color, and makes it very hard and brittle. Before German silver was known, these alloys were sometimes used for the manufacture of such cast articles as were not to come in contact with iron. When exposed to the air, they soon lose their whiteness and take on a brownish shade. On account of this, as well as the poisonous character of the arsenic, they are very little used at the present time. Alloys of copper and arsenic are best prepared by pressing firmly into a crucible a mixture of 70 parts of copper and 30 of arsenic (the copper to be used in the form of fine shavings) and fusing this mixture in a furnace with a good draught, under a cover of glass.

«Copper Iron.»—The alloys of copper and iron are little used in the industries of the present day, but it would seem that in earlier times they were frequently prepared for the purpose of giving a considerable degree of hardness to copper; for in antique casts, consisting principally of copper, we regularly find large quantities of iron, which leads to the supposition that they were added intentionally.

These alloys, when of a certain composition, have considerable strength and hardness. With an increase in the quantity of the iron the hardness increases, but the solidity is lessened. A copper and iron alloy of considerable strength, and at the same time very hard, is made of copper, 66 parts; iron, 34. These alloys acquire, on exposure to air, an ugly color inclining toward black, and are therefore not adapted for articles of art.

«Copper Nickel.»—A. Morrell, of New York, has obtained a patent on a nickel-copper alloy which he claims is valuable on account of its noncorrosive qualities, therefore making it desirable for ships, boiler tubes, and other uses where the metal comes much in contact with water. The process of making the metal is by smelting ore containing sulphide of nickel and copper, and besemerizing the resultant matter. This is calcined in order to obtain the nickel and copper in the form of oxides. The latter are reduced in reverberating furnace with carbon, or the like, so as to produce an alloy which preferably contains 2 parts of nickel and 1 part of copper.

«Delta Metal.»—An alloy widely used for making parts of machinery, and also for artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta metal. This is a variety of brass hardened with iron; some manufacturers add small quantities of tin and lead; also, in some cases, nickel. The following analysis of Delta metal (from the factory at Düsseldorf) will show its usual composition:

──────────+───────+───────+───────+─────+───── │ I │ II │ III │ IV │ V ──────────+───────+───────+───────+─────+───── Copper │ 55.94 │ 55.80│ 55.82│54.22│58.65 Zinc │ 41.61 │ 40.07│ 41.41│42.25│38.95 Lead │ 0.72 │ 1.82│ 0.76│ 1.10│ 0.67 Iron │ 0.87 │ 1.28│ 0.86│ 0.99│ 1.62 Manganese │ 0.81 │ 0.96│ 1.38│ 1.09│ — Nickel │traces.│traces.│ 0.06│ 0.16│ 0.11 Phosphorus│ 0.013│ 0.011│traces.│ 0.02│ — ──────────+───────+───────+───────+─────+─────

I is cast, II hammered, III rolled, and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta metal is produced by heating zinc very strongly in crucibles (to about 1600° F.), and adding ferromanganese or “spiegeleisen,” producing an alloy of 95 per cent zinc and 5 per cent of iron. Copper and brass and a very small amount of copper phosphate are also added. {64}

«Gong Metal.»—A sonorous metal for cymbals, gongs, and tam-tams consists of 100 parts of copper with 25 parts tin. Ignite the piece after it is cast and plunge it into cold water immediately.

«Production of Minargent.»—This alloy consists of copper, 500 parts; nickel, 350; tungsten, 25, and aluminum, 5. The metal obtained possesses a handsome white color and greatly resembles silver.

«Minofor.»—The so-called Minofor metal is composed of copper, tin, antimony, zinc, and iron in the following proportions:

I II Copper 3.26 4 Tin 67.53 66 Antimony 17.00 20 Zinc 8.94 9 Iron — 1

Minargent and Minofor are sometimes used in England for purposes in which the ordinary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and 1 part antimony, might equally well be employed; the latter surpasses both of them in beauty of color, but they are, on the other hand, harder.

«Retz Alloy.»—This alloy, which resists the corrosive action of alkalies and acids, is composed of 15 parts of copper, 2.34 of tin, 1.82 of lead, and 1 of antimony. It can be utilized in the manufacture of receivers, for which porcelain and ebonite are usually employed.

«Ruoltz Metal.»—This comprises 20 parts of silver, 50 of copper, 30 of nickel. These proportions may, however, vary.

«Tissier’s Metal.»—This alloy contains arsenic, is of a beautiful tombac red color, and very hard. Its composition varies a great deal, but the peculiar alloy which gives the name is composed of copper, 97 parts; zinc, 2 parts; arsenic, 1 or 2. It may be considered a brass with a very high percentage of copper, and hardened by the addition of arsenic. It is sometimes used for axle bearings, but other alloys are equally suitable for this purpose, and are to be preferred on account of the absence of arsenic, which is always dangerous.

«FILE ALLOYS.»—Many copper-tin alloys are employed for the making of files which, in distinction from the steel files, are designated composition files. Such alloys have the following compositions:

«Geneva Composition Files.»—

I II Copper 64.4 62 Tin 18.0 20 Zinc 10.0 10 Lead 7.6 8

«Vogel’s Composition Files.»—

III IV V Copper 57.0 61.5 73.0 Tin 28.5 31.0 19.0 Zinc 78.0 — 8.0 Lead 7.0 8.5 8.0

VI.—Another alloy for composition files is copper, 8 parts; tin, 2; zinc, 1, and lead, 1—fused under a cover of borax.

«EASILY FUSIBLE OR PLASTIC ALLOYS.»

(These have a fusing point usually below 300° F.)

(See also Solders.)

I. Rose’s Alloy.—Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Melting point, 200° F.

II. Darcet Alloy.—This is composed of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin. It melts at 176° F. To impart greater fusibility, 1⁠/⁠16 part of mercury is added; the fusing is then lowered to 149° F.

III.—Newton alloy melts at 212° F., and is composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 2 of lead, and 3 of tin.

IV.—Wood’s Metal.—

Tin 2 parts Lead 4 parts Bismuth 5 to 8 parts

This silvery, fine-grained alloy fuses between 151° and 162° F., and is excellently adapted to soldering.

V.—Bismuth, 7 parts; lead, 6 parts; cadmium, 1 part. Melting point, 180° F.

VI.—Bismuth, 7 to 8 parts; lead, 4; tin, 2; cadmium, 1 to 2. Melting point, 149° to 160° F.

«Other easily fusible alloys:»

VII VIII IX Lead 1 2 3 Tin 1 2 3 Bismuth 1 1 1 Melting Point 258° F. 283° 311°

«Fusible Alloys for Electric Installations.»—These alloys are employed in electric installations as current interrupters. Serving as conductors on a short length of circuit, they melt as soon as the current becomes too strong. Following is the composition of some of these alloys.

────+───────────+──────+─────+─────────+──────── │ Fusing │ │ │ │ │temperature│ Lead │ Tin │ Bismuth │Cadmium ────+───────────+──────+─────+─────────+──────── I │ 203° F. │ 250 │ 500 │ 500 │ — II │ 193° F. │ 397 │ — │ 532 │ 71 III │ 168° F. │ 344 │ 94 │ 500 │ 62 IV │ 153° F. │ 260 │ 148 │ 522 │ 70 V │ 150° F. │ 249 │ 142 │ 501 │ 108 VI │ 145° F. │ 267 │ 136 │ 500 │ 100 ────+───────────+──────+─────+─────────+────────

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These alloys are prepared by melting the lead in a stearine bath and adding successively, and during the cooling, first, the cadmium; second, the bismuth; third, the tin. It is absolutely necessary to proceed in this manner, since these metals fuse at temperatures ranging from 850° F. (for lead), to 551° F. (for tin).

«Fusible Safety Alloys for Steam Boilers.»—

───────+───────+────+────+────────+──────── │ │ │ │ Melting│ Atmos. │Bismuth│Lead│Zinc│ point │pressure ───────+───────+────+────+────────+──────── I. │ 8 │ 5 │ 3 │ 212° F.│ 1 II. │ 8 │ 8 │ 4 │ 235° F.│ 1.5 III. │ 8 │ 8 │ 3 │ 253° F.│ 2 IV. │ 8 │ 10 │ 8 │ 266° F.│ 2.5 V. │ 8 │ 12 │ 8 │ 270° F.│ 3 VI. │ 8 │ 16 │ 14 │ 280° F.│ 3.5 VII. │ 8 │ 16 │ 12 │ 285° F.│ 4 VIII. │ 8 │ 22 │ 24 │ 309° F.│ 5 IX. │ 8 │ 32 │ 36 │ 320° F.│ 6 X. │ 8 │ 32 │ 28 │ 330° F.│ 7 XI. │ 8 │ 30 │ 24 │ 340° F.│ 8 ───────+───────+────+────+────────+────────

«Lipowitz Metal.»—This amalgam is prepared as follows: Melt in a dish, cadmium, 3 parts, by weight; tin, 4 parts; bismuth, 15 parts; and lead, 8 parts, adding to the alloy, while still in fusion, 2 parts of quicksilver previously heated to about 212° F. The amalgamation proceeds easily and smoothly. The liquid mass in the dish, which should be taken from the fire immediately upon the introduction of the mercury, is stirred until the contents solidify. While Lipowitz alloy softens already at 140° F. and fuses perfectly at 158°, the amalgam has a still lower fusing point, which lies around 143 3⁠/⁠5° F.

This amalgam is excellently adapted for the production of impressions of various objects of nature, direct impressions of leaves, and other delicate parts of plants having been made with its aid which, in point of sharpness, are equal to the best plaster casts and have a very pleasing appearance. The amalgam has a silver-white color and a fine gloss. It is perfectly constant to atmospheric influences. This amalgam has also been used with good success for the making of small statuettes and busts, which are hollow and can be readily gilt or bronzed by electro-deposition. The production of small statues is successfully carried out by making a hollow gypsum mold of the articles to be cast and heating the mold evenly to about 140° F. A corresponding quantity of the molten amalgam is then poured in and the mold moved rapidly to and fro, so that the alloy is thrown against the sides all over. The shaking should be continued until it is certain that the amalgam has solidified. When the mold has cooled off it is taken apart and the seams removed by means of a sharp knife. If the operation is carried on correctly, a chasing of the cast mass becomes unnecessary, since the alloy fills out the finest depressions of the mold with the greatest sharpness.

«Amalgam for Plaster.»—Tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 1 part. Melt the bismuth and the tin together, and when the two metals are in fusion add the mercury while stirring. For use, rub up the amalgam with a little white of egg and brush like a varnish on the plaster articles.

«Plastic Metal Composition.»—I. Copper oxide is reduced by means of hydrogen or copper sulphate by boiling a solution of the same in water with some zinc filings in order to obtain entirely pure copper. Of the copper powder obtained in this manner, 20, 30, or 36 parts, by weight, according to the degree of hardness desired for the composition (the greater the quantity of copper used the harder will the composition become), are thoroughly moistened in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific gravity; 70 parts, by weight, of mercury are then added to this paste, the whole being constantly stirred. When all the copper has been thoroughly amalgamated with the mercury, the sulphuric acid is washed out again with boiling water, and in 12 hours after it has become cold the composition will be so hard that it can be polished. It is impervious to the action of dilute acids, alcohol, ether, and boiling water. It contains the same specific gravity, alike in the soft or the hard condition. When used as a cement, it can at any time be rendered soft and plastic in the following manner: If applied while hot and plastic to the deoxidized surfaces of two pieces of metal, these latter will unite so firmly that in about 10 or 12 hours the metal may be subjected to any mechanical process. The properties of this composition render it very useful for various purposes, and it forms a most effective cement for fine metal articles which cannot be soldered in fire.

II.—Bismuth, 5.5 parts; lead, 3; tin, 1.5.

III. Alloy d’Homburg.—Bismuth, {66} 3 parts; lead, 3; tin, 3. This alloy is fusible at 251° F., and is of a silvery white. It is employed for reproductions of medals.

IV. Alloy Valentine Rose.—Bismuth, 4 to 6 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 to 3 parts. This alloy fuses at 212° to 250° F.

V. Alloy Rose père.—Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2; tin, 2. This alloy fuses at 199° F.

The remainder are plastic alloys for reproducing cuts, medals, coins, etc.:

VI.—Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

VII.—Bismuth, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts.

VIII.—Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts.

IX.—Bismuth, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts.

X.—Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts.

«Quick-Water.»—That the amalgam may easily take hold of bronze objects and remain there, it is customary to cover the perfectly cleansed and shining article with a thin coat of mercury, which is usually accomplished by dipping it into a so-called quick-water bath.

In the form of minute globules the mercury immediately separates itself from the solution and clings to the bronze object, which thereupon presents the appearance of being plated with silver. After it has been well rinsed in clean water, the amalgam may be evenly and without difficulty applied with the scratch brush.

This quick-water (in reality a solution of mercurous nitrate), is made in the simplest manner by taking 10 parts of mercury and pouring over it 11 parts of nitric acid of a specific gravity equal to 1.33; now let it stand until every part of the mercury is dissolved; then, while stirring vigorously, add 540 parts of water. This solution must be kept in closed flasks or bottles to prevent impurities, such as dust, etc., from falling into it.

The preparatory work on the object to be gilded consists mainly in cleansing it from every trace of oxidation. First, it must be well annealed by placing it in a bed of glowing coal, care being exercised that the heating be uniform. When cooled, this piece is plunged into a highly diluted sulphuric-acid bath in order to dissolve in a measure the oxide. Next it is dipped in a 36° nitric-acid bath, of a specific gravity equal to 1.33, and brushed off with a long brush; it is now dipped into nitric acid into which a little lampblack and table salt have been thrown. It is now ready for washing in clean water and drying in unsoiled sawdust. It is of the greatest importance that the surface to be gilded should appear of a pale yellow tint all over. If it be too smooth the gold will not take hold easily, and if it be too dull it will require too much gold to cover it.

«GOLD ALLOYS:»

«Colored Gold Alloys.»—The alloys of gold with copper have a reddish tinge; those of gold with silver are whiter, and an alloy of gold, silver, and copper together is distinguished by a greenish tone. Manufacturers of gold ware make use of these different colors, one piece being frequently composed of several pieces of varying color. Below are given some of these alloys, with their colors:

──────+──────+──────+──────+─────+─────── │ Gold │Silver│Copper│Steel│Cadmium ──────+──────+──────+──────+─────+─────── I. │ 2.6 │ 1.0 │ — │ — │ — II. │ 75.0 │ 16.6 │ — │ — │ 8.4 III. │ 74.6 │ 11.4 │ 9.7 │ — │ 4.3 IV. │ 75.0 │ 12.6 │ — │ — │ 12.5 V. │ 1.0 │ 2.0 │ — │ — │ — VI. │ 4.0 │ 3.0 │ 1.0 │ — │ — VII. │ 14.7 │ 7.0 │ 6.0 │ — │ — VIII. │ 14.7 │ 9.0 │ 4.0 │ — │ — IX. │ 3.0 │ 1.0 │ 1.0 │ — │ — X. │ 10.0 │ 1.0 │ 4.0 │ — │ — XI. │ 1.0 │ — │ 1.0 │ — │ — XII. │ 1.0 │ — │ 2.0 │ — │ — XIII. │ 30.0 │ 3.0 │ — │ 2.0 │ — XIV. │ 4.0 │ — │ — │ 1.0 │ — XV. │ 29.0 │ 11.0 │ — │ — │ — XVI. │ 1.3 │ — │ — │ 1.0 │ — ──────+──────+──────+──────+─────+───────

Nos. I, II, III, and IV are green gold; No. V is pale yellow; Nos. VI, VII, and VIII bright yellow; Nos. IX and X pale red; Nos. XI and XII bright red; Nos. XIII, XIV, and XV gray; while No. XVI exhibits a bluish tint. The finished gold ware, before being put upon the market, is subjected to a special treatment, consisting either in the simple pickling or in the so-called coloring, which operation is conducted especially with alloys of low degree of fineness, the object being to give the layers a superficial layer of pure gold.

The presence of silver considerably modifies the color of gold, and the jeweler makes use of this property to obtain alloys of various shades. The following proportions are to be observed, viz.: {67}

Gold Silver Copper Color of Gold per per per 1,000 1,000 1,000 I. Green 750 250 — II. Dead leaves 700 300 — III. Sea green 600 400 — IV. Pink 750 200 50 V. English yellow 750 125 125 VI. English white 750 150 100 VII. Whiter 750 170 80 VIII. Less white 750 190 60 IX. Red 750 — 250

Other colored gold alloys are the following:

X. Blue.—Fine gold, 75; iron, 25.

XI. Dark Gray.—Fine gold, 94; iron, 6.

XII. Pale Gray.—Fine gold, 191; iron, 9.

XIII. Cassel Yellow.—Fine gold, 75; fine silver, 12 1⁠/⁠2; rose copper, 12 1⁠/⁠2.

The above figures are understood to be by weight.

The gold solders, known in France under the names of _soudures au quart_ (13 1⁠/⁠2 carat), _au tiers_ (12 carat), and _au deux_ (9 carat), are composed of 3, 2, or 1 part of gold respectively, with 1 part of an alloy consisting of two-thirds silver and one-third copper. Gold also forms with aluminum a series of alloys of greatly varying coloration, the most curious of them, composed of 22 parts of aluminum for 88 parts of gold, possessing a pretty purple shade. But all these alloys, of a highly crystalline base, are very brittle and cannot be worked, for which reason their handsome colorings have not yet been capable of being utilized.

«Enameling Alloys.»—I. Transparent.—This alloy should possess the property of transmitting rays of light so as to give the highest possible effect to the enamel. The alloy of gold for transparent green should be pale; a red or copper alloy does not do for green enamel, the copper has a tendency to darken the color and thus take away a part of its brilliancy. The following alloy for transparent green possesses about the nearest print, in color, to the enamel—which should represent, as near as possible, the color and brilliancy of the emerald—that can be arrived at:

ozs. dwts. grs. Fine gold 0 18 8 Fine silver 0 1 6 Fine copper 0 0 10

No borax must be used in the melting of this alloy, it being of a more fusible nature than the ordinary alloy, and will not take so high a heat in enameling.

II. Red Enamel.—The enamel which forms this color being of a higher fusing point, if proper care be not taken, the gold will melt first, and the work become ruined. In the preparation of red enamel, the coloring matter is usually an oxide of gold, and this so raises the temperature at which it melts that, in order to prevent any mishap, the gold to be enameled on should be what is called a 22-carat red, that is, it should contain a preponderance of copper in the alloying mixture so as to raise the fusing point of the gold. The formula is:

ozs. dwts. grs. Fine gold 0 18 8 Fine silver 0 0 10 Fine copper 0 1 6

«Gold-leaf Alloys.»—All gold made into leaf is more or less alloyed. The gold used by the goldbeater is alloyed according to the variety of color required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable on account of its greater cost. It also adheres by contact of one leaf with another, thus causing spoiled material and wasted labor; but for work exposed to the weather it is much preferable, as it is more durable and does not tarnish or change color.

The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by beaters with the proportion of alloy they contain:

Gold Silver Copper grs. grs. grs. I. Red gold 456–460 — 20–24 II. Pale red 464 — 16 III. Extra deep 456 12 12 IV. Deep 444 24 12 V. Citron 440 30 10 VI. Yellow 408 72 — VII. Pale yellow 384 96 — VIII. Lemon 360 120 — IX. Green or pale 312 168 — X. White 240 240 —

«Gold-Plate Alloys.»—Gold, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts.

II.—Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts.

III.—Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 parts.

«IMITATION GOLD.»

I.—One hundred parts, by weight, of copper of the purest quality; 14 of zinc or tin; 6 of magnesia; 3⁠/⁠6 of sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tartar. The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tartar in powder are added separately and gradually. The whole mass is kept stirred for a half hour, the zinc or tin being dropped in piece by piece, the {68} stirring being kept up till they melt. Finally the crucible is covered and the mass is kept in fusion 35 minutes and, the same being removed, the metal is poured into molds, and is then ready for use. The alloy thus made is said to be fine-grained, malleable, takes a high polish, and does not easily oxidize.

II.—An invention, patented in Germany, covers a metallic alloy, to take the place of gold, which, even if exposed for some time to the

## action of ammoniacal and acid vapors, does not oxidize or lose its gold

color. It can be rolled and worked like gold and has the appearance of genuine gold without containing the slightest admixture of that metal. The alloy consists of copper and antimony in the approximate ratio of 100 to 6, and is produced by adding to molten copper, as soon as it has reached a certain degree of heat, the said percentage of antimony. When the antimony has likewise melted and entered into intimate union with the copper, some charcoal ashes, magnesium, and lime spar are added to the mass when the latter is still in the crucible.

III. Aluminum Gold.—This alloy, called Nuremberg gold, is used for making cheap gold ware, and is excellent for this purpose, as its color is exactly that of pure gold, and does not change in the air. Articles made of Nuremberg gold need no gilding, and retain their color under the hardest usage; even the fracture of this alloy shows the pure gold color. The composition is usually 90 parts of copper, 2.5 of gold, and 7.5 of aluminum.

IV.—Imitation gold, capable of being worked and drawn into wire, consists of 950 parts copper, 45 aluminum, and 2 to 5 of silver.

V.—Chrysochalk is similar in composition to Mannheim gold:

I II Copper 90.5 58.68 Zinc 7.9 40.22 Lead 1.6 1.90

In color it resembles gold, but quickly loses its beauty if exposed to the air, on account of the oxidation of the copper. It can, however, be kept bright for a long time by a coating of colorless varnish, which excludes the air and prevents oxidation. Chrysochalk is used for most of the ordinary imitations of gold. Cheap watch chains and jewelry are manufactured from it, and it is widely used by the manufacturers of imitation bronze ornaments.

«Mannheim Gold or Similor.»—Mannheim gold is composed of copper, zinc, and tin, in proportions about as follows:

I II Copper 83.7 89.8 Zinc 9.3 9.9 Tin 7.0 0.6

It has a fine yellow color, and was formerly much used in making buttons and pressed articles resembling gold. Later alloys, however, surpass it in color, and it has fallen somewhat into disuse. One variety of Mannheim gold, so called, contains 1.40 parts of brass (composition 3 Cu_〈2〉 1 Zn) to 10 of copper and 0.1 of zinc.

«Mosaic Gold.»—This is an alloy composed—with slight deviations—of 100 parts of copper and 50 to 55 of zinc. It has a beautiful color, closely resembling that of gold, and is distinguished by a very fine grain, which makes it especially suitable for the manufacture of castings which are afterwards to be gilded. The best method of obtaining a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of the two metals is first to put into the crucible one-half of the zinc to be used, place the cover upon it, and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax at as low a temperature as possible. Have ready the other half of the zinc, cut into small pieces and heated almost to melting, and when the contents of the crucible are liquid throw it in, a small portion at a time, stirring constantly to effect as intimate a mixture of the metals as possible.

«Oreïde or Oroïde (French Gold).»—The so-called French gold, when polished, so closely resembles genuine gold in color that it can scarcely be distinguished from it. Besides its beautiful color, it has the valuable properties of being very ductile and tenacious, so that it can easily be stamped into any desired shape; it also takes a high polish. It is frequently used for the manufacture of spoons, forks, etc., but is unsuitable for this purpose on account of the large amount of copper contained in it, rendering it injurious to health. The directions for preparing this alloy vary greatly. The products of some Paris factories show the following composition:

I II III Copper 90 80.5 86.21 Zinc 10 14.5 31.52 Tin — — 0.48 Iron — — 0.24

A special receipt for oreïde is the following:

IV.—Melt 100 parts of copper and add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 1.8 of lime, and 9 of crude tartar. Stir again {69} thoroughly, and add 17 parts of granulated zinc, and after mixing it with the copper by vigorous stirring keep the alloy liquid for one hour. Then carefully remove the scum and pour off the alloy.

«Pinchbeck.»—This was first manufactured in England. Its dark gold color is the best imitation of gold alloyed with copper. Being very ductile, it can easily be rolled out into thin plates, which can be given any desired shape by stamping. It does not readily oxidize, and thus fulfills all the requirements for making cheap jewelry, which is its principal use.

Copper 88.8 93.6 Zinc 11.2 6.4

Or

Copper 2.1 1.28 Zinc — 0.7 Brass 1.0 0.7

«Palladium Gold.»—Alloys of gold, copper, silver, and palladium have a brownish-red color and are nearly as hard as iron. They are sometimes (although rarely) used for the bearings for the axles of the wheels of fine watches, as they invite little friction and do not rust in the air. The composition used in the Swiss and English watch factories consists usually of gold 18 parts, copper 13 parts, silver 11, and palladium 6.

«Talmi Gold.»—The name of talmi gold was first applied to articles of jewelry, chains, earrings, bracelets, etc., brought from Paris, and distinguished by beautiful workmanship, a low price, and great durability. Later, when this alloy had acquired a considerable reputation, articles were introduced under the same name, but which were really made of other metals, and which retained their beautiful gold color only as long as they were not used. The fine varieties of talmi gold are manufactured from brass, copper, or tombac, covered with a thin plate of gold, combined with the base by rolling, under strong pressure. The plates are then rolled out by passing through rollers, and the coating not only acquires considerable density, but adheres so closely to the base that the metal will keep its beautiful appearance for years. Of late, many articles of talmi gold have been introduced whose gold coating is produced by electroplating, and is in many cases so thin that hard rubbing will bring through the color of the base. Such articles, of course, are not durable. In genuine talmi gold, the coating, even though it may be thin, adheres very closely to the base, for the reason that the two metals are actually welded by the rolling, and also because alloyed gold is always used, which is much harder than pure gold. The pure gold of electroplating is very soft. The composition of some varieties of talmi gold are here given. It will be seen that the content of gold varies greatly, and the durability of the alloy will, of course, correspond to this. The alloys I, II, III are genuine Paris talmi gold; IV, V, and VI are electroplated imitations; and VII is an alloy of a wrong composition, to which the gold does not adhere firmly:

Copper Zinc Tin Iron Gold I. 89.9 9.3 — — 1.3

II. 90.8 8.3 — — 0.9

III. 90.0 8.9 — — 0.9

IV. 90.7 89.0 — — 0.5 88.2 11.4

V. 87.5 12.4 — — 0.3 83.1 17.0

VI. 93.5 6.6 — — 0.05 84.5 15.8

VII. 86.0 12.0 1.1 0.3 —

«Japanese Alloys.»—In Japan some specialties in metallic alloys are in use of which the composition is as follows:

Shadke consists of copper with from 1 to 10 per cent of gold. Articles made from this alloy are laid in a pickle of blue vitriol, alum, and verdigris, until they acquire a bluish-black color.

Gui-shi-bu-ichi is an alloy of copper containing 30 to 50 per cent of silver. It possesses a peculiar gray shade.

Mokume consists of several compositions. Thus, about 30 gold foils (genuine) are welded together with shadke, copper, silver, and gui-shi-bu-ichi and pierced. The pierced holes are, after firmly hammering together the plates, filled up with the above-named pickle.

The finest Japanese brass consists of 10 parts copper and 8 parts zinc, and is called siachu. The bell metal kara kane is composed of copper 10 parts, tin 10 parts, iron 0.5 part, and zinc 1.5 parts. The copper is first fused, then the remaining metals are added in rotation.

«GERMAN SILVER OR ARGENTAN.»

The composition of this alloy varies considerably, but from the adjoined figures an average may be found, which will represent, approximately, the normal composition:

Copper 50 to 66 parts Zinc 19 to 31 parts Nickel 13 to 18 parts

The properties of the different kinds, such as their color, ductility, fusibility, {70} etc., vary with the proportions of the single metals. For making spoons, forks, cups, candlesticks, etc., the most suitable proportions are 50 parts of copper, 25 of zinc, and 25 of nickel. This metal has a beautiful blue-white color, and does not tarnish easily.

German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon, if allowed to fall upon the floor, will break; this, of course, indicates faulty composition. But the following table will show how the character of the alloy changes with the varying percentage of the metals composing it:

Copper Zinc Nickel Quality I. 8 3.5 4 Finest quality. II. 8 3.5 6 Beautiful, but refractory. III. 8 6.5 3 Ordinary, readily fusible. IV. 52 26.0 22 First quality. V. 59 30.0 11 Second quality. VI. 63 31.0 6 Third quality.

The following analyses give further particulars in regard to different kinds of German silver:

───────────+──────+──────+──────+─────+────── For sheet │Copper│ Zinc │Nickel│ Lead│ Iron ───────────+──────+──────+──────+─────+────── (French) │ 50.0 │ 31.3 │ 18.7 │ — │ — (French) │ 50.0 │ 30.0 │ 20.0 │ — │ — (French) │ 58.3 │ 25.0 │ 16.7 │ — │ — Vienna │ 50.0 │ 25.0 │ 25.0 │ — │ — Vienna │ 55.6 │ 22.0 │ 22.0 │ — │ — Vienna │ 60.0 │ 20.0 │ 20.0 │ — │ — Berlin │ 54.0 │ 28.0 │ 18.0 │ — │ — Berlin │ 55.5 │ 29.1 │ 17.5 │ — │ — English │ 63.34│ 17.01│ 19.13│ — │ — English │ 62.40│ 22.15│ 15.05│ — │ — English │ 62.63│ 26.05│ 10.85│ — │ — English │ 57.40│ 25. │ 13.0 │ — │ 3.0 Chinese │ 26.3 │ 36.8 │ 36.8 │ — │ — Chinese │ 43.8 │ 40.6 │ 15.6 │ — │ — Chinese │ 45.7 │ 36.9 │ 17.9 │ — │ — Chinese │ 40.4 │ 25.4 │ 31.6 │ — │ 2.6 Castings │ 48.5 │ 24.3 │ 24.3 │ 2.9 │ — Castings │ 54.5 │ 21.8 │ 21.8 │ 1.9 │ — Castings │ 58.3 │ 19.4 │ 19.4 │ 2.9 │ — Castings │ 57.8 │ 27.1 │ 14.3 │ 0.8 │ — Castings │ 57. │ 20.0 │ 20.0 │ 3.0 │ — ───────────+──────+──────+──────+─────+──────

In some kinds of German silver are found varying quantities of iron, manganese, tin, and very frequently lead, added for the purpose of changing the properties of the alloy or cheapening the cost of production. But all these metals have a detrimental rather than a beneficial effect upon the general character of the alloy, and especially lessen its power of resistance to the action of dilute acids, one of its most valuable properties. Lead makes it more fusible; tin acts somewhat as in bronze, making it denser and more resonant, and enabling it to take a higher polish. With iron or manganese the alloy is whiter, but it becomes at the same time more refractory and its tendency toward brittleness is increased.

«SUBSTITUTES FOR GERMAN SILVER.»

There are many formulas for alloys which claim to be substitutes for German silver; but no one of them has yet become an article of general commerce. It will be sufficient to note these materials briefly, giving the composition of the most important.

«Nickel Bronze.»—This is prepared by fusing together very highly purified nickel (99.5 per cent) with copper, tin, and zinc. A bronze is produced containing 20 per cent of nickel, light-colored and very hard.

«Bismuth Bronze.»—

I II III IV Copper 25.0 45.0 69.0 47.0 Nickel 24.0 32.5 10.0 30.9 Antimony 50.0 — — — Bismuth 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.1 Tin — 16.0 15.0 1.0 Zinc — 21.5 20.0 21.0 Aluminum — — 1.0 —

I is hard and very lustrous, suitable for lamp reflectors and axle bearings; II is hard, resonant, and not affected by sea water, for parts of ships, pipes, telegraph wires, and piano strings; III and IV are for cups, spoons, etc.

«Manganese Argentan.»—

Copper 52 to 50 parts Nickel 17 to 15 parts Zinc 5 to 10 parts Manganese 1 to 5 parts Copper, with 15 per cent phosphorus. 3 to 5 parts

Readily cast for objects of art.

«Aphtite.»—

Iron 66 parts Nickel 23 parts Tungsten 4 parts Copper 5 parts

«Arguzoid.»—

Copper 55.78 parts Zinc 23.198 parts Nickel 13.406 parts Tin 4.035 parts Lead 3.544 parts

Silver white, almost ductile, suited for artistic purposes. {71}

«Ferro-Argentan.»—

Copper 70.0 parts Nickel 20.0 parts Zinc 5.5 parts Cadmium 4.5 parts

Resembles silver; worked like German silver.

«Silver Bronze.»—Manganese, 18 per cent; aluminum, 1.2 per cent; silicium, 5 per cent; zinc, 13 per cent; copper, 67.5 per cent. The electric resistance of silver bronze is greater than that of German silver, hence it ought to be highly suitable for rheostats.

«Instrument Alloys.»—The following are suitable for physical and optical instruments, metallic mirrors, telescopes, etc.:

I.—Copper, 62 parts; tin, 33 parts; lead, 5 parts.

II.—Copper, 80; antimony, 11; lead, 9.

III.—Copper, 10; tin, 10; antimony, 10; lead, 40.

IV.—Copper, 30; tin, 50; silver, 2; arsenic, 1.

V.—Copper, 66; tin, 33.

VI.—Copper, 64; tin, 26.

VII.—Steel, 90; nickel, 10.

VIII.—Platinum, 60; copper, 40.

IX.—Platinum, 45; steel, 55.

X.—Platinum, 55; iron, 45.

XI.—Platinum, 15; steel, 85.

XII.—Platinum, 20; copper, 79; arsenic, 1.

XIII.—Platinum, 62; iron, 28; gold, 10.

XIV.—Gold, 48; zinc, 52.

XV.—Steel, 50; rhodium, 50.

XVI.—Platinum, 12; iridium, 88.

XVII.—Copper, 89.5; tin, 8.5; zinc, 2.

«LEAD ALLOYS.»

The following alloys, principally lead, are used for various purposes:

«Bibra Alloy.»—This contains 8 parts of bismuth, 9 of tin, and 38 to 40 of lead.

«Metallic Coffins.»—Tin, 40 parts; lead, 45 parts; copper, 15 parts.

«Plates for Engraving.»—I.—Lead, 84 parts; antimony, 16 parts.

II.—Lead, 86 parts; antimony, 14 parts.

III.—Lead, 87 parts; antimony, 12 parts; copper, 1 part.

IV.—Lead, 81 parts; antimony, 14 parts; tin, 5 parts.

V.—Lead, 73 parts; antimony, 17 parts; zinc, 10 parts.

VI.—Tin, 53 parts; lead, 43 parts; antimony, 4 parts.

Hard lead is made of lead, 84 parts; antimony, 16 parts.

«Sheet Metal Alloy.»—

Tin 35 parts Lead 250 parts Copper 2.5 parts Zinc 0.5 part

This alloy has a fine white color, and can be readily rolled into thin sheets. For that reason it is well adapted for lining tea chests and for the production of tobacco and chocolate wrappers. The copper and zinc are used in the form of fine shavings. The alloy should be immediately cast into thin plates, which can then be passed through rolls.

«MAGNETIC ALLOYS.»

Alloys which can be magnetized most strongly are composed of copper, manganese, and aluminum, the quantities of manganese and aluminum being proportional to their atomic weights (55.0 to 27.1, or about 2 to 1). The maximum magnetization increases rapidly with increase of manganese, but alloys containing much manganese are exceedingly brittle and cannot be wrought. The highest practicable proportion of manganese at present is 24 per cent.

These magnetic alloys were studied by Hensler, Haupt, and Starck, and Gumlich has recently examined them at the Physikalisch—technische Reichsanstalt, with very remarkable and interesting results.

The two alloys examined were composed as follows:

Alloy I.—Copper, 61.5 per cent; manganese, 23.5 per cent; aluminum, 15 per cent; lead, 0.1 per cent, with traces of iron and silicon.

Alloy II.—Copper, 67.7 per cent; manganese, 20.5 per cent; aluminum, 10.7 per cent; lead, 1.2 per cent, with traces of iron and silicon.

Alloy II could be worked without difficulty, but alloy I was so brittle that it broke under the hammer. A bar 7 inches long and 1⁠/⁠4 inch thick was obtained by grinding. This broke in two during the measurements, but, fortunately, without invalidating them. Such a material is evidently unsuited to practical uses.

The behavior of magnetic alloys at high temperatures is very peculiar. Alloy I is indifferent to temperature changes, which scarcely affect its magnetic properties, but the behavior of alloy II is very different. Prolonged heating to 230° F. produces a great increase in its capability of magnetization, which, after 544 hours’ heating, rises from 1.9 to 3.2 kilogauss, {72} approaching the strength of alloy I. But when alloy II is heated to 329° F., its capability of magnetization fails again and the material suffers permanent injury, which can be

## partly, but not wholly, cured by prolonged heating.

Another singular phenomenon was exhibited by both of these alloys. When a bar of iron is magnetized by an electric current, it acquires its full magnetic strength almost instantaneously on the closure of the circuit. The magnetic alloys, on the contrary, do not attain their full magnetization for several minutes. In some of the experiments a gradual increase was observed even after the current had been flowing five minutes.

In magnetic strength alloy I proved far superior to alloy II, which contained smaller proportions of manganese and aluminum. Alloy I showed magnetic strengths up to 4.5 kilogauss, while the highest magnetization obtained with alloy II was only 1.9 kilogauss. But even alloy II may be called strongly magnetic, for its maximum magnetization is about one-tenth that of good wrought iron (18 to 20 kilogauss), or one-sixth that of cast iron (10 to 12 kilogauss). Alloy I is nearly equal in magnetic properties to nickel, which can be magnetized up to about 5 kilogauss.

«MANGANESE ALLOYS:»

«Manganese bronze» is a bronze deprived of its oxide by an admixture of manganese. The manganese is used as copper manganese containing 10 to 30 per cent manganese and added to the bronze to the amount of 0.5 to 2 per cent.

«Manganese Copper.»—The alloys of copper with manganese have a beautiful silvery color, considerable ductility, great hardness and tenacity, and are more readily fusible than ordinary bronze. A special characteristic is that they exactly fill out the molds, without the formation of blowholes, and present no difficulties in casting.

Cupromanganese is suitable for many purposes for which nothing else but bronze can advantageously be used, and the cost of its production is no greater than that of genuine bronze. In preparing the alloy, the copper is used in the form of fine grains, obtained by pouring melted copper into cold water. These copper grains are mixed with the dry oxide of manganese, and the mixture put into a crucible holding about 66 pounds. Enough space must be left in the crucible to allow a thick cover of charcoal, as the manganese oxidizes easily. The crucible is placed in a well-drawing wind furnace and subjected to a strong white heat. The oxide of manganese is completely reduced to manganese, which at once combines with the copper to form an alloy. In order to prevent, as far as possible, the access of air to the fusing mass, it is advisable to cover the crucible with a lid which has an aperture in the center for the escape of the carbonic oxide formed during the reduction.

When the reduction is complete and the metals fused, the lid is removed and the contents of the crucible stirred with an iron rod, in order to make the alloy as homogeneous as possible. By repeated remelting of the cupromanganese a considerable quantity of the manganese is reconverted into oxide; it is, therefore, advisable to make the casts directly from the crucible. When poured out, the alloy rapidly solidifies, and resembles in appearance good German silver. Another reason for avoiding remelting is that the crucible is strongly attacked by the cupromanganese, and can be used but a few times.

The best kinds of cupromanganese contain between 10 and 30 per cent of manganese. They have a beautiful white color, are hard, tougher than copper, and can be worked under the hammer or with rolls. Some varieties of cupromanganese which are especially valuable for technical purposes are given below:

I II III IV Copper 75 60 65 60 Manganese 25 25 20 20 Zinc — 15 5 — Tin — — — 10 Nickel — — 10 10

«Manganin.»—This is an alloy of copper, nickel, and manganese for electric resistances.

«MIRROR ALLOYS:»

«Amalgams for Mirrors.»—I.—Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts.

II.—For curved mirrors. Tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 9 parts.

III.—For glass balls. Tin, 80 parts; mercury, 20 parts.

IV.—Metallic cement. Copper, 30 parts; mercury, 70 parts.

V.—Mirror metal.—Copper, 100 parts; tin, 50 parts; Chinese copper, 8 parts; lead, 1 part; antimony, 1 part.

«Reflector Metals.»—I.—(Cooper’s.) Copper, 35 parts; platinum, 6; zinc, 2; tin, 16.5; arsenic, 1. On account of the hardness of this alloy, it takes a very high polish; it is impervious to the effects of the weather, and is therefore remarkably {73} well adapted to the manufacture of mirrors for fine optical instruments.

II.—(Duppler’s.) Zinc, 20 parts; silver, 80 parts.

III.—Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 33.11 parts; arsenic, 0.67 part.

IV.—Copper, 64 parts; tin, 32 parts; arsenic, 4 parts.

V.—Copper, 82.18 parts; lead, 9.22 parts; antimony, 8.60 parts.

VI.—(Little’s.) Copper, 69.01 parts; tin, 30.82 parts; zinc, 2.44 parts; arsenic, 1.83 parts.

«Speculum Metal.»—Alloys consisting of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin can be very brilliantly polished, and will serve for mirrors. Good speculum metal should have a very fine-grained fracture, should be white and very hard, the highest degree of polish depending upon these qualities. A composition to meet these requirements must contain at least 35 to 36 per cent of copper. Attempts have frequently been made to increase the hardness of speculum metal by additions of nickel, antimony, and arsenic. With the exception of nickel, these substances have the effect of causing the metal to lose its high luster easily, any considerable quantity of arsenic in particular having this effect.

The real speculum metal seems to be a combination of the formula Cu_〈4〉Sn, composed of copper 68.21 per cent, tin 31.7. An alloy of this nature is sometimes separated from ordnance bronze by incorrect treatment, causing the so-called tin spots; but this has not the pure white color which distinguishes the speculum metal containing 31.5 per cent of tin. By increasing the percentage of copper the color gradually shades into yellow; with a larger amount of tin into blue. It is dangerous to increase the tin too much, as this changes the other properties of the alloy, and it becomes too brittle to be worked. Below is a table showing different compositions of speculum metal. The standard alloy is undoubtedly the best.

Copper Tin Zinc Arsenic Silver Standard alloy 68.21 31.7 — — — Otto’s alloy 68.5 31.5 — — — Richardson’s alloy 65.3 30.0 0.7 2. 2. Sollit’s alloy 64.6 31.3 4.1 Nickel — Chinese speculum metal 80.83 — — 8.5 Antimony Old Roman 63.39 19.05 — 17.29 Lead

«PALLADIUM ALLOYS.»

I.—An alloy of palladium 24 parts, gold 80, is white, hard as steel, unchangeable in the air, and can, like the other alloys of palladium, be used for dental purposes.

II.—Palladium 6 parts, gold 18, silver 11, and copper 13, gives a reddish-brown, hard, and very fine-grained alloy, suitable for the bearings of pivots in clock works.

The alloys of most of the other platinum metals, so called, are little used on account of their rarity and costliness. Iridium and rhodium give great hardness to steel, but the commercial rhodium and iridium steel, so called, frequently contains not a trace of either. The alloy of iridium with osmium has great hardness and resistance and is recommended for pivots, fine instruments, and points of ship compasses.

«Palladium Silver.»—This alloy, composed of 9 parts of palladium and 1 of silver, is used almost exclusively for dental purposes, and is well suited to the manufacture of artificial teeth, as it does not oxidize. An alloy even more frequently used than this consists of platinum 10 parts, palladium 8, and gold 6.

«Palladium Bearing Metal.»—This alloy is extremely hard, and is used instead of jewel bearings in watches. It is composed of palladium 24 parts, gold 72, silver 44, copper 92.

«PLATINUM ALLOYS.»

Platinum has usually been alloyed with silver in goldsmith’s work, 2 parts silver to 1 of platinum being taken to form the favorite “platinum silver.” The object has been to produce an alloy having a white appearance, which can be polished, and at the same time has a low melting point. In addition to this platinum alloy the following are well known:

I.—A mixture of 7 parts platinum with 3 parts iridium. This gives to platinum the hardness of steel, which can be still further increased by taking 4 parts of iridium.

II.—An alloy of 9 parts platinum and 1 part iridium is used by the French in the manufacture of measuring instruments of great resisting power.

Compounds of copper, nickel, cadmium, and tungsten are also used in the construction of parts of watches; the latter acquire considerable hardness without becoming magnetic or rusting like steel.

III.—For this purpose a compound of {74} 62.75 parts platinum, 18 parts copper, 1.25 parts cadmium, and 18 parts nickel is much recommended.

IV.—Very ductile platinum-copper alloys have also been made, e. g., the so-called Cooper gold, consisting of 3 parts platinum and 13 parts copper, which is almost equal to 18-carat gold in regard to color, finish, and ductility. If 4 per cent of platinum is taken, these latter alloys acquire a rose-red color, while a golden-yellow color can be produced by further adding from 1 to 2 per cent (in all 5 to 6 per cent) of platinum. The last-named alloy is extensively used for ornaments, likewise alloy V.

V.—Ten parts platinum, 60 parts nickel, and 220 parts brass, or 2 parts platinum, 1 part nickel and silver respectively, 2 parts brass, and 5 parts copper; this also gives a golden-yellow color.

VI.—For table utensils a favorite alloy is composed of 1 part platinum, 100 parts nickel, and 10 parts tin. Articles made of the latter alloy are impervious to atmospheric action and keep their polish for a long time. Pure white platinum alloys have for some time been used in dental work, and they have also proved serviceable for jewelry.

VII.—A mixture of 30 parts platinum, 10 parts gold, and 3 parts silver, or 7 parts platinum, 2 parts gold, and 3 parts silver.

VIII.—For enameled articles: Platinum, 35 parts; silver, 65 parts. First fuse the silver, then add the platinum in the spongy form. A good solder for this is platinum 80 parts, copper 20 parts.

IX.—For pens: Platinum, 4 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part.

«Platinum Gold.»—Small quantities of platinum change the characteristics of gold in many respects. With a small percentage the color is noticeably lighter than that of pure gold, and the alloys are extremely elastic; alloys containing more than 20 per cent of platinum, however, almost entirely lose their elasticity. The melting point of the platinum-gold alloy is high, and alloys containing 70 per cent of platinum can be fused only in the flame of oxyhydrogen gas, like platinum itself. Alloys with a smaller percentage of platinum can be prepared in furnaces, but require the strongest white heat. In order to avoid the chance of an imperfect alloy from too low a temperature, it is always safer to fuse them with the oxyhydrogen flame. The alloys of platinum and gold have a somewhat limited application. Those which contain from 5 to 10 per cent of platinum are used for sheet and wire in the manufacture of artificial teeth.

«Platinum-Gold Alloys for Dental Purposes.»—

I II III Platinum 6 14 10 Gold 2 4 6 Silver 1 6 — Palladium — — 8

«Platinum Silver.»—An addition of platinum to silver makes it harder, but also more brittle, and changes the white color to gray. An alloy which contains only a very small percentage of platinum is noticeably darker in color than pure silver. Such alloys are prepared under the name of _platine au titre_, containing between 17 and 35 per cent of platinum. They are almost exclusively used for dental purposes.

«Imitation Platinum.»—I.—Brass, 100 parts; zinc, 65 parts.

II.—Brass, 120 parts; zinc, 75 parts.

III.—Copper, 5 parts; nickel, 4 parts; zinc, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts; antimony, 1 part; lead, 1 part; iron, 1 part; tin, 1 part.

«Cooper’s Pen Metal.»—This alloy is especially well adapted to the manufacture of pens, on account of its great hardness, elasticity, and power of resistance to atmospheric influences, and would certainly have superseded steel if it were possible to produce it more cheaply than is the case. The compositions most frequently used for pen metal are copper 1 part, platinum 4, and silver 3; or, copper 21, platinum 50, and silver 36.

Pens have been manufactured, consisting of several sections, each of a different alloy, suited to the special purpose of the part. Thus, for instance, the sides of the pen are made of the elastic composition just described; the upper part is of an alloy of silver and platinum; and the point is made either of minute cut rubies or of an extremely hard alloy of osmium and iridium, joined to the body of the pen by melting in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. The price of such pens, made of expensive materials and at the cost of great labor, is of course exceedingly high, but their excellent qualities repay the extra expense. They are not in the least affected by any kind of ink, are most durable, and can be used constantly for years without showing any signs of wear.

The great hardness and resistance to the atmosphere of Cooper’s alloys make them very suitable for manufacturing {75} mathematical instruments where great precision is required. It can scarcely be calculated how long a chronometer, for instance, whose wheels are constructed of this alloy, will run before showing any irregularities due to wear. In the construction of such instruments, the price of the material is not to be taken into account, since the cost of the labor in their manufacture so far exceeds this.

«PEWTER.»

This is an alloy of tin and lead only, or of tin with antimony and copper. The first is properly called pewter. Three varieties are known in trade:

I (Plate Pewter).—From tin, 79 per cent; antimony, 7 per cent; bismuth and copper, of each 2 per cent; fused together. Used to make plates, teapots, etc. Takes a fine polish.

II (Triple Pewter).—From tin, 79 per cent; antimony, 15 per cent; lead, 6 per cent; as the last. Used for minor articles, syringes, toys, etc.

III (Ley Pewter).—From tin, 80 per cent; lead, 20 per cent. Used for measures, inkstands, etc.

According to the report of a French commission, pewter containing more than 18 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is unsafe for measures for wine and similar liquors, and, indeed, for any other utensils exposed to contact with food or beverages. The legal specific gravity of pewter in France is 7.764; if it be greater, it contains an excess of lead, and is liable to prove poisonous. The proportions of these metals may be approximately determined from the specific gravity; but correctly only by an assay for the purpose.

«SILVER ALLOYS:»

«Aluminum Silver.»—Aluminum and silver form beautiful white alloys which are considerably harder than pure aluminum, and take a very high polish. They have the advantage over copper alloys of being unchanged by exposure to the air, and of retaining their white color.

The properties of aluminum and silver alloys vary considerably according to the percentage of aluminum.

I.—An alloy of 100 parts of aluminum and 5 parts of silver is very similar to pure aluminum, but is harder and takes a finer polish.

II.—One hundred and sixty-nine parts of aluminum and 5 of silver make an elastic alloy, recommended for watch springs and dessert knives.

III.—An alloy of equal parts of silver and aluminum is as hard as bronze.

IV.—Five parts of aluminum and 1 part of silver make an alloy that is easily worked.

V.—Also aluminum, 3 parts, and silver, 1 part.

VI. Tiers-Argent.—This alloy is prepared chiefly in Paris, and used for the manufacture of various utensils. As indicated by its name (one-third silver), it consists of 33.33 parts of silver and 66.66 parts of aluminum. Its advantages over silver consist in its lower price and greater hardness; it can also be stamped and engraved more easily than the alloys of copper and silver.

VII.—This is a hard alloy which has been found very useful for the operating levers of certain machines, such as the spacing lever of a typewriter. The metal now generally used for this purpose by the various typewriter companies is “aluminum silver,” or “silver metal.” The proportions are given as follows:

Copper 57.00 Nickel 20.00 Zinc 20.00 Aluminum 3.00

This alloy when used on typewriting machines is nickel-plated for the sake of the first appearance, but so far as corrosion is concerned, nickeling is unnecessary. The alloy is stiff and strong and cannot be bent to any extent without breaking, especially if the percentage of aluminum is increased to 3.5 per cent; it casts free from pinholes and blowholes; the liquid metal completely fills the mold, giving sharp, clean castings, true to pattern; its cost is not greater than brass; its color is silver white, and its hardness makes it susceptible to a high polish.

«Arsenic.»—Alloys which contain small quantities of arsenic are very ductile, have a beautiful white color, and were formerly used in England in the manufacture of tableware. They are not, however, suitable for this purpose, on account of the poisonous character of the arsenic. They are composed usually of 49 parts of silver, 49 of copper, and 2 of arsenic.

«China Silver.»—Copper, 65.24 per cent; tin, 19.52 per cent; nickel, 13.00 per cent; silver, 2.05 per cent.

«Copper-Silver.»—When silver is alloyed with copper only one proportion is known which will give a uniform casting. The proportion is 72 per cent silver to 28 per cent copper. With more silver than 72 per cent the center of a cast bar will be {76} richer than the outside, which chills first; while with a less percentage than 72 per cent the center of the bar will be poorer and the outside richer than the average. This characteristic of silver-copper alloys is known to metallurgists as “segregation.”

When nickel is added to the silver and copper, several good alloys may be formed, as the following French compositions:

I II III Silver 33 40 20 Copper 37–42 30–40 45–55 Nickel 25–30 20–30 25–35

The whitening of alloys of silver and copper is best accomplished by annealing the alloy until it turns black on the surface. Cool in a mixture of 20 parts, by weight, of concentrated sulphuric acid to 1,000 parts of distilled water and leave therein for some time. In place of the sulphuric acid, 40 parts of potassium bisulphate may be used per 1,000 parts of liquid. Repeat the process if necessary.

«Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Alloys.»—Cadmium added to silver alloys gives great flexibility and ductility, without affecting the white color; these properties are valuable in the manufacture of silver-plated ware and wire. The proportions of the metals vary in these alloys. Some of the most important varieties are given below.

Silver Copper Cadmium I. 980 15 5 II. 950 15 35 III. 900 18 82 IV. 860 20 180 V. 666 25 309 VI. 667 50 284 VII. 500 50 450

In preparing these alloys, the great volatility of cadmium must be taken into account. It is customary to prepare first the alloy of silver and copper, and add the cadmium, which, as in the case of the alloys of silver and zinc, must be wrapped in paper. After putting it in, the mass is quickly stirred, and the alloy poured immediately into the molds. This is the surest way to prevent the volatilization of the cadmium.

«Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Alloys.»—These alloys, from the metals contained in them, may be characterized as argentan or German silver with a certain percentage of silver. They have been used for making small coins, as in the older coins of Switzerland. Being quite hard, they have the advantage of wearing well, but soon lose their beautiful white color and take on a disagreeable shade of yellow, like poor brass. The silver contained in them can be regained only by a laborious process, which is a great drawback to their use in coinage. The composition of the Swiss fractional coins is as follows:

20 centimes 10 centimes 5 centimes Silver 15 10 5 Copper 50 55 60 Nickel 25 25 25 Zinc 10 10 10

«Mousset’s Alloy.»—Copper, 59.06; silver, 27.56; zinc, 9.57; nickel, 3.42. This alloy is yellowish with a reddish tinge, but white on the fractured surface. It ranks next after Argent-Ruolz, which also contains sometimes certain quantities of zinc, and in this case may be classed together with the alloy just described. The following alloys can be rolled into sheet or drawn into wire:

I II III Silver 33.3 34 40.0 Copper 41.8 42 44.6 Nickel 8.6 8 4.6 Zinc 16.3 16 10.8

«Japanese (Gray) Silver.»—An alloy is prepared in Japan which consists of equal parts of copper and silver, and which is given a beautiful gray color by boiling in a solution of alum, to which copper sulphate and verdigris are added. The so-called “mokum,” also a Japanese alloy, is prepared by placing thin plates of gold, silver, copper, and the alloy just described over each other and stretching them under the hammer. The cross sections of the thin plates obtained in this way show the colors of the different metals, which give them a peculiar striped appearance. Mokum is principally used for decorations upon gold and silver articles.

«Silver-Zinc.»—Silver and zinc have great affinity for each other, and alloys of these two metals are therefore easily made. The required quantity of zinc, wrapped in paper, is thrown into the melted and strongly heated silver, the mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron rod, and at once poured out into molds. Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained which are both ductile and flexible. An alloy consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 of silver closely resembles silver in color, and is quite ductile. With a larger proportion of zinc the alloy becomes brittle. In preparing the alloy, a somewhat larger quantity of zinc must be taken than the {77} finished alloy is intended to contain, as a small amount always volatilizes.

«Imitation Silver Alloys.»—There are a number of alloys, composed of different metals, which resemble silver, and may be briefly mentioned here.

I.—Warne’s metal is composed of tin 10 parts, bismuth 7, and cobalt 3. It is white, fine-grained, but quite difficult to fuse.

II.—Tonca’s metal contains copper 5 parts, nickel 4, tin 1, lead 1, iron 1, zinc 1, antimony 1. It is hard, difficult to fuse, not very ductile, and cannot be recommended.

III.—Trabuk metal contains tin 87.5, nickel 5.5, antimony 5, bismuth 5.

IV.—Tourun-Leonard’s metal is composed of 500 parts of tin and 64 of bell metal.

V.—Silveroid is an alloy of copper, nickel, tin, zinc, and lead.

VI.—Minargent. Copper, 100 parts; nickel, 70 parts; tungsten, 5 parts; aluminum, 1 part.

VII.—Nickel, 23 parts; aluminum, 5 parts; copper, 5 parts; iron, 65 parts; tungsten, 4 parts.

VIII.—Argasoid. Tin, 4.035; lead, 3.544; copper, 55.780; nickel, 13.406; zinc, 23.198; iron, trace.

SOLDERS: See Solders.

«STEEL ALLOYS: See also Steel.»

«For Locomotive Cylinders.»—This mixture consists of 20 per cent steel castings, old steel springs, etc.; 20 per cent No. 2 coke iron, and 60 per cent scrap. From this it is stated a good solid metal can be obtained, the castings being free from honeycombing, and finishing better than the ordinary cast-iron mixture, over which it has the advantage of 24 per cent greater strength. Its constituents are: Silicon, 1.51; manganese, 0.33; phosphorus, 0.65; sulphur, 0.068; combined carbon, 0.62; graphite, 2.45.

Nickel steel is composed of nickel 36 per cent, steel 64 per cent.

Tungsten steel is crucible steel with 5 to 12 per cent tungsten.

«STEREOTYPE METAL.»

Lead 2 parts Tin 3 parts Bismuth 5 parts

The melting point of this alloy is 196° F. The alloy is rather costly because of the amount of bismuth which it contains. The following mixtures are cheaper:

I II III IV Tin 1 3 1 2 Lead 1 5 1.5 2 Bismuth 2 8 3 5 Antimony — — — 1

«TIN ALLOYS:»

«Alloys for Dentists’ Molds and Dies.»—I.—Very hard. Tin, 16 parts; antimony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part.

II.—Softer than the former. Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1 part.

III.—Very hard. Tin, 12 parts; antimony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part.

«Cadmium Alloy, about the Hardness of Zinc.»—Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part; cadmium, 1 part.

«Tin-Lead.»—Tin is one of those metals which is not at all susceptible to the action of acids, while lead, on the other hand, is very easily attacked by them. In such alloys, consequently, used for cooking utensils, the amount of lead must be limited, and should properly not exceed 10 or 15 per cent; but cases have been known in which the so-called tin contained a third part, by weight, of lead.

Alloys containing from 10 to 15 per cent of lead have a beautiful white color, are considerably harder than pure tin, and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin and lead are very lustrous, and are used for stage jewelry and mirrors for reflecting the light of lamps, etc. An especially brilliant alloy is called “Fahlun brilliants.” It is used for stage jewelry, and consists of 29 parts of tin and 19 of lead. It is poured into molds faceted in the same way as diamonds, and when seen by artificial light, the effect is that of diamonds. Other alloys of tin and lead are employed in the manufacture of toys. These must fill the molds well, and must also be cheap, and therefore as much as 50 per cent of lead is used. Toys can also be made from type metal, which is even cheaper than the alloys of tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of readily breaking if the articles are sharply bent. The alloys of tin and lead give very good castings, if sharp iron or brass molds are used.

Lead 19 parts Tin 29 parts

This alloy is very bright and possesses a permanent sheen. It is well adapted for the making of artificial gems for stage use. It is customary in carrying out the process to start with two parts of tin and one part of lead. Tin is added until a sample drop which is allowed to fall upon an iron plate forms a mirror. The artificial gems are produced by {78} dipping into the molten alloy pieces of glass cut to the proper shape. The tin coating of metal which adheres to the glass cools rapidly and adheres tenaciously. Outwardly these artificial gems appear rough and gray, but inwardly they are highly reflective and quite deceptive when seen in artificial light.

If the reflective surfaces be coated with red, blue, or green aniline, various colored effects can be obtained. Instead of fragile glass the gems may be produced by means of well-polished pieces of steel or bronze.

«Other Tin-Lead Alloys.»—Percentage of lead and specific gravity.

P. C. S. G. 0 7.290 1 7.316 2 7.342 3 7.369 4 7.396 5 7.423 6 7.450 7 7.477 8 7.505 9 7.533 10 7.562 11 7.590 12 7.619 13 7.648 14 7.677 15 7.706 16 7.735 17 7.764 18 7.794 19 7.824 20 7.854 21 7.885 22 7.916 23 7.947 24 7.978 25 8.009 26 8.041 27 8.073 28 8.105 29 8.137 30 8.169 31 8.202 32 8.235 33 8.268 34 8.302 35 8.336 36 8.379 37 8.405 38 8.440 39 8.476 40 8.512 41 8.548 42 8.584 43 8.621 44 8.658 45 8.695 46 8.732 47 8.770 48 8.808 49 8.846 50 8.884 60 9.299 70 9.736 80 10.225 90 10.767 100 11.370

«Tin Statuettes, Buttons, etc.»—

I.—Tin 4 parts Lead 3 parts

This is a very soft solder which sharply reproduces all details.

Another easily fusible alloy but somewhat harder, is the following:

II.—Tin. 8 parts Lead 6 parts Antimony 0.5 part

«Miscellaneous Tin Alloys.»—I.—Alger Metal.—Tin, 90 parts; antimony, 10 parts. This alloy is suitable as a protector.

II. Argentine Metal.—Tin, 85.5 per cent; antimony, 14.5 per cent.

III.—Ashberry metal is composed of 78 to 82 parts of tin, 16 to 20 of antimony, 2 to 3 of copper.

IV. Quen’s Metal.—Tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part; antimony, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part.

«Type Metal.»—An alloy which is to serve for type metal must be readily cast, fill out the molds sharply, and be as hard as possible. It is difficult to satisfy all these requirements, but an alloy of antimony and lead answers the purpose best. At the present day there are a great many formulas for type metal in which other metals besides lead and antimony are used, either to make the alloy more readily fusible, as in the case of additions of bismuth, or to give it greater power of resistance, the latter being of especial importance for types that are subjected to constant use. Copper and iron have been recommended for this purpose, but the fusibility of the alloys is greatly impaired by these, and the manufacture of the types is consequently more difficult than with an alloy of lead and antimony alone. In the following table some alloys suitable for casting type are given:

Lead Antimony Copper Bismuth Zinc Tin Nickel I 3 1 — — — — — II 5 1 — — — — — III 10 1 — — — — — IV 10 2 — 1 — — — V 70 18 2 — — 10 — VI 60 20 — — — 20 — VII 55 25 — — — 20 — VIII 55 30 — — — 15 — IX 100 30 8 2 — 20 8 X 6 — 4 — 90 — —

The French and English types contain a certain amount of tin, as shown by the following analyses:

English Types French Types I II III Lead 69.2 61.3 55.0 55 Antimony 19.5 18.8 22.7 30 Tin 9.1 20.2 22.1 15 Copper 1.7 — — —

Ledebur gives the composition of type metal as follows:

I II III IV Lead 75 60 80 82 Antimony 23 25 20 14.8 Tin 22 15 — 3.2

WATCHMAKERS’ ALLOYS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

«WHITE METALS.»

The so-called white metals are employed almost exclusively for bearings. (See Anti-friction Metals under Alloys.) In the technology of mechanics an accurate distinction is made between the different kinds of metals for bearings; and they may be classed in two groups, red brass and white metal. The {79} red-brass bearings are characterized by great hardness and power of resistance, and are principally used for bearings of heavily loaded and rapidly revolving axles. For the axles of large and heavy flywheels, revolving at great speed, bearings of red brass are preferable to white metal, though more expensive.

In recent years many machinists have found it advantageous to substitute for the soft alloys generally in use for bearings a metal almost as hard as the axle itself. Phosphor bronze (q. v.) is frequently employed for this purpose, as it can easily be made as hard as wrought or cast steel. In this case the metal is used in a thin layer, and serves only, as it were, to fill out the small interstices caused by wear on the axle and bearing, the latter being usually made of some rather easily fusible alloy of lead and tin. Such bearings are very durable, but expensive, and can only be used for large machines. For small machines, running gently and uniformly, white-metal bearings are preferred, and do excellent work, if the axle is not too heavily loaded. For axles which have a high rate of revolution, bearings made of quite hard metals are chosen, and with proper care—which, indeed, must be given to bearings of any material—they will last for a long time without needing repair.

WHITE METAL FOR BEARING. ──────+───────────────────────+──────+────────+──────+──────+──────+────── │ │ Tin │Antimony│ Zinc │ Iron │ Lead │Copper ──────+───────────────────────+──────+────────+──────+──────+──────+────── I │German, light loads │ 85.00│ 10.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 5.00 II │German, light loads │ 82.00│ 11.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 7.00 III │German, light loads │ 80.00│ 12.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 8.00 IV │German, light loads │ 76.00│ 17.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 7.00 V │German, light loads │ 3.00│ 1.00 │ 5.00│ — — │ 3.00│ 1.00 VI │German, heavy loads │ 90.00│ 8.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 2.00 VII │German, heavy loads │ 86.81│ 7.62 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 5.57 VIII │English, heavy loads │ 17.47│ — — │ 76.14│ — — │ — — │ 5.62 IX │English, medium loads │ 76.70│ 15.50 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 7.80 X │English, medium loads │ 72.00│ 26.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 2.00 XI │For mills │ 15.00│ — — │ 40.00│ — — │ 42.00│ 3.00 XII │For mills │ — — │ 1.00 │ 5.00│ — — │ 5.00│ — — XIII │For mills │ — — │ 1.00 │ 10.00│ — — │ 2.00│ — — XIV │Heavy axles │ 72.70│ 18.20 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 9.10 XV │Heavy axles │ 38.00│ 6.00 │ 47.00│ — — │ 4.00│ 1.00 XVI │Rapidly revolving axles│ 17.00│ 77.00 │ — — │ — — │ — — │ 6.00 XVII │Very hard metal │ 55.00│ — — │ — — │ 70.00│ — — │ 2.50 XVIII │Very hard metal │ 12.00│ 82.00 │ 2.00│ — — │ — — │ 4.00 XIX │Cheap metal │ 2.00│ 2.00 │ 88.00│ — — │ — — │ 8.00 XX │Cheap metal │ 1.50│ 1.50 │ 90.00│ — — │ — — │ 7.00 ──────+───────────────────────+──────+────────+──────+──────+──────+──────

Other white bearing metals are:

XXI.—Tin, 8.5; antimony, 10; copper, 5 parts.

XXII.—Tin, 42; antimony, 16; lead, 42 parts.

XXIII.—Tin, 72; antimony, 26; copper, 2 parts.

XXIV.—Tin, 81; antimony, 12.5; copper, 6.5 parts.

«White Metals Based on Copper.»—

I.—Copper, 65 parts; arsenic, 55 parts.

II.—Copper, 64 parts; arsenic, 50 parts.

III.—Copper, 10 parts; zinc, 20 parts; nickel, 30 parts.

IV.—Nickel, 70 parts; copper, 30 parts; zinc, 20 parts.

V.—Nickel, 60 parts; copper, 30 parts; zinc, 30 parts.

VI.—Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 4 parts; zinc, 4 parts.

VII.—Copper, 10 parts; nickel, 5 parts; zinc, 5 parts.

VIII.—Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 3 parts; zinc, 4 parts.

IX.—Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 25 parts; zinc, 25 parts.

X.—Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts; zinc, 21 parts.

XI.—Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts; zinc, 16 parts; iron, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts.

IX, X, and XI are suitable for tableware.

XII.—Copper, 67 parts, and arsenic, 53 parts.

XIII.—Copper, 63 parts, and arsenic, 57 parts.

XII and XIII are bright gray, unaffected by the temperature of boiling water; they are fusible at red heat.

«White Metals Based on Platinum.»—

I.—Platinum, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; or platinum, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts; copper, 3 1⁠/⁠2 parts.

II.—Platinum, 10 parts; tin, 90 parts; or platinum, 8 parts; tin, 92 parts.

III.—Platinum, 7 parts; copper, 13 parts; tin, 80 parts.

IV.—Platinum, 2 parts; steel, 98 parts.

V.—Platinum, 2.5 parts; steel, 97.5 parts.

IV and V are for gun metal.

«Miscellaneous White-Metal Alloys.»—

I.—For lining cross-head slides: Lead, 65 parts; antimony, 25 parts; copper, 10 parts. Some object to white metal containing lead or zinc. It has been found, however, that lead and zinc have properties of great use in these alloys.

II.—Tin, 85 parts; antimony, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts; copper, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts.

III.—Tin, 90 parts; copper, 3 parts; antimony, 7 parts. {80}

«ZINC ALLOYS:»

«Bidery Metal.»—This is sometimes composed of 31 parts of zinc, 2 parts of copper, and 2 parts of lead; the whole is melted on a layer of rosin or wax to avoid oxidation. This metal is very resistive; it does not oxidize in air or moisture. It takes its name from the town of Bider, near Hyderabad (India), where it was prepared for the first time industrially for the manufacture of different utensils.

Other compositions of Indian Bidery metal (frequently imitated in England) are about as follows:

P.C. P.C. P.C. Copper 3.5 11.4 16 Zinc 93.4 84.3 112 Tin — 1.4 2 Lead 3.1 2.9 4

Erhardt recommends the following as being both ductile and hard:

Zinc 89 to 93 Tin 9 to 6 Lead 2 to 4 Copper 2 to 4

The tin is first melted, and the lead, zinc, and copper added successively.

«Zinc-Nickel.»—Zinc, 90 parts; nickel, 10 parts. Used in powder form for painting and cloth printing purposes.

«Platine for Dress Buttons.»—Copper, 43 parts; zinc, 57 parts.

«UNCLASSIFIED ALLOYS:»

«Alloys for Drawing Colors on Steel.»—Alloys of various composition are successfully used for drawing colors on steel. To draw to a straw color use 2 parts of lead and 1 part of tin, and melt in an iron ladle. Hold the steel piece to be drawn in the alloy as it melts and it will turn to straw color. This mixture melts at a temperature of about 437° F. For darker yellow use 9 parts of lead to 4 parts of tin, which melts at 458° F. For purple, use 3 parts of lead to 1 part of tin, the melting temperature being 482° F. For violet, use 9 parts of lead to 2 parts of tin, which melts at 494° F. Lead without any alloy will draw steel to a dark blue. The above apply to steel only since iron requires a somewhat greater heat and is more or less uncertain in handling.

«Alloy for Pattern Letters and Figures.»—A good alloy for casting pattern letters and figures and similar small parts of brass, iron, or plaster molds, is made of lead 80 parts, and antimony 20 parts. A better alloy will be lead 70 parts, antimony and bismuth each 15 parts. To insure perfect work the molds should be quite hot by placing them over a Bunsen burner.

«Alloy for Caliper and Gage-Rod Castings.»—A mixture of 30 parts zinc to 70 parts aluminum gives a light and durable alloy for gage rods and caliper legs; the gage rods must be steel tipped, for the alloy is soft and wears away too rapidly for gage points.

«Alloys for Small Casting Molds.»—Tin, 75 parts, and lead, 22 parts; or 75 parts of zinc and 25 parts of tin; or 30 parts of tin and 70 parts of lead; or 60 parts of lead and 40 parts of bismuth.

ALLOYS FOR METAL FOIL: See Metal Foil.

ALMOND COLD CREAM: See Cosmetics.

ALMOND LIQUEURS: See Wines and Liquors.

ALTARS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

«ALUM:»

«Burnt Alum.»—I.—Heat the alum in a porcelain dish or other suitable vessel till it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat, not allowing it to exceed 400°, till aqueous vapor ceases to be disengaged, and the salt has lost 47 per cent of its weight. Reduce the residue to powder, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.—_Cooley._

II.—Heat ordinary alum (alumina alum) with constant stirring in an iron pan in which it will first melt quietly, and then commence to form blisters. Continue heating until a dry white mass of a loose character remains, which is powdered and kept in well-closed glasses.

ALUM BATH: See Photography.

«Aluminum and its Treatment»

«HOW TO COLOR ALUMINUM:»

«Blanching of Aluminum.»—Aluminum is one of the metals most inalterable by air; nevertheless, the objects of aluminum tarnish quickly enough without being {81} altered. They may be restored to their mat whiteness in the following manner: Immerse the aluminum articles in a boiling bath of caustic potash; next plunge them quickly into nitric acid, rinse and let dry. It must be understood that this method is applicable only to pieces entirely of aluminum.

«Decolorized Aluminum.»—Gray or unsightly aluminum may be restored to its white color by washing with a mixture of 30 parts of borax dissolved in 1,000 parts of water, with a few drops of ammonia added.

«Mat Aluminum.»—In order to impart to aluminum the appearance of mat silver, plunge the article into a hot bath composed of a 10-per-cent solution of caustic soda saturated with kitchen salt. Leave it in the bath for 15 to 20 seconds, then wash and brush; put back into the bath for half a minute, wash anew and dry in sawdust.

«To Blacken Aluminum.»—I.—The surface of the sheet to be colored is polished with very fine emery powder or finest emery cloth. After polishing pour a thin layer of olive oil over the surface and heat slowly over an alcohol flame. Large sheets must, of course, be heated in the drying oven. After a short while pour on oil again, in order to obtain absolute uniformity of the coating, and heat the plate once more. Under the action of the heat the plate turns first brown, then black, according to the degrees of heat. When the desired coloration has been attained, the plate is polished over again, after cooling, with a woolen rag or soft leather.

II.—White arsenic 1 ounce Sulphate of iron 1 ounce Hydrochloric acid 12 ounces Water 12 ounces

When the arsenic and iron are dissolved by the acid add the water. The aluminum to be blackened should be well cleaned with fine emery powder and washed before immersing in the blackening solution. When the deposit of black is deep enough dry off with fine sawdust and lacquer.

«Decorating Aluminum.»—A process for decorating aluminum, patented in Germany, prescribes that the objects be first corroded, which is usually done with caustic soda lye, or, better still, by a new method which consists in heating 3 parts of sulphuric acid with 1 part of water to 140° to 158° F., in an enameled vessel. Into this liquid dip the aluminum articles, rinsing them off clean and then drying them well. The corroded articles are now placed in a bath consisting of 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 1.50 parts of antimony, 250 parts of chemically pure hydrochloric acid, 100 parts of manganous nitrate, and 20 parts of purified and finely elutriated graphite. In this bath, which is heated to 86°–95° F., the objects are left until fumes develop around them, which takes place in a few seconds. Now they are put over a coal fire or similar arrangement until the alcohol is burned up and there is no more smoke. After they are somewhat cooled off, they are laid into cold water and worked with a brush, then rinsed with water and well dried. The pieces are now provided with a gray metallic coating, consisting mainly of antimony, manganese, and graphite. This metallic layer renders them capable of receiving a lacquer which is best prepared from 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 50 parts of sandarac, 100 parts of shellac, and 100 parts of nigrosine (black aniline color). Then the articles are quickly but thoroughly rinsed off, dried in warmed air for a few minutes, and baked in ovens or over a moderate coal fire until they do not smoke any more and no more gloss can be seen. Finally they are rubbed with a cotton rag saturated with thin linseed-oil varnish, and the objects thus treated now appear dull black, like velvet. The covering withstands all action of the weather, so that cooking vessels coated with this varnish on the outside can be placed on the fire without injury to the coating. If the articles are engraved, the aluminum appears almost glossy white under the black layer at the engraved places. When the pieces have been provided with the gray metallic coating, colored lacquer may also be applied with the brush. In this manner paintings, etc., may be done on aluminum, while not possible on unprepared aluminum surfaces, which will not retain them.

«Making Castings in Aluminum.»—The method adopted in preparing molds and cores for aluminum work is necessarily somewhat the same as for brass, but there are particular points which need attention to insure successful work. Both in the sand and the making of the molds there are some small differences which make considerable variation in the results, and the temperature at which the metal is poured is a consideration of some importance.

In selecting the sand, which should {82} not have been previously used, that of a fine grain should be chosen, but it should not have any excess of aluminous matter, or it will not permit of the free escape of gases and air, this being an important matter. Besides this, the sand must be used as dry as possible consistent with its holding against the flow of the metal, and having only moderate compression in ramming.

In making the molds it is necessary to remember that aluminum has a large contraction in cooling, and also that at certain temperatures it is very weak and tears readily, while all metals shrink away from the mold when this is wholly outside the casting, but they shrink on to cores or portions of the mold partly inclosed by metal. Thus, if casting a plate or bar of metal, it will shrink away from the mold in all directions; but if casting a square frame, it shrinks away from the outside only, while it shrinks on to the central part or core. With brass, or iron, or such metals, this is not of much importance, but with some others, including aluminum, it is of great importance, because if the core or inclosed sand will not give somewhat with the contraction of the metal, torn or fractured castings will be the result. Both for outside and inside molds, and with cores used with aluminum, the sand should be compressed as little as possible, and hard ramming must in every case be avoided, particularly where the metal surrounds the sand. The molds must be very freely vented, and not only at the joint of the mold, but by using the vent wire freely through the body of the mold itself; in fact, for brass the venting would be considered excessive. With aluminum it is, however, necessary to get the air off as rapidly as possible, because the metal soon gets sluggish in the mold, and unless it runs up quickly it runs faint at the edges. The ingates should be wide and of fair area, but need careful making to prevent their drawing where they enter the casting, the method of doing this being known to most molders.

If it is considered desirable to use a specially made-up facing sand for the molds where the metal is of some thickness, the use of a little pea or bean meal will be all that is necessary. To use this, first dry as much sand as may be required and pass through a 20-mesh sieve, and to each bushel of the fine sand rub in about 4 quarts of meal, afterwards again passing through the sieve to insure regular mixing. This sand should then be damped as required, being careful that all parts are equally moist, rubbing on a board being a good way to get it tough, and in good condition, with the minimum of moisture.

The molds should not be sleeked with tools, but they may be dusted over with plumbago or steatite, smoothing with a camel’s-hair brush, in cases in which a very smooth face is required on the castings. Preferably, however, the use of the brush even should be avoided. Patterns for aluminum should be kept smooth and well varnished.

In melting the metal it is necessary to use a plumbago crucible which is clean and which has not been used for other metals. Clay or silica crucibles are not good for this metal, especially silica, on account of the metal absorbing silicon and becoming hard under some conditions of melting. A steady fire is necessary, and the fuel should reach only about halfway up the crucible, as it is not desirable to overheat the crucible or metal. The metal absorbs heat for some time and then fuses with some rapidity, hence the desirability of a steady heat; and as the metal should be poured when of a claret color under the film of oxide which forms on the surface, too rapid a heating is not advisable. The molding should always be well in advance of the pouring, because the metal should be used as soon as it is ready; for not only is waste caused, but the metal loses condition if kept in a molten state for long periods. The metal should be poured rapidly, but steadily, and when cast up there should not be a large head of metal left on top of the runner. In fact, it is rather a disadvantage to leave a large head, as this tends to draw rather than to feed the casting.

With properly prepared molds, and careful melting, fluxes are not required, but ground cryolite—a fluoride of sodium and aluminum—is sometimes used to increase the fluidity of the metal. In using this, a few ounces according to the bulk of metal to be treated is put into the molten metal before it is taken from the furnace, and well stirred in, and as soon as the reaction apparently ceases the pot is lifted and the metal at once skimmed and poured. The use of sodium in any form with aluminum is very undesirable, however, and should be avoided, and the same remark applies to tin, but there is no objection to alloying with zinc, when the metal thus produced is sold as an alloy.

Aluminum also casts very well in molds of plaster of Paris and crushed bath brick when such molds are perfectly dry {83} and well vented, smoothness being secured by brushing over with dry steatite or plumbago. When casting in metal molds, these should be well brushed out with steatite or plumbago, and made fairly hot before pouring, as in cold molds the metal curdles and becomes sluggish, with the result that the castings run up faint.

«To Increase the Toughness, Density, and Tenacity of Aluminum.»—For the purpose of improving aluminum, without increasing its specific gravity, the aluminum is mixed with 4 to 7 per cent of phosphorus, whereby the density, tenacity, and especially the toughness are said to be enhanced.

«WORKING OF SHEET ALUMINUM:»

The great secret, if there is any, in working aluminum, either pure or alloyed, consists in the proper lubricant and the shape of the tool. Another great disadvantage in the proper working of the metal is that, when a manufacturer desires to make up an article, he will procure the pure metal in order to make his samples, which, of course, is harder to work than the alloy. But the different grades of aluminum sheet which are on the market are so numerous for different classes of work that it might be advisable to consider them for a moment before passing to the method of working them.

The pure metal, to begin with, can be purchased of all degrees of hardness, from the annealed, or what is known as the “dead soft” stock, to the pure aluminum hard rolled. Then comes a harder grade of alloys, running from “dead soft” metal, which will draw up hard, to the same metal hard rolled; and, still again, another set of alloys which, perhaps, are a little harder still when hard rolled, and will, when starting with the “dead soft,” spin up into a utensil which, when finished, will probably be as stiff as brass. These latter alloys are finding a large sale for replacing brass used in all classes of manufactured articles.

To start with lathe work on aluminum, probably more difficulty has been found here, especially in working pure metal, and more complaints are heard from this source than from any other. As stated before, however, these difficulties can all be readily overcome, if the proper tools and the proper lubricants are used, as automatic screw machines are now made so that they can be operated when working aluminum just as readily as when they are working brass, and in some cases more readily. To start with the question of the tool, this should be made as what is known as a “shearing tool,” that is, instead of a short, stubby point, such as would be used in turning brass, the point should be lengthened out and a lot of clearance provided on the inside of the tool, so as to give the chips of the metal a good chance to free themselves and not cause a clogging around the point of the tool—a similar tool, for instance, to what would be used for turning wood.

The best lubricant to be used would be coal oil or water, and plenty of it. The latter is almost as good as coal oil if enough of it is used, and with either of these lubricants and a tool properly made, there should be no difficulty whatsoever in the rapid working of aluminum, either on the lathe or on automatic screw machines.

To go from the lathe to the drawing press, the same tools here would be used in drawing up shapes of aluminum as are used for drawing up brass or other metals; the only precaution necessary in this instance being to use a proper lubricant, which in this case is a cheap grade of vaseline, or in some cases lard oil, but in the majority of instances better results will be secured by the use of vaseline. Aluminum is probably susceptible of deeper drawing with less occasion to anneal than any of the other commercial metals. It requires but one-third or one-fourth of as much annealing as brass or copper. For instance, an article which is now manufactured in brass, requiring, say, three or four operations before the article is finished, would probably have to be annealed after every operation. With aluminum, however, if the proper grade is used, it is generally possible to perform these three operations without annealing the metal at all, and at the same time to produce a finished article which, to all intents and purposes, is as stiff as an article made of sheet brass.

Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact of starting with the proper grade of metal, for either through ignorance or by not observing this point is the foundation of the majority of the complaints that aluminum “has been tried and found wanting.” If, however, it should be found necessary to anneal aluminum, this can be readily accomplished by heating it in an ordinary muffle, being careful that the temperature shall not be too high—about 650° or 700° F. The best test as to when the metal has reached the proper temperature is to take a soft pine stick and draw it across the {84} metal. If it chars the stick and leaves a black mark on the metal, it is sufficiently annealed and is in a proper condition to proceed with further operation.

Next taking up the question of spinning aluminum, success again depends particularly on starting with the proper metal. The most satisfactory speed for articles from 5 to 8 inches in diameter is about 2,600 revolutions a minute, and for larger or smaller diameters the speed should be so regulated as to give the same velocity at the circumference. Aluminum is a very easy metal to spin and no difficulty should be found at all in spinning the proper grades of sheets. Several factories that are using large quantities of aluminum now, both for spinning and stamping, are paying their men by the piece the same amount that they formerly paid on brass and tin work, and it is stated that the men working on this basis make anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent more wages by working aluminum.

After aluminum has been manufactured into the shape of an article, the next process is the finishing of it. The best polish can be obtained by first cutting down the metal with an ordinary rag buff on which use tripoli, and then finish it with a dry red rouge which comes in the lump form, or that which is known as “White Diamond Rouge.” One point, however, that it is necessary to observe carefully is that both the tripoli and the rouge should be procured ground as fine as it is possible to grind them; for, if this is not done, the metal will have little fine scratches all over it, and will not appear as bright and as handsome as it otherwise would.

If it is desired to put on a frosted appearance, this can either be done by scratch brushing or sand blasting. A brass wire scratch brush, made of crimped wire of No. 32 to No. 36 B. & S. gage, with three or four rows of bristles, will probably give the best results. This work of scratch brushing can be somewhat lessened, however, if, before applying the scratch brush to the surface of the aluminum, the article is first cut down by the use of a porpoise-hide wheel and fine Connecticut sand, placing the sand between the surface of the aluminum and the wheel, so that the skin and the irregularities on the surface are removed, and then putting the article on a buffing wheel before attempting to scratch brush it. This method, however, is probably more advantageous in the treating of aluminum castings than for articles manufactured out of the sheet metal, as in the majority of cases it is simply necessary before scratch brushing to cut down the article with tripoli, and then polish it with rouge as already described, before putting on the scratch brush; in this way the brush seems to take hold quicker and better, and to produce a more uniform polish.

An effect similar to the scratch-brush finish can be got by sand blasting, and by first sand blasting and then scratch brushing the sheets, a good finish is obtained with very much less labor than by scratch brushing alone. Another very pretty frosted effect is procured by first sand blasting and then treated as hereinafter described by “dipping” and “frosting,” and many variations in the finish of aluminum can be got by varying the treatment, either by cutting down with tripoli and polishing, scratch brushing, sand blasting, dipping, and frosting, and by combinations of those treatments. A very pretty mottled effect is secured on aluminum by first polishing and then scratch brushing and then holding the aluminum against a soft pine wheel, run at a high rate of speed on a lathe, and by careful manipulation, quite regular forms of a mottled appearance can be obtained.

The dipping and frosting of aluminum sheet is probably the cheapest way of producing a nice finish. First remove all grease and dirt from the article by dipping in benzine, then dip into water in order that the benzine adhering to the article may be removed, so as not to affect the strength of the solution into which it is next dipped. After they have been taken out of the water and well shaken, the articles should be plunged in a strong solution of caustic soda or caustic potash, and left there a sufficient length of time until the aluminum starts to turn black. Then they should be removed, dipped in water again, and then into a solution of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid, composed of 24 parts of nitric acid to 1 part of sulphuric acid. After being removed, the article should be washed thoroughly in water and dried in hot sawdust in the usual way. This finish can also be varied somewhat by making the solution of caustic soda of varying degrees of strength, or by adding a small amount of common salt to the solution.

In burnishing the metal use a bloodstone or a steel burnisher. In burnishing use a mixture of melted vaseline and coal oil, or a solution composed of 2 tablespoonfuls of ground borax dissolved in about a quart of hot water, with a few {85} drops of ammonia added. In engraving, which adds materially to the appearance of finished castings, book covers, picture frames, and similar articles made of sheet, probably the best lubricant to use on an engraver’s tool in order to obtain a clean cut, which is bright, is naphtha or coal oil, or a mixture of coal oil and vaseline. The naphtha, however, is preferred, owing to the fact that it does not destroy the satin finish in the neighborhood of the cut, as the other lubricants are very apt to do. There is, however, as much skill required in using and making a tool in order to give a bright, clean cut as there is in the choice of the lubricant to be used. The tool should be made somewhat on the same plan as the lathe tools already outlined. That is, they should be brought to a sharp point and be “cut back” rather far, so as to give plenty of clearance.

There has been one class of work in aluminum that has been developed lately and only to a certain extent, in which there are great possibilities, and that is in drop forging the metal. Some very superior bicycle parts have been manufactured by drop forging. This can be accomplished probably more readily with aluminum than with other metals, for the reason that it is not necessary with all the alloys to work them hot; consequently, they can be worked and handled more rapidly.

ALUMINUM, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ALUMINUM ALLOYS: See Alloys.

ALUMINUM BRONZE: See Alloys under Bronzes.

ALUMINUM CASTINGS: See Casting.

ALUMINUM PAPER: See Paper.

ALUMINUM PLATING: See Plating.

ALUMINUM POLISHES: See Polishes.

«Amalgams»

See also Easily Fusible Alloys under Alloys.

The name amalgam is given to alloys of metals containing mercury. The term comes to us from the alchemists. It signifies softening, because an excess of mercury dissolves a large number of metals.

«Preparation of Amalgams.»—Mercury forms amalgams with most metals. It unites directly and readily, either cold or hot, with potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, cadmium, tin, antimony, lead, bismuth, silver, and gold; directly, but more difficultly, with aluminum, copper, and palladium. This combination takes place oftenest at the ordinary temperature; certain metals, however, like aluminum and antimony, combine only when heated in presence of quicksilver.

Quicksilver has no direct action on metals of high fusing points: manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, uranium, platinum, and their congeners. Still, amalgams of these metals can be obtained of butyrous consistency, either by electrolysis of their saline solutions, employing quicksilver as the negative electrode, or by the action of an alkaline amalgam (potassium or sodium), on their concentrated and neutral saline solutions. These same refractory metals are also amalgamated superficially when immersed in the amalgam of sodium or of ammonium in presence of water.

Processes for preparing amalgams by double decomposition between an alkaline amalgam and a metallic salt, or by electrolysis of saline solutions, with employment of mercury as the negative electrode, apply _a fortiori_ to metals capable of combining directly with the quicksilver. The latter of these methods is especially utilized for the preparation of alkaline earthy metals by electrolytic decomposition of the solutions of their salts or hydrated oxides with quicksilver as a cathode.

«General Properties of Amalgams.»—Amalgams are liquid when the quicksilver is in great excess; solid, but readily fusible, when the alloyed metal predominates.

They have a metallic luster, and a metallic structure which renders them brittle. They even form crystallized metallic combinations of constant proportions, dissolved in an excess of quicksilver, when the excess is separated by compression in a chamois skin, or by filtration in a glass funnel of slender stem, terminating with an orifice almost capillary.

According as the fusing heat of a metal is less or greater than its combination heat with quicksilver, the amalgamation of this metal produces an elevation or a lowering of temperature. Thus {86} potassium, sodium, and cadmium, in alloy with quicksilver, disengage heat; while zinc, antimony, tin, bismuth, lead, and silver combine with mercury with absorption of heat. The amalgamation of 162 parts of quicksilver with 21 parts of lead, 12 parts of tin or of antimony, and 28.5 parts of bismuth, lowers the temperature of the mixture 79° F.

Amalgams formed with disengagement of heat are electro-negative with reference to the metals alloyed with the quicksilver. The products with absorption of heat are electro-negative with reference to the metals combined with the quicksilver; consequently, in a battery of elements of pure cadmium and amalgamated cadmium, the cadmium will be the negative pole; in case of zinc and amalgamated zinc, the zinc will be the positive pole.

Heat decomposes all amalgams, vaporizing the mercury and leaving the metal alloys as a residue.

Water is decomposed by the amalgams of potassium and sodium, because the heat of formation of these amalgams, although considerable, is even less than the heat disengaged by potassium and sodium, on decomposing water. The alkaline amalgams may, therefore, serve as a source of nascent hydrogen in presence of water, giving rise to an action less energetic, and often more advantageous, than that of the alkaline metals alone. Thus is caused the frequent employment of sodium amalgam for hydrogenizing a large number of bodies. As a consequence of their

## action on water, the alkaline amalgams are changed by moist air, with

production of free alkali or alkaline carbonate.

«Applications of Potassium Amalgams.»—I.—They furnish a process for preparing potassium by the decomposition of potash by the electric current, by employing quicksilver as the cathode, and vaporizing the quicksilver of the amalgam formed by heating this in a current of dry hydrogen.

II.—They can serve for the preparation of the amalgams of the metals, other than those of the alkaline group, by decomposing the salts of these metals, with formation of a salt of potash and of the amalgam of the metal corresponding to the original salt.

III.—They can be employed as a source of nascent hydrogen in presence of water for hydrogenizing many substances.

«Applications of Sodium Amalgams.»—These are nearly the same as those of the potassium amalgams, but the sodium amalgams are employed almost exclusively, because sodium is easier to handle than potassium, and is cheaper. These employments are the following:

I.—Sodium amalgam furnishes a process for the preparation of sodium when soda is decomposed by means of the electric current, employing quicksilver as the cathode, and afterwards vaporizing the quicksilver of the amalgam formed by heating this in a current of dry hydrogen.

II.—Amalgams of sodium serve for the preparation of amalgams of the other metals, particularly alkaline earthy metals and metals of high fusing points, by decomposing the salts of these metals, with formation of a salt of soda and of the amalgam of the metal corresponding to the original salt.

III.—They serve for amalgamating superficially the metals of high fusing point, called “refractory,” such as iron and platinum, when a well-cleaned plate of these metals is immersed in sodium amalgam in presence of water.

IV.—An amalgam of 2 or 3 per cent of sodium is employed in the processes of extraction of gold by amalgamation. It has the property of rendering quicksilver more brilliant, and consequently more energetic, by acting as a deoxidant on the pellicle of oxide formed on its surface in presence of certain ores, which, by keeping it separated from the

## particles of gold, destroy its activity. Sodium amalgam of 3 per

cent is utilized with success for the amalgamated plates employed in crushers and other apparatus for treating the ores of gold. If a few drops of this amalgam are spread on a plate of copper, of tin, or of zinc, a brilliant coating of an amalgam of tin, copper, or zinc is immediately formed.

V.—Amalgams of from 2 to 8 per cent of sodium serve frequently in laboratories for reducing or hydrogenizing organic combinations, without running the risk of a partial destruction of these compounds by too intense action, as may occur by employing free sodium instead of its amalgam.

«Applications of Barium Amalgams.»—These can, by distillation, furnish barium. It is one of the processes for preparing this metal, which, when thus obtained, almost always retains a little sodium.

«Applications of Strontium Amalgams.»—These amalgams, washed and dried rapidly immediately after their preparation, and then heated to a nascent red {87} in a current of dry hydrogen, yield a fused mass of strontium.

«Applications of Cadmium Amalgams.»—Amalgams of cadmium, formed of equal weights of cadmium and quicksilver, have much power of cohesion and are quite malleable; the case is the same with an amalgam formed of 1 part of cadmium and 2 parts of quicksilver. They are used as dental cements for plugging teeth; for the same purpose an amalgam of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of cadmium, and 2 parts of tin may be used.

«Applications of Zinc Amalgams.»—The principal employment of zinc amalgams is their use as a cathode or negative electrode in the batteries of Munson, Daniels, and Lechanché. This combination is designed to render the zinc non-attackable by the exciting liquid of the battery with open circuit. The action of the mercury is to prevent the zinc from forming a large number of small voltaic elements when foreign bodies are mingled with the metal; in a word, the giving to ordinary zinc the properties of pure zinc, and consequently of causing a great saving in expense.

For amalgamating a zinc plate it is plunged for a few seconds into water in which there is one-sixteenth in volume of sulphuric acid, then rubbing with a copper-wire brush which has been dipped in the quicksilver. The mercury takes more readily on the zinc when, after the zinc has been cleaned with water sharpened with sulphuric acid, it is moistened with a solution of corrosive sublimate, which is reduced and furnishes a first very thin coat of amalgam, on which the quicksilver is immediately fixed by simple immersion without rubbing.

The zinc of a battery may be amalgamated by putting at the bottom of the compartment containing each element, a little quicksilver in such a way that the zinc touches the liquid. The amalgamation is effected under the influence of the current, but this process applies only on condition that the zinc alone touches the bottom of the vessel containing the quicksilver.

«Applications of Manganese Amalgams.»—These may serve for the preparation of manganese. For this purpose it is sufficient to distill in a current of pure hydrogen. The manganese remains in the form of a grayish powder.

«Applications of Tin Amalgams.»—I.—Tinning of glass. This operation is accomplished in the following manner: On a cast-iron table, quite horizontal, a sheet of tin of the dimensions of the glass is spread out and covered with a layer of quicksilver, 5 or 6 millimeters in thickness. The glass is made to slide on the sheet of tin in such a way as to drive off the excess of quicksilver; when the two surfaces are covered without interposition of air, weights are placed on the glass. In a few days, the glass may be removed, having been covered with an adhering pellicle of amalgam of 4 parts of tin and 1 part of quicksilver. (See also Mirrors.)

II.—An amalgam consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 part tin may be used for covering the cushions of frictional electric machines. This amalgam is prepared by first melting the zinc and tin in a crucible and adding the quicksilver previously heated.

III.—Mention has been made of the cadmium amalgam employed for plugging teeth, an amalgam of 2 parts of quicksilver, 2 parts of tin, and 1 part of cadmium. For the same purpose an amalgam of tin, silver, and gold is employed. (See also Cements, Dental.)

«Applications of Copper Amalgams.»—I.—An amalgam of 30 per cent of copper has been employed for filling teeth. This use has been abandoned on account of the inconvenience occasioned by the great changeableness of the product.

II.—The amalgam of 30 per cent of copper, designated by the name of “metallic mastic,” is an excellent cement for repairing objects and utensils of porcelain. For this employment, the broken surfaces are heated to 662° F., and a little of the amalgam, previously heated to the consistency of melted wax, is applied.

III.—Copper amalgam, of 30 to 45 per cent of copper, rendered plastic by heating and grinding, may serve for obtaining with slight compression copies of delicate objects, which may, after hardening of the amalgam, be reproduced, either in wax or by galvanic process.

IV.—According to Debray, when a medal, obtained with an amalgam of 45 per cent of copper, by compression in the soft state, in molds of gutta percha, is heated progressively to redness in an atmosphere of hydrogen, the quicksilver is volatilized gradually, and the particles of copper come together without fusion in such a way as to produce a faithful reproduction, formed exclusively of metallic copper, of the original medal.

V.—In the metallurgy of gold, the crushers are furnished with amalgamated plates of copper for retaining the gold. The preparation of these plates, {88} which are at least 0.128 inches in thickness, is delicate, requiring about two weeks. They are freed from greasy matter by rubbing with ashes, or, better, with a little sand and caustic soda, or if more rapid action is desired, with a cloth dipped in dilute nitric acid; they are washed with water, then with a solution of potassium cyanide, and finally brushed with a mixture of sal ammoniac and a little quicksilver, until the surface is completely amalgamated. They are finally made to absorb as much quicksilver as possible. But the plates thus treated are useful for only a few days when they are sufficiently covered with a layer of gold amalgam; in the meantime they occasion loss of time and of gold. So it is preferable to cover them artificially with a little gold amalgam, which is prepared by dissolving gold in quicksilver. Sometimes the amalgam of gold is replaced by an amalgam of silver, which is readily poured and more economical.

Another method giving better results consists in silvering copper slabs by electroplating and covering them with a layer of silver. Then it is only necessary to apply a little quicksilver, which adheres quite rapidly, so that they are ready for use almost immediately, and are quite active at the outset.

These amalgamation slabs ought to be cleaned before each operation. Potassium cyanide removes fatty matter, and sal ammoniac the oxides of the low metals.

«Applications of Lead Amalgams.»—These meet with an interesting employment for the autogenous soldering of lead. After the surfaces to be soldered have been well cleaned, a layer of lead amalgam is applied. It is afterwards sufficient to pass along the line of junction a soldering iron heated to redness, in order that the heat should cause the volatilization of the quicksilver, and that the lead, liberated in a state of fine division, should be melted and cause the adherence of the two surfaces. The only precaution necessary is to avoid breathing the mercurial vapor, which is quite poisonous.

«Applications of Bismuth Amalgams.»—The amalgam formed of 1 per cent of bismuth and 4 parts of quicksilver will cause the strong adherence of glass. It is employed with advantage in the tinning of glass globes. For this operation it is poured into a dry hot receiver, and then passed over the whole surface of the glass; it solidifies on cooling. For the purpose of economizing the bismuth, the price of which is high, the preceding amalgam is replaced by another composed of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin. The bismuth, broken into small fragments, is added to the tin and lead, previously melted in the crucible, and when the mixture of the three metals becomes fluid, the quicksilver is poured in, while stirring with an iron rod. The impurities floating on the surface are removed, and when the temperature is sufficiently lowered this amalgam is slowly poured into the vessels to be tinned, which have been previously well cleaned and slightly heated. M. Ditte recommends for the same employment, as a very strong adherent to the glass, an amalgam obtained by dissolving hot 2 parts of bismuth and 1 part of lead in a solution of 1 part of tin in 10 parts of quicksilver. By causing a quantity of this amalgam to move around the inside of a receiver, clean, dry, and slightly heated, the surface will be covered with a thin, brilliant layer, which hardens quite rapidly.

For the injection of anatomical pieces an amalgam formed of 10 parts of quicksilver, 50 parts of bismuth, 31 parts of lead, and 18 parts of tin, fusible at 77.5° and solidifiable at 60° C., is made use of; or, again, an amalgam composed of 9 parts of Darcet alloy and 1 part of quicksilver fusible at 127 1⁠/⁠2° F., and pasty at a still lower temperature. This last amalgam may also be used for filling carious teeth. The Darcet alloy, as known, contains 2 parts of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin, and melts at 199 1⁠/⁠2° F. The addition of 1 part of quicksilver lowers the fusing point to 104° F.

«Applications of Silver Amalgams.»—I.—In the silvering of mirrors by the Petitjean method, which has almost universally replaced tinning, the property of silver in readily amalgamating is taken advantage of, by substituting the glass after silvering to the action of a dilute solution of double cyanide of mercury and potassium in such a manner as to form an amalgam of white and brilliant silver adhering strongly to the glass. To facilitate the operation and utilize all the silver, while economizing the double cyanide, M. Lenoir has recommended the following: Sprinkle the glass at the time when it is covered with the mercurial solution with very fine zinc powder, which precipitates the quicksilver and regulates the amalgamation.

II.—The metallurgy of silver also takes advantage of the property of this {89} metal in combining cold with quicksilver; this for the treatment of poor silver ores.

In the Saxon or Freiburg process for treating silver ores, recourse is had to quicksilver in the case of amalgam in amalgamating casks, in which the ore, after grinding, is shaken with disks of iron, and with mercury and water. The amalgam, collected and filtered under strong pressure, contains from 30 to 33 per cent of silver. It is distilled either in cylindrical retorts of cast iron, furnished with an exit tube immersed in the water for condensing the mercurial vapors, or on plates of iron, arranged over each other along a vertical iron stem, supported by a tripod at the bottom of a tank filled with water, and covered with an iron receiver, which is itself surrounded with ignited charcoal. It should be remarked that the last portions of quicksilver in a silver amalgam submitted to distillation are volatilized only under the action of a high and prolonged temperature.

«Applications of Gold Amalgams.»—I.—Gilding with quicksilver. This process of gilding, much employed formerly, is now but little used. It can be applied only to metals slightly fusible and capable of amalgamation, like silver, copper, bronze, and brass. Iron can also be gilded by this method, provided it is previously covered with a coating of copper. To perform this gilding the surface is well cleaned, and the gold amalgam, consisting of 2 parts of gold and 1 part of quicksilver, prepared as mentioned before, is applied. The piece is afterwards heated to about the red, so as to volatilize the mercury. The gold remains, superficially alloyed with the metal, and forms an extremely solid layer of deadened gold, which can be afterwards polished. The volatilization should be effected under a chimney having strong draught, in order to avoid the poisonous action of the mercurial vapors.

II.—The amalgamation of gold finds its principal applications in the treatment of auriferous ores. The extraction of small spangles of gold scattered in gold-bearing sands is based on the ready dissolution of gold in quicksilver, and on the formation of an amalgam of solid gold by compression and filtering through a chamois skin, in a state more or less liquid. The spangles of gold are shaken with about their weight of quicksilver, collected in the cavities of sluices and mixed with a small quantity of sand. The gold is dissolved and the sand remains. The amalgam thus obtained is compressed in a chamois skin, so as to separate the excess of mercury which passes through the pores of the skin; or, yet again, it is filtered through a glass funnel having a very slender stem, with almost capillary termination. In both cases an amalgam of solid gold remains, which is submitted to the action of heat in a crucible or cast-iron retort, communicating with a bent-iron tube, of which the extremity, surrounded with a cloth immersed in water, is arranged above a receiver half full of water. The quicksilver is vaporized and condensed in the water. The gold remains in the retort.

The property of gold of combining readily with quicksilver is also used in many kinds of amalgamating apparatus for extraction and in the metallurgy of gold.

In various operations it is essential to keep the quicksilver active by preserving its limpidity. For this purpose potassium cyanide and ammonium chloride are especially employed; sometimes wood ashes, carbonate of soda, hyposulphite of soda, nitrate of potash, cupric sulphate, sea salt, and lime; the latter for precipitating the soluble sulphates proceeding from the decomposition of pyrites.

The amalgamation of gold is favored by a temperature of 38° to 45° C. (100° to 113° F.), and still more by the employment of quicksilver in the nascent state. This last property is the base of the Designol process, which consists in treating auriferous or auro-argentiferous ores, first ground with sea salt, in revolving cylinders of cast iron, with iron and mercury bichloride, in such a way that the mercury precipitated collects the gold and eventually the silver more efficaciously.

«Gold Amalgam.»—Eight parts of gold and 1 of mercury are formed into an amalgam for plating by rendering the gold into thin plates, making it red hot, and then putting it into the mercury while the latter is also heated to ebullition. The gold immediately disappears in combination with the mercury, after which the mixture may be turned into water to cool. It is then ready for use.

«Zinc Amalgam for Electric Batteries.»—Dissolve 2 parts of mercury in 1 part of aqua regia. This accomplished, add 5 parts of hydrochloric acid. This solution is made warm. It suffices to dip the zinc to be amalgamated into this liquid only for a few seconds. {90}

«Amalgam for Cementing Glass, Porcelain, Etc.»—Take tin 2 parts, and cadmium 1 part. Fuse in an iron spoon or some vessel of the same material. When the two materials are in fusion add a little mercury, previously heated. Place all in an iron crucible and boil, agitating the mass with a pestle. This amalgam is soft and can be kneaded between the fingers. It may be employed for luting glass or porcelain vessels, as well as for filling teeth. It hardens in a short while.

«Amalgam for Silvering Glass Balls.»—Lead, 25 parts; tin, 25 parts; bismuth, 25 parts; mercury, 25 parts; or, lead, 20 parts; tin, 20 parts; bismuth, 20 parts; mercury, 40 parts. Melt the lead and the tin, then add the bismuth; skim several times and add the mercury, stirring the composition vigorously.

(See also Mirror-Silvering).

«Copper Amalgam.»—Copper amalgam, or so-called Viennese metal cement, crystallizes with the greatest readiness and acquires such hardness on solidifying that it can be polished like gold. The amalgam may also be worked under the hammer or between rollers; it can also be stamped, and retains its metallic luster for a long time in the air. In air containing hydrogen sulphide, however, it quickly tarnishes and turns black. A very special property of copper amalgam consists in that it becomes very soft when laid in water, and attains such pliancy that it can be employed for modeling the most delicate objects. After a few hours the amalgam congeals again into a very fine-grained, rather malleable mass. An important application of copper amalgam is that for cementing metals. All that is necessary for this purpose is to heat the metals, which must be bright, to 80–90° C. (176–194° F.), to apply the amalgam and to press the metal pieces together. They will cohere as firmly as though soldered together.

Copper amalgam may be prepared in the following manner:

Place strips of zinc in a solution of blue vitriol and agitate the solution thoroughly. The copper thus obtained in the form of a very fine powder is washed and, while still moist, treated in a mortar with a solution of mercury nitrate. The copper powder thereby amalgamates more readily with the quicksilver. Next, hot water is poured over the copper, the mortar is kept hot, and the mercury added. Knead with the pestle of the mortar until the copper, pulverulent in the beginning, has united with the mercury into a very plastic mass. The longer the kneading is continued the more uniform will be the mass. As soon as the amalgam has acquired the suitable character—for its production 3 parts of copper and 7 parts of mercury are used—the water is poured off and the amalgam still soft is given the shape in which it is to be kept.

For cementing purposes, the amalgam is rolled out into small cylinders, whose diameter is about 0.16 to 0.2 inches, with a length of a few inches. In order to produce with this amalgam impressions of castings, which are made after woodcuts, the amalgam is rolled out hot into a thin plate and pressed firmly onto the likewise heated plaster cast. After the amalgam has hardened the thin plate of it may be reinforced by pouring on molten type metal.

«Silver Amalgam.»—Silver amalgam can easily be made with the help of finely powdered silver. The mercury need only be heated to 250° to 300° C. (482° to 572° F.); silver powder is then sprinkled on it, and mixed with it by stirring. The vessel is heated for several minutes and then allowed to cool, the excess of mercury being removed from the granulated crystalline amalgam by pressing in a leather bag. Silver amalgam can also easily be made by dissolving silver in nitric acid, evaporating the solution till the excess of free acid is eliminated, diluting with distilled water, and adding mercury to the fluid in the proportion of 4 parts, by weight, of mercury to 1 of the silver originally used. The mercury precipitates the silver in a metallic state, and immediately forms an amalgam with it; the fluid standing above after a time contains no more silver, but consists of a solution of mercury nitrate mixed with whatever copper was contained in the dissolved silver in the form of copper nitrate. The absence of a white precipitate, if a few drops of hydrochloric acid are added to a sample of the fluid in a test tube, shows that all the silver has been eliminated from the solution and is present in the form of amalgam.

«Amalgam for the Rubber of Electric Machines.»—Mercury, 100 parts; zinc, 50 parts; tin, 50 parts. This amalgam reduced to powder and incorporated with grease can be applied to the rubber of electric machines.

AMALGAM GOLD PLATING: See Gilding under Plating.

«AMBER:»

«Imitation Amber.»—Melt carefully together pine rosin, 1; lacca in tabulis, 2; white colophony, 15 parts. {91}

AMBER CEMENT: See Adhesives under Cements.

AMBER VARNISH: See Varnishes.

AMBROSIA POWDER: See Salts (Effervescent).

AMIDOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

AMETHYST (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.

AMMON-CARBONITE: See Explosives.

«Ammonia»

«Household Ammonia.»—(See also Household Formulas.)—Household ammonia is simply diluted ammonia water to which borax and soap have been added. To make it cloudy add potassium nitrate or methylated spirit. The following are good formulas:

I.—Ammonia water 16 parts Yellow soap 64 parts Potassium nitrate 1 part Soft water, sufficient to make 200 parts

Shave up the soap and dissolve it in the water by heating, add the potassium nitrate and dissolve. Cool, strain, skim off any suds or bubbles, add the ammonia, mix, and bottle at once.

II.—Yellow soap 10 grains Borax 1 drachm Lavender water 20 minims Stronger ammonia water 6 ounces Water, enough to make 20 ounces

Dissolve the soap and borax in 5 ounces of boiling water; when cold add the lavender water and ammonia, and make up to a pint with water.

III.—Methylated spirit 1 gallon Soft water 1 gallon Stronger ammonia water 1 gallon

IV.—Ammonia water 5 pints Distilled water 5 pints Soap 100 grains Olive oil 5 drachms

Cut the soap in shavings, boil with the oil and water, cool, add the ammonia water, and bottle. For use in laundries, baths, and for general household purposes add one tablespoonful to one gallon of water.

V.—The best quality:

Alcohol, 94 per cent 4 ounces Soft water 4 gallons Oil of rosemary 4 drachms Oil of citronella 3 drachms

Dissolve the oils in the alcohol and add to the water. To the mixture add 4 ounces of talc (or fuller’s earth will answer), mix thoroughly, strain through canvas, and to the colate add 1, 2, or 3 gallons of ammonia water, according to the strength desired, in which has been dissolved 1, 2, or 3 ounces of white curd, or soft soap.

«Liquor Ammonii Anisatus.»—

Oil of anise, by weight 1 part Alcohol, by weight 24 parts Water of ammonia, by weight 5 parts

Dissolve the oil in the alcohol and add the water of ammonia.

It should be a clear, yellowish liquid.

«Violet Color for Ammonia.»—A purple-blue color may be given to ammonia water by adding an aqueous solution of litmus. The shade, when pale enough, will probably meet all views as to a violet color.

«Perfumed Ammonia Water.»—The following are typical formulas:

I.—Stronger water of ammonia 6 ounces Lavender water 1 ounce Soft soap 10 grains Water, enough to make 16 ounces

II.—Soft soap 1 ounce Borax 2 drachms Cologne water 1⁠/⁠2 ounce Stronger water of ammonia 5 1⁠/⁠2 ounces Water, enough to make 12 ounces

Rub up the soap and borax with water until dissolved, strain and add the other ingredients. The perfumes may be varied to suit the price.

AMMONIA FOR FIXING PRINTS: See Photography.

ANGOSTURA BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors.

ANILINE: See Dyes.

ANILINE IN PIGMENTS, TESTS FOR: See Pigments.

ANILINE STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods. {92}

ANISE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

ANKARA: See Butter.

ANNEALING OF STEEL, TOOLS, WIRE, AND SPRINGS: See Steel.

ANODYNES: See Pain Killers.

ANT DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.

«Antidotes for Poisons»

«POISON, SYMPTOMS AND ANTIDOTES.»

When a person has taken poison the first thing to do is to compel the patient to vomit, and for that purpose give any emetic that can be most readily and quickly obtained, and which is prompt and energetic, but safe in its action. For this purpose there is, perhaps, nothing better than a large teaspoonful of ground mustard in a tumblerful of warm water, and it has the advantage of being almost always at hand. If the dry mustard is not to be had use mixed mustard from the mustard pot. Its operation may generally be facilitated by the addition of a like quantity of common table salt. If the mustard is not at hand, give two or three teaspoonfuls of powdered alum in syrup or molasses, and give freely of warm water to drink; or give 10 to 20 grains of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), or 20 to 30 grains of ipecac, with 1 or 2 grains of tartar emetic, in a large cup of warm water, and repeat every ten minutes until three or four doses are given, unless free vomiting is sooner produced. After vomiting has taken place large draughts of warm water should be given, so that the vomiting will continue until the poisonous substances have been thoroughly evacuated, and then suitable antidotes should be given. If vomiting cannot be produced the stomach pump should be used. When it is known what particular kind of poison has been swallowed, then the proper antidote for that poison should be given; but when this cannot be ascertained, as is often the case, give freely of equal parts of calcined magnesia, pulverized charcoal, and sesquioxide of iron, in a sufficient quantity of water. This is a very harmless mixture and is likely to be of great benefit, as the ingredients, though very simple, are antidotes for the most common and active poisons. In case this mixture cannot be obtained, the stomach should be soothed and protected by the free administration of demulcent, mucilaginous, or oleaginous drinks, such as the whites of eggs, milk, mucilage of gum arabic, or slippery-elm bark, flaxseed tea, starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot mixed in water, linseed or olive oil, or melted butter or lard. Subsequently the bowels should be moved by some gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful or two of castor oil, or a teaspoonful of calcined magnesia; and pain or other evidence of inflammation must be relieved by the administration of a few drops of laudanum, and the repeated application of hot poultices, fomentations, and mustard plasters.

The following are the names of the substances that may give rise to poisoning, most commonly used, and their antidotes:

«Mineral Acids—Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol), Nitric Acid (Aqua Fortis), Muriatic Acid (Spirits of Salts).»—Symptoms: Acid, burning taste in the mouth, acute pain in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, generally bloody; mouth and lips excoriated, shriveled, white or yellow; hiccough, copious stools, more or less bloody, with great tenderness in the abdomen; difficult breathing, irregular pulse, excessive thirst, while drink increases the pain and rarely remains in the stomach; frequent but vain efforts to urinate; cold sweats, altered countenance; convulsions, generally preceding death. Nitric acid causes yellow stains; sulphuric acid, black ones. Treatment: Mix calcined magnesia in milk or water to the consistence of cream, and give freely to drink a glassful every couple of minutes, if it can be swallowed. Common soap (hard or soft), chalk, whiting, or even mortar from the wall mixed in water may be given, until magnesia can be obtained. Promote vomiting by tickling the throat, if necessary, and when the poison is got rid of, flaxseed or slippery-elm tea, gruel, or other mild drinks. The inflammation which always follows needs good treatment to save the patient’s life.

«Vegetable Acids—Acetic, Citric, Oxalic, Tartaric.»—Symptoms: Intense burning pain of mouth, throat, and stomach; vomiting blood which is highly acid, violent purging, collapse, stupor, death.

Oxalic acid is frequently taken in {93} mistake for Epsom salts, to which in shops it often bears a strong resemblance. Treatment: Give chalk or magnesia in a large quantity of water, or large draughts of limewater. If these are not at hand, scrape the wall or ceiling, and give the scrapings mixed with water.

«Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid—Laurel Water, Cyanide of Potassium, Bitter Almond Oil, Etc.»—Symptoms: In large doses almost invariably instantaneously fatal; when not immediately fatal, sudden loss of sense and control of the voluntary muscles. The odor of the poison generally noticeable on the breath. Treatment: Chlorine, in the form of chlorine water, in doses of from 1 to 4 fluidrachms, diluted. Weak solution of chloride lime of soda; water of ammonia (spirits of hartshorn), largely diluted, may be given, and the vapor of it cautiously inhaled. Cold affusion, and chloroform in half to teaspoonful doses in glycerine or mucilage, repeated every few minutes, until the symptoms are ameliorated. Artificial respiration.

«Aconite—Monkshood, Wolfsbane.»—Symptoms: Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, and afterwards in other portions of the body, with sore throat, pain over the stomach, and vomiting; dimness of vision, dizziness, great prostration, loss of sensibility, and delirium. Treatment: An emetic and then brandy in tablespoonful doses, in ice water, every half hour; spirits of ammonia in half-teaspoonful doses in like manner; the cold douche over the head and chest, warmth to the extremities, etc.

«Alkalis and Their Salts—Concentrated Lye, Wood-ash Lye, Caustic Potash, Ammonia, Hartshorn.»—Symptoms: Caustic, acrid taste, excessive heat in the throat, stomach, and intestines; vomiting of bloody matter, cold sweats, hiccough, purging of bloody stools. Treatment: The common vegetable acids. Common vinegar, being always at hand, is most frequently used. The fixed oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond, and olive oils form soaps with the alkalis and thus also destroy their caustic effect. They should be given in large quantity.

«Antimony and Its Preparations—Tartar Emetic, Antimonial Wine, Kerme’s Mineral.»—Symptoms: Faintness and nausea, soon followed by painful and continued vomiting, severe diarrhea, constriction and burning sensation in the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitchings, with symptoms of nervous derangement, and great prostration of strength, often terminating in death. Treatment: If vomiting has not been produced, it should be effected by tickling the fauces, and administering copious draughts of warm water. Astringent infusions, such as of gall, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act as antidotes, and should be given promptly. Powdered yellow bark may be used until the infusion is prepared, or very strong green tea should be given. To stop the vomiting, should it continue, blister over the stomach by applying a cloth wet with strong spirits of hartshorn, and then sprinkle on one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain of morphia.

«Arsenic and Its Preparations—Ratsbane, Fowler’s Solution, Etc.»—Symptoms: Generally within an hour pain and heat are felt in the stomach, soon followed by vomiting, with a burning dryness of the throat and great thirst; the matters vomited are generally colored either green yellow, or brown, and are sometimes bloody. Diarrhea or dysentery ensues, while the pulse becomes small and rapid, yet irregular. Breathing much oppressed; difficulty in vomiting may occur, while cramps, convulsions, or even paralysis often precede death, which sometimes takes place within five or six hours after arsenic has been taken. Treatment: Give a prompt emetic, and then hydrate of peroxide of iron (recently prepared) in tablespoonful doses every 10 or 15 minutes until the urgent symptoms are relieved. In the absence of this, or while it is being prepared, give large draughts of new milk and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted butter, magnesia in a large quantity of water, or even if nothing else is at hand, flour and water, always, however, giving an emetic the first thing, or causing vomiting by tickling the throat with a feather, etc. The inflammation of the stomach which follows must be treated by blisters, hot fomentations, mucilaginous drinks, and the like.

«Belladonna, or Deadly Nightshade.»—Symptoms: Dryness of the mouth and throat, great thirst, difficulty of swallowing, nausea, dimness, confusion or loss of vision, great enlargement of the pupils, dizziness, delirium, and coma. Treatment: There is no known antidote. Give a prompt emetic and then reliance must be placed on continual stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to necessary artificial respiration. Opium and its preparations, as morphia, laudanum, etc., are thought by some to {94} counteract the effect of belladonna, and may be given in small and repeated doses, as also strong black coffee and green tea.

Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone.—See Copper.

«Cantharides (Spanish or Blistering Fly) and Modern Potato Bug.»—Symptoms: Sickening odor of the breath, sour taste, with burning heat in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, often bloody; copious bloody stools, great pain in the stomach, with burning sensation in the bladder and difficulty to urinate followed with terrible convulsions, delirium, and death. Treatment: Excite vomiting by drinking plentifully of sweet oil or other wholesome oils, sugar and water, milk, or slippery-elm tea; give injections of castor oil and starch, or warm milk. The inflammatory symptoms which generally follow must be treated by a physician. Camphorated oil or camphorated spirits should be rubbed over the bowels, stomach, and thighs.

Caustic Potash.—See Alkalis under this title.

«Cobalt, or Fly Powder.»—Symptoms: Heat and pain in the throat and stomach, violent retching and vomiting, cold and clammy skin, small and feeble pulse, hurried and difficult breathing, diarrhea, etc. Treatment: An emetic, followed by the free administration of milk, eggs, wheat flour and water, and mucilaginous drinks.

«Copper—Blue Vitriol, Verdigris or Pickles or Food Cooked in Copper Vessels.»—Symptoms: General inflammation of the alimentary canal, suppression of urine; hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste, vomiting, violent colic, excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the throat, anxiety; faintness, giddiness, and cramps and convulsions generally precede death. Treatment: Large doses of simple syrup as warm as can be swallowed, until the stomach rejects the amount it contains. The whites of eggs and large quantities of milk. Hydrated peroxide of iron.

«Creosote—Carbolic Acid.»—Symptoms: Burning pain, acrid, pungent taste, thirst, vomiting, purging, etc. Treatment: An emetic and the free administration of albumen, as the whites of eggs, or, in the absence of these, milk, or flour and water.

Corrosive Sublimate.—See Mercury under this title.

«Deadly Nightshade.»—See Belladonna under this title.

«Foxglove, or Digitalis.»—Symptoms: Loss of strength, feeble, fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea and vomiting and stupor; cold perspiration, dilated pupils, sighing, irregular breathing, and sometimes convulsions. Treatment: After vomiting, give brandy and ammonia in frequently repeated doses, apply warmth to the extremities, and if necessary resort to artificial respiration.

«Gases—Carbonic Acid, Chlorine, Cyanogen, Hydrosulphuric Acid, Etc.»—Symptoms: Great drowsiness, difficult respiration, features swollen, face blue as in strangulation. Treatment: Artificial respiration, cold douche, friction with stimulating substances to the surface of the body. Inhalation of steam containing preparations of ammonia. Cupping from nape of neck. Internal use of chloroform.

«Hellebore, or Indian Poke.»—Symptoms: Violent vomiting and purging, bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors, vertigo, fainting, sinking of the pulse, cold sweats, and convulsions. Treatment: Excite speedy vomiting by large draughts of warm water, molasses and water, tickling the throat with the finger or a feather, and emetics; give oily and mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives, and clysters, acids, strong coffee, camphor, and opium.

«Hemlock (Conium).»—Symptoms: Dryness of the throat, tremors, dizziness, difficulty of swallowing, prostration, and faintness, limbs powerless or paralyzed, pupils dilated, pulse rapid and feeble; insensibility and convulsions sometimes precede death. Treatment: Empty the stomach and give brandy in tablespoonful doses, with half teaspoonful of spirits of ammonia, frequently repeated, and if much pain and vomiting, give bromide of ammonium in 5-grain doses every half hour. Artificial respiration may be required.

«Henbane, or Hyoscyamus.»—Symptoms: Muscular twitching, inability to articulate plainly, dimness of vision and stupor; later, vomiting and purging, small intermittent pulse, convulsive movement of the extremities, and coma. Treatment: Similar to opium poisoning, which see.

«Iodine.»—Symptoms: Burning pain in throat, lacerating pain in the stomach, fruitless effort to vomit, excessive tenderness of the epigastrium. Treatment: {95} Free emesis, prompt administration of starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot, beaten up in water.

«Lead—Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead, Dry White Lead, Red Lead, Litharge, or Pickles, Wine, or Vinegar Sweetened by Lead.»—Symptoms: When taken in large doses, a sweet but astringent metallic taste exists, with constriction in the throat, pain in the region of the stomach, painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody vomitings, hiccough, convulsions or spasms, and death. When taken in small but long-continued doses it produces colic, called painters’ colic; great pain, obstinate constipation, and in extreme cases paralytic symptoms, especially wrist-drop, with a blue line along the edge of the gums. Treatment: To counteract the poison give alum in water 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounce to a quart; or, better still, Epsom salts or Glauber’s salts, an ounce of either in a quart of water; or dilute sulphuric acid, a teaspoonful to a quart of water. If a large quantity of sugar of lead has been recently taken, empty the stomach by an emetic of sulphate of zinc (1 drachm in a quart of water), giving one-fourth to commence, and repeating smaller doses until free vomiting is produced; castor oil should be given to clear the bowels and injections of oil and starch freely administered. If the body is cold use the warm bath.

Meadow Saffron.—See Belladonna.

Laudanum.—See Opium.

«Lobelia—Indian Poke.»—Symptoms: Excessive vomiting and purging, pains in the bowels, contraction of the pupils, delirium, coma, and convulsions. Treatment: Mustard over the stomach, and brandy and ammonia.

«Mercury—Corrosive Sublimate» (bug poisons frequently contain this poison), Red Precipitate, Chinese or English Vermilion.—Symptoms: Acrid, metallic taste in the mouth, immediate constriction and burning in the throat, with anxiety and tearing pains in both stomach and bowels, sickness, and vomiting of various-colored fluids, and sometimes bloody and profuse diarrhea, with difficulty and pain in urinating; pulse quick, small, and hard; faint sensations, great debility, difficult breathing, cramps, cold sweats, syncope, and convulsions. Treatment: If vomiting does not already exist, emetics must be given immediately—white of eggs in continuous large doses, and infusion of catechu afterwards, sweet milk, mixtures of flour and water in successive cupfuls, and to check excessive salivation put a half ounce of chlorate of potash in a tumbler of water, and use freely as a gargle, and swallow a tablespoonful every hour or two.

Morphine.—See Opium.

«Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic).»—Symptoms: Intense pain and vomiting, and purging of blood, mucus, and shreds of mucous membranes; and if these stand they become dark. Treatment: Give freely of a solution of common salt in water, which decomposes the poison, and afterwards flaxseed or slippery-elm-bark tea, and after a while a dose of castor oil.

«Opium and All Its Compounds—Morphine, Laudanum, Paregoric, Etc.»—Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsiness, increasing to stupor, and insensibility; pulse usually, at first, quick and irregular, and breathing hurried, and afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and respiration slow and noisy; the pupils are contracted and the eyes and face congested, and later, as death approaches, the extremities become cold, the surface is covered with cold, clammy perspiration, and the sphincters relax. The effects of opium and its preparations, in poisonous doses, appear in from a half to two hours from its administration. Treatment: Empty the stomach immediately with an emetic or with the stomach pump. Then give very strong coffee without milk; put mustard plasters on the wrists and ankles; douche the head and chest with cold water, and if the patient is cold and sinking, give brandy, or whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is thought by many to counteract the poisonous effects of opium, and may be given in doses of half to a teaspoonful of the tincture, or 2 grains of the extract, every 20 minutes, until some effect is observed in causing the pupils to expand. Use warmth and friction, and if possible prevent sleep for some hours, for which purpose the patient should be walked about between two persons. Finally, as a last resort, use artificial respiration, persistence in which will sometimes be rewarded with success in apparently hopeless cases. Electricity should also be tried.

Cooley advises as follows: Vomiting must be induced as soon as possible, by means of a strong emetic and tickling the fauces. If this does not succeed, the stomach pump should be applied. The emetic may consist of a half drachm of sulphate of zinc dissolved in a half pint of warm water, of which one-third should {96} be taken at once, and the remainder at the rate of a wineglassful every 5 or 10 minutes, until vomiting commences. When there is much drowsiness or stupor 1 or 2 fluidrachms of tincture of capsicum will be found a useful addition; or one of the formulas for emetic draughts may be taken instead. Infusion of galls, cinchona, or oak bark should be freely administered before the emetic, and water soured with vinegar and lemon juice, after the stomach has been well cleared out. To rouse the system spirit and water or strong coffee may be given. To keep the sufferer awake, rough friction should be applied to the skin, an upright posture preserved, and walking exercise enforced, if necessary. When this is ineffectual cold water may be dashed over the chest, head, and spine, or mild shocks of electricity may be had recourse to. To allow the sufferer to sleep is to abandon him to destruction. Bleeding may be subsequently necessary in plethoric habits, or in threatened congestion. The costiveness that accompanies convalescence may be best met by aromatic aperients; and the general tone of the habit restored by stimulating tonics and the shower bath. The smallest fatal dose of opium in the case of an adult within our recollection was 4 1⁠/⁠2 grains. Children are much more susceptible to the action of opium than of other medicines, and hence the dose of it for them must be diminished considerably below that indicated by the common method of calculation depending on the age.

Oxalic Acid.—See Acids.

«Phosphorus—Found in Lucifer Matches and Some Rat Poisons.»—Symptoms: Symptoms of irritant poisoning; pain in the stomach and bowels; vomiting, diarrhea; tenderness and tension of the abdomen. Treatment: An emetic is to be promptly given; copious draughts containing magnesia in suspension; mucilaginous drinks. General treatment for inflammatory symptoms.

«Poisonous Mushrooms.»—Symptoms: Nausea, heat and pains in the stomach and bowels; vomiting and purging, thirst, convulsions, and faintings; pulse small and frequent, dilated pupil and stupor, cold sweats and death. Treatment: The stomach and bowels are to be cleared by an emetic of ground mustard or sulphate of zinc, followed by frequent doses of Glauber’s or of Epsom salts, and large stimulating clysters. After the poison is evacuated, either may be given with small quantities of brandy and water. But if inflammatory symptoms manifest themselves such stimuli should be avoided, and these symptoms appropriately treated. A hypodermic injection of 1⁠/⁠62 grain of atropine is the latest discovered antidote.

Potash.—See Alkali.

Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid.—See Acids.

«Poison Ivy.»—Symptoms: Contact with, and with many persons the near approach to, the vine gives rise to violent erysipelatous inflammation, especially of the face and hands, attended with itching, redness, burning, and swelling, with watery blisters. Treatment: Give saline laxatives, and apply weak sugar of lead and laudanum, or limewater and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely with spirits of niter. Anointing with oil will prevent poisoning from it.

«Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash).»—Symptoms: Only poisonous in large quantities, and then causes nausea, painful vomiting, purging, convulsions, faintness, feeble pulse, cold feet and hands, with tearing pains in stomach and bowels. Treatment: Treat as is directed for arsenic, for there is no antidote known, and emptying the stomach and bowels with mild drinks must be relied on.

«Savine.»—Symptoms: Sharp pains in the bowels, hot skin, rapid pulse, violent vomiting and sometimes purging, with great prostration. Treatment: Mustard and hot fomentations over the stomach and bowels and ice allowed in the stomach only until the inflammation ceases. If prostration comes on, food and stimulants must be given by injection.

«Stramonium, Thorn Apple, or Jamestown Weed.»—Symptoms: Vertigo, headache, perversion of vision, slight delirium, sense of suffocation, disposition to sleep, bowels relaxed, and all secretions augmented. Treatment: Same as for belladonna.

«Snake Bites, Cure for.»—The Inspector of Police in the Bengal Government reports that of 939 cases in which ammonia was freely administered, 207 victims have recovered, and in the cured instances the remedy was not administered till about 3 1⁠/⁠2 hours after the attack; on the average of the fatal cases the corresponding duration of time was 4 1⁠/⁠2 hours.

«Strychnine or Nux Vomica.»—The characteristic symptom is the special influence exerted upon the nervous system, {97} which is manifested by a general contraction of all the muscles of the body, with rigidity of the spinal column. A profound calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a new tetanic seizure, longer than the first, during which the respiration is suspended. These symptoms then cease, the breathing becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by another general contraction. In fatal cases these attacks are renewed, at intervals, with increasing violence, until death ensues. One phenomenon which is found only in poisonings by substances containing strychnine is that touching any part of the body, or even threatening to do so, instantly produces the tetanic spasm. Antidote: The stomach should be immediately cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the fauces, etc. To counteract the asphyxia from tetanus, etc., artificial respiration should be practiced with diligence and care. “If the poison has been applied externally, we ought immediately to cauterize the part, and apply a ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison has been swallowed for some time we should give a purgative clyster, and administer draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil of turpentine, which in most cases produce a salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine and decoction of tannin are of value.”

According to Ch. Gunther the greatest reliance may be placed on full doses of opium, assisted by venesection, in cases of poisoning by strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to administer this drug in the form of solution or mixture, in combination with a saline aperient.

Another treatment is to give, if obtainable, 1 ounce or more of bone charcoal mixed with water, and follow with an active emetic; then to give chloroform in teaspoonful doses, in flour and water or glycerine, every few minutes while the spasms last, and afterwards brandy and stimulants, and warmth of the extremities if necessary. Recoveries have followed the free and prompt administration of oils or melted butter or lard. In all cases empty the stomach if possible.

Sulphate of Zinc—White Vitriol.—See Zinc.

«Tin—Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin (used by dyers), Oxide of Tin, or Putty Powder.»—Symptoms: Vomiting, pains in the stomach, anxiety, restlessness, frequent pulse, delirium, etc. Treatment: Empty the stomach, and give whites of eggs in water, milk in large quantities, or flour beaten up in water, with magnesia or chalk.

Tartar Emetic.—See Antimony.

«Tobacco.»—Symptoms: Vertigo, stupor, fainting, nausea, vomiting, sudden nervous debility, cold sweat, tremors, and at times fatal prostration. Treatment: After the stomach is empty apply mustard to the abdomen and to the extremities, and give strong coffee, with brandy and other stimulants, with warmth to the extremities.

«Zinc—Oxide of Zinc, Sulphate of Zinc, White Vitriol, Acetate of Zinc.»—Symptoms: Violent vomiting, astringent taste, burning pain in the stomach, pale countenance, cold extremities, dull eyes, fluttering pulse. Death seldom ensues, in consequence of the emetic effect. Treatment: The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts of warm water. Carbonate of soda, administered in solution, will decompose the sulphate of zinc. Milk and albumen will also act as antidotes. General principles to be observed in the subsequent treatment.

«Woorara.»—Symptoms: When taken into the stomach it is inert; when absorbed through a wound it causes sudden stupor and insensibility, frothing at the mouth, and speedy death. Treatment: Suck the wound immediately, or cut it out and tie a cord around the limb between the wound and the heart. Apply iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it internally, and try artificial respiration.

«ANTIFERMENTS.»

The following are tried and useful formulas:

I.—Sulphite (not sulphate) of lime, in fine powder, 1 part; marble dust, ground oyster shells, or chalk, 7 parts; mix, and pack tight, so as to exclude the air.

II.—Sulphite (not sulphate) of potassa, 1 part; new black-mustard seed (ground in a pepper mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack so as to exclude air and moisture perfectly. Dose (of either), 1⁠/⁠2 ounce to 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces per hogshead.

III.—Mustard seed, 14 pounds; cloves and capsicum, of each, 1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds; mix, and grind them to powder in a pepper mill. Dose, 1⁠/⁠4 to 1⁠/⁠2 pound per hogshead.

A portion of any one of these compounds added to cider, or the like, soon allays fermentation, when excessive, or when it has been renewed. The first formula is preferred when there is a tendency to acidity. The second and third may be advantageously used for wine and beer, as {98} well as for cider. The third compound greatly improves the flavor and the apparent strength of the liquor, and also improves its keeping qualities.

«Anchovy Preparations»

«Extemporaneous Anchovy Sauce.»—

Anchovies, chopped small 3 or 4 Butter 3 ounces Water 2 ounces Vinegar 1 ounce Flour 1 ounce

Mix, place over the fire, and stir until the mixture thickens. Then rub through a coarse sieve.

«Essence of Anchovies.»—Remove the bones from 1 pound of anchovies, reduce the remaining portions of the fish to a pulp in a Wedgewood mortar, and pass through a clean hair or brass sieve. Boil the bones and other portions which will not pass through the sieve in 1 pint of water for 15 minutes, and strain. To the strained liquor add 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of salt and 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of flour, and the pulped anchovies. Let the whole simmer over the fire for three or four minutes; remove from the fire, and when the mixture has cooled a little add 4 ounces of strong vinegar. The product (nearly 3 pounds) may be then bottled, and the corks tied over with bladder, and either waxed or capsuled.

«Anchovy Paste.»—

Anchovies 7 pounds Water 9 pints Salt 1 pound Flour 1 pound Capsicum 1⁠/⁠4 ounce Grated lemon peel 1 Mushroom catsup 4 ounces

«Anchovy Butter.»—

Anchovies, boned and beaten to a paste 1 part Butter 2 parts Spice enough

ANTIFOULING COMPOSITIONS: See Paints.

ANTIFREEZING SOLUTION: See Freezing Preventives.

ANTIFRICTION METAL: See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze and Antifriction Metals.

«ANTIQUES, TO PRESERVE.»

The best process for the preservation of antique metallic articles consists in a retransformation of the metallic oxides into metal by the electrolytic method. For this purpose a zinc strip is wound around the article and the latter is laid in a soda-lye solution of 5 per cent, or suspended as the negative pole of a small battery in a potassium cyanide solution of 2 per cent. Where this method does not seem practicable it is advisable to edulcorate the objects in running water, in which operation fragile or easily destroyed articles may be protected by winding with gauze; next, they should be carefully dried, first in the air, then with moderate heat, and finally protected from further destruction by immersion in melted paraffine. A dry place is required for storing the articles, since paraffine is not perfectly impermeable to water in the shape of steam.

ANTIRUST COMPOSITIONS: See Rust Preventives.

«Antiseptics»

«Antiseptic Powders.»—

I.—Borax 3 ounces Dried alum 3 ounces Thymol 22 grains Eucalyptol 20 drops Menthol 1 1⁠/⁠2 grains Phenol 15 grains Oil of gaultheria 4 drops Carmine to give a pink tint.

II.—Alum, powdered 50 parts by weight Borax, powdered 50 parts by weight Carbolic acid, crystals 5 parts by weight Oil of eucalyptus 5 parts by weight Oil of wintergreen 5 parts by weight Menthol 5 parts by weight Thymol 5 parts by weight

III.—Boracic acid 10 ounces Sodium biborate 4 ounces Alum 1 ounce Zinc sulphocarbolate 1 ounce Thymic acid 1 drachm.

Mix thoroughly. For an antiseptic wash dissolve 1 or 2 drachms in a quart of warm water.

IV.—Ektogan is a new dusting powder which is a mixture of zinc hydroxide and dioxide. It is equivalent to about 8 per cent of active oxygen. It is a yellowish-white odorless and tasteless powder, insoluble in water. It is used externally in wounds and in skin diseases as a moist dressing mixed with citric, tartaric, or {99} tannic acid, which causes the liberation of oxygen. With iodides it liberates iodine. It is stated to be strongly antiseptic; it is used in the form of a powder, a gauze, and a plaster.

«Antiseptic Pencils.»—

I.—Tannin q. s. Alcohol, q. s 1 part Ether, q. s 3 parts

Make into a mass, using as an excipient the alcohol and ether previously mixed. Roll into pencils of the desired length and thickness. Then coat with collodion, roll in pure silver leaf, and finally coat with the following solution of gelatine and set aside to dry:

Gelatine 1 drachm Water 1 pint

Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.

When wanted for use, shave away a portion of the covering, dip the pencil into tepid water and apply.

II.—Pencils for stopping bleeding are prepared by mixing:

Purified alum 480 parts by weight Borax 24 parts by weight Oxide zinc 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts by weight Thymol 8 parts by weight Formalin 4 parts by weight

Melting carefully in a water bath, adding some perfume, and forming mixture into pencils or cones.

A very convenient way to form into pencils where no mold need be made is to take a small glass tube, roll a piece of oil paper around the tube, remove the glass tube, crimp the paper tube thus formed on one end and stand it on end or in a bottle, and pour the melted solution in it and leave until cool, then remove the paper.

«Antiseptic Paste (Poison) for Organic Specimens.»—

(_a_) Wheat flour 16 ounces Beat to a batter with cold water 16 fluidounces Then pour into boiling water 32 fluidounces

(_b_) Pulverized gum arabic 2 ounces Dissolve in boiling water 4 fluidounces

(_c_) Pulverized alum 2 ounces Dissolve in boiling water 4 fluidounces

(_d_) Acetate of lead 2 ounces Dissolve in boiling water 4 fluidounces

(_e_) Corrosive sublimate 10 grains

Mix (_a_) and (_b_) while hot and continue to simmer; meanwhile stir in (_c_) and mix thoroughly; then add (_d_). Stir briskly, and pour in the dry corrosive sublimate. This paste is very poisonous. It is used for anatomical work and for pasting organic tissue, labels on skeletons, etc.

«Mouth Antiseptics.»—I.—Thymic acid, 25 centigrams (3 1⁠/⁠4 grains): benzoic acid, 3 grams (45 grains); essence of peppermint, 75 centigrams (10 minims); tincture of eucalyptus, 15 grams (4 1⁠/⁠2 drachms); alcohol, 100 grams (3 ounces). Put sufficient in a glass of water to render latter milky.

II.—Tannin, 12 grams (3 drachms); menthol, 8 grams (2 drachms); thymol, 1 gram (15 grains); tincture benzoin, 6 grams (90 minims); alcohol, 100 grams (3 ounces). Ten drops in a half-glassful of tepid water.

See also Dentifrices for Mouth Washes.

«Antiseptic Paste.»—Difficulty is often experienced in applying an antiseptic dressing to moist surfaces, such as the lips after operation for harelip. A paste for this purpose is described by its originator, Socin. The composition is: Zinc oxide, 50 parts; zinc chloride, 5 parts; distilled water, 50 parts. The paste is applied to the wound, previously dried by means of a brush or spatula, allowed to dry on, and to remain in place five or six days. It may then be removed and a fresh application made.

Potassium bicarbonate 32.0 grams Sodium benzoate 32.0 grams Sodium borate 8.0 grams Thymol 0.2 gram Eucalyptol 2.0 c. cent. Oil of peppermint 0.2 c. cent. Oil of wintergreen 0.4 c. cent. Tincture of cudbear 15.0 c. cent. Alcohol. 60.0 c. cent. Glycerine 250.0 c. cent. Water, enough to make 1,000.0 c. centimeters

Dissolve the salts in 650 cubic centimeters of water, and the thymol, eucalyptol, and oils in the alcohol. Mix the alcoholic solution with the glycerine and add the aqueous liquid, then the tincture of cudbear, and lastly enough water to make 1,000 cubic centimeters. Allow to stand a few days, then filter, adding a little magnesium carbonate to the filter, if necessary, to get a brilliant filtrate.

This is from the Formulary of the Bournemouth Pharmaceutical Association, as reported in the Canadian Pharmaceutical Association: {100}

«Alkaline Glycerine of Thymol.»—

Sodium bicarbonate 100 grains Sodium biborate 200 grains Sodium benzoate 80 grains Sodium salicylate 40 grains Menthol 2 grains Pumilio pine oil 4 minims Wintergreen oil 2 minims Thymol 4 grains Eucalyptol 12 minims

«Compound Solution of Thymol.»—

A

Benzoic acid 64 grains Borax 64 grains Boric acid 128 grains Distilled water 6 ounces

Dissolve.

B

Thymol 20 grains Menthol 6 grains Eucalyptol 4 minims Oil of wintergreen 4 minims Oil of peppermint 2 minims Oil of thyme 1 minim Alcohol (90 per cent) 3 ounces

Dissolve.

Mix solutions A and B, make up to 20 fluidounces with distilled water, and filter.

«Oil of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic.»—Oil of cinnamon in a 9-per-cent emulsion, when used upon the hands, completely sterilizes them. A 7- to 8-per-cent emulsion is equal to a 1-per-cent solution of corrosive sublimate and is certainly far more agreeable to use. Oil of thyme in an 11-per-cent solution is equal to a 7-per-cent solution of cinnamon oil.

«Green Coloring for Antiseptic Solutions.»—The safest coloring substance for use in a preparation intended either for internal administration or for application to the skin is the coloring matter of leaves, chlorophyll. A tincture of spinach or of grass made by macerating 2 ounces of the freshly cut leaves in a pint of alcohol for five days will be found to give good results. If the pure coloring substance is wanted the solvent should be evaporated off.

«Antiseptic Bromine Solution.»—

Bromine 1 ounce Sodium chloride 8 ounces Water 8 pints

Dissolve the sodium chloride in the water and add the bromine. This solution is to be diluted, when applied to broken skin surfaces, 1 part with 15 parts of water.

«Substitute for Rubber Gloves.»—Murphy has found that a 4-, 6-, or 8-per-cent solution of gutta-percha in benzine, when applied to the hands of the surgeon or the skin of the patient, will seal these surfaces with an insoluble, impervious, and practically imperceptible coating—a coating that will not allow the secretions of the skin to escape, and will not admit secretions, blood, or pus into the crevices of the skin. At the same time it does not impair the sense of touch nor the pliability of the skin. A similar solution in acetone also meets most of the requirements.

Murphy’s routine method of hand preparation is as follows: First, five to seven minutes’ scrubbing with spirits of green soap and running hot water; second, three minutes’ washing with alcohol; third, when the hands are thoroughly dried, the gutta-percha solution is poured over the hands and forearms, care being taken to fill in around and beneath the nails. The hands must be kept exposed to the air with the fingers separated until thoroughly dry. The coating is very thin and can be recognized only by its glazed appearance. It will resist soap and water, but is easily removed by washing in benzine. The hands can be washed in bichloride or any of the antiseptic solutions without interfering with the coating or affecting the skin. If the operations be many, or prolonged, the coating wears away from the tips of the fingers, but is easily renewed. For the remaining portion of the hands one application is sufficient for a whole morning’s work.

The 4-per-cent solution of rubber wears better on the tips of the fingers, in handling instruments, sponges, and tissues than the acetone solution.

For the abdomen the acetone solution has the advantage, and it dries in three to four seconds after its application, while the benzine solution takes from three to four and a half minutes to make a dry, firm coating.

The preparation of the patient’s skin consists in five minutes’ scrubbing with spirits of green soap, washing with ether, followed by alcohol. The surface is then swabbed over thoroughly with the benzine or acetone solution.

The gutta-percha solution is prepared by dissolving the pure gutta-percha chips in sterile benzine or acetone. These solutions do not stand boiling, as this impairs the adhesiveness and elasticity of the coating.

ANTISEPTICS FOR CAGED BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. {101}

APOLLINARIS: See Waters.

APPLE SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.

AQUA FORTIS FOR BRIGHT LUSTER: See Castings.

AQUA FORTIS FOR THE TOUCHSTONE: See Gold.

AQUARIUM CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

AQUARIUM PUTTY: See Putty.

ARGENTAN: See Alloys.

ARMENIAN CEMENT: See Adhesives under Jewelers’ Cements.

ARMS, OIL FOR: See Lubricants.

ARNICA SALVE: See Ointments.

ARSENIC ALLOYS: See Alloys.

ASBESTOS CEMENT: See Adhesives.

ASBESTOS FABRIC: See Fireproofing.

ASPHALT AS AN INGREDIENT OF INDIA RUBBER: See Rubber.

ASPHALT IN PAINTING: See Paint.

ASPHALT VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

ASSAYING: See Gold.

«ASTHMA CURES.»—_Asthma Papers._—I.—Impregnate bibulous paper with the following: Extract of stramonium, 10; potassium nitrate, 17; sugar, 20; warm water, 200 parts. Dry.

II.—Blotting or gray filter paper, 120; potassium nitrate, 60; powdered belladonna leaves, 5; powdered stramonium leaves, 5; powdered digitalis leaves, 5; powdered lobelia, 5; myrrh, 10; olibanum, 10; phellandrium fruits, 5 parts.

_Stramonium Candle._—Powdered stramonium leaves, 120; potassium nitrate, 72; Peruvian balsam, 3; powdered sugar, 1; powdered tragacanth, 4 parts. (Water, q. s. to mass; roll into suitable shapes and dry.)

_Cleary’s Asthma Fumigating Powder._—Powdered stramonium, 15; powdered belladonna leaves, 15; powdered opium, 2; potassium nitrate, 5.

_Asthma Fumigating Powders._—I.—Powdered stramonium leaves, 4; powdered aniseed, 2; potassium nitrate, 2 parts.

II.—Powdered stramonium, 30; potassium nitrate, 5; powdered tea, 15; powdered eucalyptus leaves, 15; powdered Indian hemp, 15; powdered lobelia, 15; powdered aniseed, 2; distilled water, 45 parts. (All the herbal ingredients in coarse powder; moisten with the water in which the potassium nitrate has been previously dissolved, and dry.)

_Schiffmann’s Asthma Powder._—Potassium nitrate, 25; stramonium, 70; belladonna leaves, 5 parts.

_Neumeyer’s Asthma Powder._—Potassium nitrate, 6 parts; sugar, 4; stramonium, 6; powdered lobelia, 1.

_Fischer’s Asthma Powder._—Stramonium, 5 parts; potassium nitrate, 1; powdered _Achillea millefolium_ leaves, 1.

_Vorlaender’s Asthma Powder._—Stramonium, 150; lobelia, 80; arnica flowers, 80; potassium nitrate, 30; potassium iodide, 3; naphthol, 1,100 parts.

«Asthma Cigarettes.»—I.—Belladonna leaves, 5 parts; stramonium leaves, 5 parts; digitalis leaves, 5 parts; sage leaves, 5 parts; potassium nitrate, 75 parts; tincture of benzoin, 40 parts; boiling water, 1,000 parts. Extract the leaves with the boiling water, filter, and in the filtrate dissolve the salts. Immerse in the fluid sheets of bibulous paper (Swedish filter paper will answer) and let remain for 24 hours. At the end of this time remove, dry, cut into pieces about 2 3⁠/⁠4 by 4 inches, and roll into cigarettes.

II.—Sodium arseniate, 3 grains; extract of belladonna, 8 grains; extract of stramonium, 8 grains. Dissolve the arseniate of sodium in a small quantity of water, and rub it with the two extracts. Then soak up the whole mixture with fine blotting paper, which is dried and cut into 24 equal parts. Each part is rolled up in a piece of cigarette paper. Four or five inhalations are generally sufficient as a dose.

ASTHMA IN CANARIES: See Veterinary Formulas.

ASTRINGENT FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

ATOMIC WEIGHTS: See Weights and Measures. {102}

«ATROPINE, ANTIDOTE TO.»

The usual physiological antidotes to the mydriatic alkaloids from belladonna, stramonium, and hyoscyamus are morphine or eserine. Strong tea, coffee, or brandy are usually administered as stimulants. Chief reliance has usually been placed upon a stomach siphon and plenty of water to wash out the contents of the stomach. The best antidote ever reported was that of muscarine extracted by alcohol from the mushroom, _Amanita muscaria_, but the difficulty of securing the same has caused it to be overlooked and almost forgotten. Experiments with this antidote showed it to be an almost perfect opposite of atropine in its effects upon the animal body and that it neutralized poisonous doses.

«AQUA AROMATICA.»—

Cort. cinnam. chinens 3 parts Flor. lavandulæ 5 parts Fol. Menth. pip. 5 parts Fol. rosmarini 5 parts Fol. salviæ 10 parts Fruct. fœniculi 3 parts Spiritus 70 parts Aqua 300 parts

Macerate the drugs in the mixed alcohol and water for 24 hours and distill 200 parts.

«AQUA REGIA.»—Aqua regia consists in principle of 2 parts of hydrochloric acid and 1 part of nitric acid. But this quantity varies according to the shop where it is used for gilding or jewelry, and sometimes the proportion is brought to 4 parts of hydrochloric acid to 1 of nitric acid.

AUTOMOBILES, ANTIFREEZING SOLUTION FOR: See Freezing Preventives.

AXLE GREASE: See Lubricants.

BABBITT METAL: See Alloys.

«Baking Powders»

I.—Tartaric acid, 3 parts; sodium bicarbonate, 1 part; starch, 0.75 part. Of this baking powder the required amount for 500 parts of flour is about 20 parts for rich cake, and 15 parts for lean cake.

The substances employed must be dry, each having been previously sifted by itself, so that no coarse pieces are present; the starch is mixed with the sodium bicarbonate before the acid is added. When large quantities are prepared the mixing is done by machine; smaller quantities are best mixed together in a spacious mortar, and then passed repeatedly through a sieve. Instead of starch, flour may be used, but starch is preferable, because it interferes with the action of the acid on the alkali.

II.—A formula proposed by Crampton, of the United States Department of Agriculture, as the result of an investigation of the leading baking powders of the market, is:

Potassium bitartrate 2 parts Sodium bicarbonate 1 part Cornstarch 1 part

The addition of the starch serves the double purpose of a “filler” to increase the weight of the powder and as a preservative. A mixture of the chemicals alone does not keep well.

The stability of the preparation is increased by drying each ingredient separately by exposure to a gentle heat, mixing at once, and immediately placing in bottles or cans and excluding access of air and consequently of moisture.

This is not a cheap powder; but it is the best that can be made, as to healthfulness.

III.—Sodium acid phosphate 20 parts Calcium acid phosphate 20 parts Sodium bicarbonate 25 parts Starch 35 parts

Caution as to drying the ingredients and keeping them dry must be observed. Even the mixing should be done in a room free from excessive humidity.

IV.—Alum Baking Powder.—

Ammonium alum, anhydrous 15 parts Sodium bicarbonate 18 parts Cornstarch, q. s. to make 100 parts.

Mix. The available carbon dioxide yielded is 7 1⁠/⁠2 per cent or 8 per cent.

BALANCE SPRING: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

BALDNESS: See Hair Preparations.

BALL BLUE: See Laundry Preparations.

«BALSAMS:»

See also Ointments. {103}

«Wild-Cherry Balsam.»—

Wild-cherry bark 1 ounce Licorice root 1 ounce Ipecac 1 ounce Bloodroot 1 drachm Sassafras 1 drachm Compound tincture of opium 1 fluidounce Fluid extract of cubeb 4 fluidrachms

Moisten the ground drugs with the fluid extract and tincture and enough menstruum consisting of 25 per cent alcohol, and after six or eight hours pack in a percolator, and pour on menstruum until percolation begins. Then cork the orifice, cover the percolator, and allow to macerate for 24 hours. Then percolate to 10 fluidounces, pouring back the first portion of percolate until it comes through clear. In the percolate dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of ammonium chloride and 1⁠/⁠2 pound of sugar by cold percolation, adding simple syrup to make 16 fluidounces. Finally add 1 fluidrachm of chloroform.

«Balsam Spray Solution.»—

Oil of Scotch pine 30 minims Oil of eucalyptus 1 drachm Oil of cinnamon 30 minims Menthol crystals q. s. Fluid extract of balm-of-Gilead buds 1 drachm Tincture of benzoin, enough to make 4 ounces

This formula can, of course, be modified to suit your requirements. The oils of eucalyptus and cinnamon can be omitted and such quantities of tincture of tolu and tincture of myrrh incorporated as may be desired.

«Birch Balsam.»—

Parts by weight Alcohol 30,000 Birch juice 3,000 Glycerine 1,000 Bergamot oil 90 Vanillin 10 Geranium oil 50 Water 14,000

BALSAM STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

BANANA BRONZING SOLUTION: See Plating.

BANANA SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.

BANANA TRICK, THE BURNING: See Pyrotechnics.

BANJO SOUR: See Beverages under Lemonade.

BAR POLISHES: See Polishes.

BARBERS’-ITCH CURE: See Ointments.

BARBERS’ POWDER: See Cosmetics.

BAROMETERS (PAPER): See Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.

BATH, AIR: See Air Bath.

BATH METAL: See Alloys.

BATH POWDER: See Cosmetics.

«BATH TABLETS, EFFERVESCENT.»

Tartaric acid 10 parts Sodium bicarbonate 9 parts Rice flour 6 parts

A few spoonfuls of this, when stirred into a bathtubful of water, causes a copious liberation of carbon dioxide, which is refreshing. This mixture can be made into tablets by compression, moistening, if necessary, with alcohol. Water, of course, cannot be used in making them, as its presence causes the decomposition referred to. Perfume may be added to this powder, essential oils being a good form. Oil of lavender would be a suitable addition, in the proportion of a fluidrachm or more to the pound of powder. A better but more expensive perfume may be obtained by mixing 1 part of oil of rose geranium with 6 parts of oil of lavender. A perfume still more desirable may be had by adding a mixture of the oils from which Cologne water is made. For an ordinary quality the following will suffice:

Oil of lavender 4 fluidrachms Oil of rosemary 4 fluidrachms Oil of bergamot 1 fluidounce Oil of lemon 2 fluidounces Oil of clove 30 minims

For the first quality the following may be taken:

Oil of neroli 6 fluidrachms Oil of rosemary 3 fluidrachms Oil of bergamot 3 fluidrachms Oil of cedrat 7 fluidrachms Oil of orange peel 7 fluidrachms

A fluidrachm or more of either of these mixtures may be used to the pound, as in the case of lavender.

These mixtures may also be used in the preparation of a bath powder {104} (non-effervescent) made by mixing equal parts of powdered soap and powdered borax.

BATH-TUB ENAMEL: See Varnishes.

BATH-TUB PAINTS: See Paint.

«BATTERY FILLERS AND SOLUTIONS.»

I.—In the so-called dry batteries the exciting substance is a paste instead of a fluid; moisture is necessary to cause the reaction. These pastes are generally secret preparations. One of the earlier “dry” batteries is that of Gassner. The apparatus consists of a containing vessel of zinc, which forms the positive element; the negative one is a cylinder of carbon, and the space between is filled with a paste, the recipe for which is:

Oxide of zinc 1 part Sal ammoniac 1 part Plaster 3 parts Chloride of zinc 1 part Water 2 parts

The usual form of chloride-of-silver battery consists of a sealed cell containing a zinc electrode, the two being generally separated by some form of porous septum. Around the platinum or silver electrode is cast a quantity of silver chloride. This is melted and generally poured into molds surrounding the metallic electrode. The exciting fluid is either a solution of ammonium chloride, caustic potassa, or soda, or zinc sulphate. As ordinarily constructed, these cells contain a paste of the electrolyte, and are sealed up hermetically in glass or hard-rubber receptacles.

II.—The following formula is said to yield a serviceable filling for dry batteries:

Charcoal 3 ounces Graphite 1 ounce Manganese dioxide 3 ounces Calcium hydrate 1 ounce Arsenic acid 1 ounce Glucose mixed with dextrine or starch 1 ounce

Intimately mix, and then work into a paste of proper consistency with a saturated solution of sodium and ammonium chlorides containing one-tenth of its volume of a mercury-bichloride solution and an equal volume of hydrochloric acid. Add the fluid gradually, and well work up the mass.

III.—Calcium chloride, crystallized 30 parts Calcium chloride, granulated 30 parts Ammonium sulphate 15 parts Zinc sulphate 25 parts

«Solutions for Batteries.»—The almost exclusively employed solution of sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) presents the drawback that the zinc rods, glasses, etc., after a short use, become covered with a fine, yellow, very difficultly soluble, basic zinc salt, whereby the generation of the electric current is impaired, and finally arrested altogether. This evil may be remedied by an admixture of cane sugar. For a battery of ordinary size about 20 to 25 grams of sugar, dissolved in warm water, is sufficient per 50 to 60 grams of sal ammoniac. After prolonged use only large crystals (of a zinc saccharate) form, which, however, become attached only to the zinc rod in a few places, having very little disadvantageous effect upon the action of the batteries and being easy to remove, owing to their ready solubility.

BAUDOIN METAL: See Alloys.

«BAY RUM.»

I.—Oil of bay 1 drachm Alcohol 18 ounces Water 18 ounces

Mix and filter through magnesia.

II.—Bay-leaf otto 1⁠/⁠2 ounce Magnesium carbonate 1⁠/⁠2 ounce Jamaica rum 2 pints Alcohol 3 pints Water 3 pints

Triturate the otto with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding the other ingredients, previously mixed, and filter. If the rum employed contains sufficient sugar or mucilaginous matter to cause any stickiness to be felt on the skin, rectification will be necessary.

BEAR FAT: See Fats.

BEARING LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.

BEARING METAL: See Babbitt Metal, Bearing Metal, and Phosphor Bronze, under Alloys.

BEDBUG DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.

«BEEF, IRON, AND WINE.»

Extract of beef 512 grains Detannated sherry wine 26 ounces Alcohol 4 ounces Citrate of iron and ammonia 256 grains Simple sirup 12 ounces {105} Tincture of orange 2 ounces Tincture of cardamom co. 1 ounce Citric acid 10 grains Water, enough to make 4 pints

Let stand 24 hours, agitate frequently, and filter. See that the orange is fresh.

BEEF PEPTONOIDS: See Peptonoids.

BEEF PRESERVATIVES: See Foods.

BEEF TEA: See Beverages.

BEERS, ALCOHOL IN: See Alcohol.

BEER, GINGER, HOP-BITTER, SCOTCH, AND SPRUCE: See Beverages.

«BEER, RESTORATION OF SPOILED.»

I.—Powdered chalk is poured into the cask and allowed to remain in the beer until completely precipitated.

II.—The liquor of boiled raisins may be poured into the beer, with the result that the sour taste of the beer is disguised.

III.—A small quantity of a solution of potash will remove the sour taste of beer. Too much potash must not be added; otherwise the stomach will suffer. Beer thus restored will not keep long.

IV.—If the beer is not completely spoiled it may be restored by the addition of coarsely powdered charcoal.

V.—If the addition of any of the above-mentioned substances should affect the taste of the beer, a little powdered zingiber may be used to advantage. Syrup or molasses may also be employed.

«BEES, FOUL BROOD IN.»

“Foul brood” is a contagious disease to which bees are subject. It is caused by bacteria and its presence may be known by the bees becoming languid. Dark, stringy, and elastic masses are found in the bottom of the cells, while the caps are sunken or irregularly punctured. Frequently the disease is said to be accompanied by a peculiar offensive odor. Prompt removal of diseased colonies, their transfer to clean and thoroughly disinfected hives, and feeding on antiseptically treated honey or syrup are the means taken for the prevention and cure of the disease. The antiseptics used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid, or formic acid. Spraying the brood with any one of these remedies in a solution and feeding with a honey or syrup medicated with them will usually be all that is required by way of treatment. It is also said that access to salt water is important for the health of bees.

BEETLE POWDER: See Insecticides.

BELL METAL: See Alloys.

BELLADONNA, ANTIDOTES TO: See Antidotes and Atropine.

«BELT PASTES FOR INCREASING ADHESION.»

I.—Tallow 50 parts Caster oil, crude 20 parts Fish oil 20 parts Colophony 10 parts

Melt on a moderate fire and stir until the mass cools.

II.—Melt 250 parts of gum elastic with 250 parts of oil of turpentine in an iron, well-closed crucible at 122° F. (caution!) and mix well with 200 parts of colophony. After further melting add 200 parts of yellow wax and stir carefully. Melt in 750 parts of heated train oil, 250 parts of tallow, and to this add, with constant stirring, the first mixture when the latter is still warm, and let cool slowly with stirring. This grease is intended for cotton belts.

III.—Gutta-percha 40 parts Rosin 10 parts Asphalt 15 parts Petroleum 60 parts

Heat in a glass vessel on the water bath for a few hours, until a uniform solution is obtained. Let cool and add 15 parts of carbon disulphide and allow the mixture to stand, shaking it frequently.

_Directions for Use._—The leather belts to be cemented should first be roughened at the joints, and after the cement has been applied they should be subjected to a strong pressure between warm rollers, whereupon they will adhere together with much tenacity.

«Preservation of Belts.»—In a well-covered iron vessel heat at a temperature of 50° C. (152° F.) 1 part by weight of caoutchouc, cut in small pieces, with 1 part by weight of rectified turpentine. When the caoutchouc is dissolved add 0.8 part of colophony, stir until this is dissolved, and add to the mixture 0.1 part of yellow wax. Into another vessel of suitable size pour 3 parts of fish oil, add 1 part of tallow, and heat the mixture until the tallow is melted; then pour on the contents of the first vessel, constantly stirring—an operation to be continued until the matter is cooled and congealed. This grease is to be rubbed {106} on the inside of the belts from time to time, while they are in use. The belts run easily and do not slip. The grease may also serve for improving old belts. For this purpose the grease should be rubbed on both sides in a warm place. A first layer is allowed to soak in, and another applied.

«To Make a Belt Pull.»—Hold a piece of tar soap on the inside of the belt while it is running.

BELT CEMENT: See Adhesives.

BELT GLUE: See Adhesives.

BELT LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.

BÉNÉDICTINE: See Wines and Liquors.

«Benzine»

«Benzine, to Color Green.»—Probably the simplest and cheapest as well as the best method of coloring benzine green is to dissolve in it sufficient oil soluble aniline green of the desired tint to give the required shade.

«Purification of Benzine.»—Ill-smelling benzine, mixed with about 1 to 2 per cent of its weight of free fatty acid, will dissolve therein. One-fourth per cent of tannin is added and all is mixed well. Enough potash or soda lye, or even lime milk, is added until the fatty acids are saponified, and the tannic acid is neutralized, shaking repeatedly. After a while the milky liquid separates into two layers, viz., a salty, soapy, mud-sediment and clear, colorless, and almost odorless benzine above. This benzine, filtered, may be employed for many technical purposes, but gives an excellent, pure product upon a second distillation.

Fatty acid from tallow, olive oil, or other fats may be used, but care should be taken that they have as slight an odor of rancid fat as possible. The so-called elaine or olein—more correctly oleic acid—of the candle factories may likewise be employed, but it should first be agitated with a 1⁠/⁠10-per-cent soda solution to get rid of the bad-smelling fatty acids, especially the butyric acid.

«The Prevention of the Inflammability of Benzine.»—A mixture of 9 volumes tetrachloride and 1 volume of benzine is practicably inflammable. The flame is soon extinguished by itself.

«Substitute for Benzine as a Cleansing Agent.»—

I.—Chloroform 75 parts Ether 75 parts Alcohol 600 parts Decoction of quillaya bark 22,500 parts

Mix.

II.—Acetic ether, technically pure 10 parts Amyl acetate 10 parts Ammonia water 10 parts Alcohol dilute 70 parts

Mix.

III.—Acetone 1 part Ammonia water 1 part Alcohol dilute 1