Chapter XI

.). This, however, must serve as the most convenient place for a few remarks on their technique.

The vases, after they had left the wheel and were fitted with handle, etc., were covered with a coating of white flaky pigment, in consistency resembling liquid plaster of Paris, or, when dry, pipeclay. They received this coat of white while still on the wheel, and then a second coating, of the usual black varnish, was applied to such parts as were not required for decoration. Usually the white covered the cylindrical part of the body, and the shoulder up to the neck; black was applied to the mouth, neck, handle, base of body, and stem. The clay, it should be noted, is of the ordinary kind, but two varieties have been distinguished, one of pale red, for light thin vases, the other of a blackish-grey, for thicker and heavier ware. The natural colour appears on the inside of the lip and foot. Before being removed from the wheel the vases were finely polished, which gave to the white coating a sort of lustrous sheen; they were then fired at a low temperature.

The method of decoration[798] was usually as follows:—A preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines, ignoring draperies (hence the lines of figures are usually visible _through_ the draperies), but not always necessarily followed when the colours were laid on. This was done as soon as the first lines were dry, the colour being applied with a fine brush and in monochrome—black, yellow, or red—following the lines of the sketch more or less closely. In the later examples red was used exclusively, and at all periods at Athens; but in the vases attributed to Locri and Sicily, a black turning to yellow is used. This combination of black and yellow is also used on the best Attic vases for various details, such as eyes and hair. The outlines also served to indicate the folds of the draperies. For the surfaces of drapery and other details, polychrome washes were employed, the colour being spread uniformly by means of a large brush. All varieties of red from rose to brown are found, also violet, light and brownish yellow, blue, black, and green. Hair is sometimes treated in outline, sometimes by means of washes. It is noteworthy that in the later examples the wash-colours were often painted right over the red lines. On the bodies of the figures these washes are rare, but in some cases shades of brown are used for flesh colour, as on the figure of Hypnos on a lekythos in the British Museum (D 58).

At Athens this polychrome decoration was not indeed limited to the lekythi, but was extended to the kylix, the pyxis, and other forms, of which some beautiful examples exist in the British Museum and at Athens.[799] In these, as in the best of the lekythi, the drawing of Greek artists seems almost to have reached perfection, and arouses our wonder yet more when we reflect that everything was done merely by freehand strokes of the brush. This technique is practically limited to the period 480–350 B.C.

The subsidiary ornamentation of the lekythi was put on either after the main design or before, this being immaterial. The lines above the design can be seen to have been painted on the wheel, as they go all round the vase; but the palmettes on the shoulder and maeander patterns above the design do not extend beyond it. After the colouring the vases appear to have been fired again, and in some cases the white slip was probably varnished. The details of their manufacture show that the lekythi were not intended for daily use; the shape is awkward for handling—the handles, for instance, are obviously not intended for practical use—and the delicate, lightly baked slip made them too porous for liquids. Everything tends in the direction of elegance and delicacy.

Our next sub-division consists of vases, chiefly of late date, in which the decoration is by means of opaque colours laid on the surface of a vase altogether coated with black varnish or glaze. The process is not indeed one absolutely unknown in earlier times, for there is the primitive Kamaraes ware of Crete (p. 266), and also a small series of archaic vases belonging to the early part of the fifth century (p. 393) in which this principle is adhered to, the designs being painted in opaque red or white on the black varnish. The latter seem to show a development from the black-figure period, to the end of which they belong, and may have been intended to rival the new red-figure method, but failed to attain popularity.

We next meet with the process in Southern Italy, where it again appears as the last effort of a worn-out fashion to flicker into life with renewed popularity. The centre of this revival, which follows on after the Apulian vases of the third century, was Gnatia (Fasano), on the coast of that district. The vases are partly modelled in relief, or have ornaments in relief attached; the decoration, in white and purple, is confined to one side only, and is very feeble and limited in its scope. An apparently local variety, perhaps made in Campania by native craftsmen, has the figures in opaque red, with details marked by rudely incised lines.

The Gnatia style was adopted by the Romans in the second century for a small series of vases inscribed with names of Italian deities, such as Juno and Vesta (p. 490), and it appears in the method of decoration known as _en barbotine_ on the pottery of the Empire (see Chapters XXI., XXIII.).

[Illustration: FIG. 73. VASE-PAINTER VARNISHING CUP ON WHEEL.]

The instruments which were employed for the painting of the vases were not, as formerly supposed, limited to a metal or reed pen, and a camel’s-hair brush. It has been recently pointed out in a most illuminating article by Dr. Hartwig[800] that the lines of black bordering the figures on red-figured vases are usually double, the space in between being filled in with varnish thus: [ornament]. Practical experiments have shown that this can be obtained with a _feather brush_ or pen, drawing the lines separately, not concurrently, as might be done with a metal pen.[801] The feathers of the snipe were specially suitable for this purpose, as were also those of the swallow. It is probable that we see the use of the ordinary brush on the Ruvo vase-painting already mentioned, but this was no doubt used for filling in the ground and all parts where the colour was laid on in large masses. Again, on a fragment from the Athenian Acropolis (Fig. 73)[802] a man is seen covering the inside of a B.F. kylix with black varnish while he turns it on the wheel; this is also done with an ordinary brush. But there is a R.F. kylix,[803] on the interior of which we see the undoubted use of the feather-brush or pen (Fig. 74). In his left hand the painter seems to hold the sharp tool for engraving the outlines of the figures, and with his right he manipulates the feather-pen which is seen to consist of a small feather inserted in a wooden holder.

[Illustration: FIG. 74. VASE-PAINTER USING FEATHER-BRUSH.]

It is not likely that this instrument was generally used before the introduction of the R.F. style; it would hardly have been required either for the silhouette figures of the B.F. vases or the outlines on the white ground. According to Hartwig, Andokides, one of the earliest R.F. artists (about 520 B.C.) was making experiments in the use of the feather-pen, and in the course of twenty years, in the vases of Epiktetos and his school, its use had become general. It is not indeed unknown on B.F. vases, and can be traced in the ornamentation where fine lines were required, as on the Amasis vase in the Bibliothèque Nationale.[804] It was probably first used in the more developed Ionic pottery, but as we have seen had no chance of becoming generally used until the essentially linear R.F. style came into vogue. The artists who reached the height of skill in its use were Meidias and the painters of the delicate little vases of the latter half of the fifth century, this instrument being also admirably adapted for making the fine inner lines in which the painters of that period achieved such success.

Besides the painting-brush and the feather-pen, the other instruments used in the decoration of vases include the pointed graving-tools employed for incised lines, modelling-tools for the parts in relief, a stick for steadying the hand while at work, and a pair of compasses. The latter were employed for marking circles, as may be clearly seen on shields on the B.F. vases, where the mark left by the central point of the compasses is often visible.

The difficulties in the painting of Greek vases must have been numerous. In the first place, it was necessary for the artist to finish his sketch with great rapidity, since the clay rapidly absorbed the colouring matter, and the outlines were required to be bold and continuous, any joins producing a bad effect. Again, the vases were often painted while in an upright position, and the artist was obliged to stoop, rise, and execute his work in these difficult attitudes; nor could he remove the pencil from any figure which he had once begun. The eye must have been his only guide. Then, as he was obliged to draw his outline upon a damp surface, the black colour which he used was instantly confounded with the tint of the clay. The lines grew broad at first, and afterwards contracted themselves, leaving but a light trace, so that the artist could with difficulty discern what he had been doing. Moreover, the lines, once begun, could not be left off except where they met other lines which cut or terminated them. Thus, for example, the profile of a head must have been executed with a single continuous line, which could not be interrupted till it met the neck; and in drawing a thigh or leg, the whole outline must have been finished without taking off the pencil: proceeding from the top downwards, making use of the point to mark the horizontal lines, and afterwards rising upwards to finish the opposite side. The drawing was done entirely by the hand and no pattern used.

The outlines round the figures on R.F. vases were drawn strongly, in the manner described above, to prevent the background encroaching on the figure. That this was done while the clay was moist appears by the outlines uniting, which could not have taken place if the clay had been dry. It was so difficult to fill in the outlines without alteration, that they were frequently changed, and sometimes the ground was not reached, while at others it exceeded the line.

The ancient artists, notwithstanding these difficulties, observed all the laws of balance and proportion, especially ἰσομετρία, or the law of equal height of all figures; conveyed expression by means of attitude; and, by the use of profile, and the introduction of accessories, or small objects, into the background, contrived to compensate for the want of perspective.

This latter deficiency was due to the use of flat colours, which did not allow of shades, and the figures were consequently not seen in masses distinguished by light and shade, but isolated in the air. Hence, in order to make the figures distinct, and to express by attitude all the actions and sentiments required, the artist was compelled to use profile. The black colour, the choice of which may at first appear singular, is, after all, the most harmonious, and the best suited for showing the elegance and purity of the outline; whilst by its aptness to reveal any defects of shape, it compelled the artist to be very careful in his drawing.

The colours employed[805] were, as we have seen, remarkably few in number. Of the black varnish which plays such an important part, and of its composition we have already spoken. Of the opaque accessory colours, the white is said by Brongniart[806] to be a carbonate of lime or fine clay. It is evidently an earth of some kind, and gives no trace of lead under analysis. The creamy slip of the white-ground vases is of similar character, and appears to be a kind of pipeclay. It was probably of the same character as the earth of Melos used by Polygnotos.[807] The deep purple or crimson, so largely employed on the Corinthian and early Attic B.F. vases, is known to be an oxide of iron, an element which entered largely into the red glaze. The yellow found on the white vases and those of Apulia as an accessory to white is of an ochrous nature. The red used for outlines on the white lekythi is probably not vermilion (_minium_), but red ochre (μίλτος, _rubrica_). Blue and green, which are rarely found, and only on vases of the later styles, were produced from a basis of copper. On vases from the time of Euphronios and Brygos (about 480 B.C.) onwards, gilding was occasionally employed, the process being one which we have already described (see above, p. 210). Good instances of this process are to be seen in the fourth-century vases from Capua, which are glazed black throughout and ornamented solely with gilding.[808] But the gold leaf has often perished. Besides Capua, these vases are found chiefly in Athens and the Cyrenaica.

5. STATUS OF POTTERS

It now remains to say something respecting the makers of Greek vases—the potters of antiquity. Unfortunately, however, little is known of their condition, except that they formed a guild, or fraternity, and that they amassed considerable fortunes by exporting their products to the principal emporia of the ancient world. The existence of two _Kerameikoi_, or pottery districts, at Athens shows the great commercial importance of the manufacture. In later times there seems to have been a considerable tendency to division of labour among the potters, and each man “specialised” in some particular shape; hence we find them characterised as χυτρεύς and χυτροπλάθος,[809] ληκυθοποιός,[810] καδοποιός,[811] or κωθωνοποιός.[812] It is assumed that the word ἐποίησεν, “made,” when found on a vase, indicates the potter, and not the artist, although it is reasonable to suppose that when no artist’s name accompanies the formula the potter was at the same time the painter. On one vase the names of two potters, Glaukytes and Archikles, are found[813]; one has been supposed to be the artist’s, but it is more probable they were partners.

By the Athenians, potters were called _Prometheans_,[814] from the Titan Prometheus, who made man out of clay—which, according to one myth, was the blood of the Titans, or Giants—and was thus the founder of the fictile art. It was not, however, much esteemed, although without doubt the pursuit of it was a lucrative one, and many of the trade realised large fortunes; in proof of which may be cited the well-known anecdote of Agathokles,[815] who, at a time when the rich used plate, was in the habit of mixing earthenware with it at his table, telling his officers that he formerly made such ware, but that now, owing to his prudence and valour, he was served in gold—an anecdote which also suggests that the profession was not highly esteemed. The guild at Athens was called ἐκ κεραμέων, “of the potters,”[816] and we also hear of a college of κεραμεῖς at Thyateira.[817] However, the competition in the trade was so warm as to pass into a proverb, and the animosity of some of the rival potters is even recorded upon the vases.[818] To this spirit are also probably to be referred many of the tricks of the trade, such as imitations of the names of makers, and the numerous illegible inscriptions. When the potter’s establishment—called an _ergasterion_—was large, he employed under him a number of persons, some of whom were probably free but poor citizens, whilst others were slaves belonging to him.[819] How the labour was subdivided there are no means of accurately determining, but the following hands were probably employed:—(1) A potter, to make the vase on the wheel; (2) an artist, to trace with a point in outline the subject of the vase; (3) a painter, who executed the whole subject in outline, and who probably returned it to No. 2, when incised lines were required; (4) a modeller, who added such parts of the vase as were moulded; (5) a fireman, who took the vase to the furnace and brought it back; (6) a fireman for the furnace; (7) packers, to prepare the vases for exportation. Hence it may readily be conceived that a large establishment employed a considerable number of hands, and exhibited an animated scene of industrial activity.

-----

Footnote 739:

_Traité_, i. p. 548.

Footnote 740:

_Technologie_, ii. p. 56.

Footnote 741:

_Die Malerei_, p. 176.

Footnote 742:

See Jahn, _Vasens. zu München_, p. cxliv; and Brunn-Lau, _Griech. Vasen_, p. 6.

Footnote 743:

Suidas, _s.v._; Athenaeus, xi. 482 B; Blümner, _Technol._ ii. p. 36.

Footnote 744:

_De recta audiendi rat._ 9, § 42 D.

Footnote 745:

Suidas, _s.v._ Κωλιάδος κεραμῆες; cf. Pliny, _H.N._ xxxv. 152.

Footnote 746:

For representations of quarrying for clay at Corinth see the pinakes at Berlin, _Ant. Denkm._ i. pl. 8, Nos. 7, 23.

Footnote 747:

Athen. xi. 464 B. C.

Footnote 748:

_Reg. et Imp. Apophth._ 174 E.

Footnote 749:

Pliny, _H.N._ xxxv. 161.

Footnote 750:

Myres in _Cyprus Mus. Cat._ p. 16.

Footnote 751:

Diod. Sic. iv. 76.

Footnote 752:

See Frazer, _Pausanias_, note to i. 21, 4.

Footnote 753:

Pliny, _H.N._ vii. 198; Schol. _ad_ Pind. _Ol._ xiii. 27.

Footnote 754:

Diog. Laert. i. 105; Suidas, _s.v._ Ἀνάχαρσις.

Footnote 755:

Athen. i. 28 C.

Footnote 756:

_Il._ xviii. 600.

Footnote 757:

vii. 303.

Footnote 758:

Seneca, _Ep._ 90, 31.

Footnote 759:

_Rep._ 420 E.

Footnote 760:

_Apud_ Athenaeum, x. 449 B.

Footnote 761:

See Blümner, _Technologie_, ii. p. 38, note 3.

Footnote 762:

xxxviii. 29: κεραμεὺς καθήμενος ... καὶ συστρέφων ἐν ποσὶν αὐτοῦ τροχόν.

Footnote 763:

_De gen. Socr._ 20, p. 588 F.

Footnote 764:

i. 645 K, quoted by Blümner.

Footnote 765:

Blümner, ii. p. 39; Jahn in _Ber. d. sächs. Gesellsch_. 1854, p. 40, note. See also Chapters XXI.-XXII.

Footnote 766:

_Ant. Denkm._ i. pl. 8, figs. 17, 18; cf. _Gaz. Arch._ 1880, p. 106.

Footnote 767:

_Ath. Mitth._ xiv. (1889), p. 157.

Footnote 768:

Blümner, _Technologie_, ii. p. 51.

Footnote 769:

As on the vases of Nikosthenes (see below, p. 385; B.M. B 619, 620; Louvre F 116, 117).

Footnote 770:

Reinach, _Répertoire_, i. 11 = Petersburg 525.

Footnote 771:

Evans, in _Num. Chron._ 3rd Ser. xi. p. 319 = _B.M. Cat._ iv. G 121, 122.

Footnote 772:

See for examples _B. M. Cat._ iv. G 87–95.

Footnote 773:

Cf. Aesop, _Fab._ 166 _a_, _b_.

Footnote 774:

_Cat._ 2542 = Blümner, _Technologie_, ii. p. 50.

Footnote 775:

Brongniart, _Traité_, i. p. 552.

Footnote 776:

_Legg._ iii. 679 A.

Footnote 777:

_H.N._ xxix. 34.

Footnote 778:

_E.g._ B.M. B 426, E 459.

Footnote 779:

Cf. Ar. _Ach._ 933: ψοφεῖ λάλον τι καὶ πυρορραγές. See also Suid. _s.v._ πυρορραγές; Pollux, vii. 164; _Etym. Magn._ p. 798, 17; and Schol. _in_ Hom. _Il._ ii. 219. I cannot but think that in the term φοξός, as applied to Thersites' head, there is some correspondence to our phrase “crack-brained.” Simonides (_apud_ Athen. xi. 480 D) speaks of a φοξίχειλος Ἀργείη κύλιξ, a term of disputed meaning; but a cup of which the brim (χεῖλος) would suggest the shape of a peaked head is hardly conceivable; and here again there must surely be some notion of sound.

Footnote 780:

See Blümner, _op. cit._ ii. p. 46.

Footnote 781:

See Fig. 67 _b_; Berlin 2294; Furtwaengler, in _Jahrbuch_, vi. (1891), p. 110, points out that these heads probably represent the Kyklopes or demon-attendants of the fire-god Hephaistos. See above, p. 105, under πύραυνοι; also Daremberg and Saglio, _art._ Caminus.

Footnote 782:

Lenormant, _La Grande Grèce_, i. p. 94.

Footnote 783:

Berlin 802 = _Ant. Denkm._ i. 8, 4.

Footnote 784:

_Cat._ 731 = Jahn in _Ber. d. sächs. Gesellsch._ 1854, pl. 1, fig. 1, p. 27.

Footnote 785:

A Seilenos in this act appears on a vase in _Sale Cat. Hôtel Drouot_, May 11th, 1903, No. 131 (reproduced in Fig. 68).

Footnote 786:

Examples are: _Ant. Denkm._ i. pl. 8, figs. 12, 19_b_, 22 (in Berlin); _Gaz. Arch._ 1880, pp. 105, 106 (in Louvre).

Footnote 787:

A better drawing has recently been given in Furtwaengler and Reichhold, _Gr. Vasenm._ p. 159; but the reproduction in Fig. 67 is accurate in all essentials.

Footnote 788:

_Cat._ 1114 = _Ath. Mitth._ xiv. (1889), p. 151.

Footnote 789:

See Blümner, ii. p. 52.

Footnote 790:

_Ibid._

Footnote 791:

See above, p. 214.

Footnote 792:

Blümner (ii. p. 75) gives an account of various chemical experiments made upon it.

Footnote 793:

See Blümner, ii. p. 76 ff.

Footnote 794:

_Traité_, i. p. 550.

Footnote 795:

This process is well illustrated on certain vases (_e.g._ B 158 in Brit. Mus.), where the artist has subsequently altered his design, and the lines still remain visible.

Footnote 796:

See for a fuller consideration of this point p. 368.

Footnote 797:

Baumeister, iii. p. 1992, fig. 2137 = Reinach, i. 336.

Footnote 798:

See Pottier, _Lecythes blancs_, p. 99 ff.

Footnote 799:

See