Part 1

# Niebuhr's lectures on Roman history, Vol. 3 (of 3) ### By Niebuhr, Barthold Georg

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NIEBUHR’S LECTURES ON ROMAN HISTORY

TRANSLATED FROM THE EDITION OF DR. M. ISLER, BY H. M. CHEPMELL, M.A., AND F. DEMMLER, PH.D.

[Illustration: [Logo]]

_IN THREE VOLUMES.—VOL. III._

=London:= CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY. 1875.

CONTENTS.

Page POLITICAL STATE OF THE WORLD THEN KNOWN. LEGISLATION. THE WAR WITH THE PIRATES.

General review of the Roman Empire. Political state of the then known world, 1 Venality of the Courts of Justice, the _Lex Judiciaria_ of Aurelius, 4 Restoration of the tribuneship, 5 War with Mithridates, 5 Lucullus, 6 The war with the Pirates, 8 Pompey terminates the war against Mithridates, 10

CATILINE. CICERO.

Character of Catiline, 12 Cicero, 15 Cicero chosen consul, 21 The Catiline conspiracy, 22 Its suppression, 23 Enmity to Cicero after his consulship, 25 Cicero’s kindliness towards young men, 26 P. Clodius, 27 Ptolemy Auletes, 28

C. JULIUS CÆSAR.

Biographies of Cæsar by Suetonius and Plutarch, 29 History of the youth of Julius Cæsar, 29 His character, 31 Impeachment of Cicero by Clodius, 35 Cicero goes into exile, 36 Is recalled, 36 Consulship of Pompey and Crassus, 37 Distribution of provinces under Pompey, Cæsar, and Crassus, 37 Pompey becomes sole consul, 38 Death of Clodius. Banishment of Milo, 38 Cicero proconsul of Cilicia, 38 Congress at Lucca, between Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus, 39

THE GALLIC WARS.

Cæsar’s Commentaries, 39 The Books, _De Bello Gallico_, and on the Alexandrine war, 40 _De Bello Africano_, 40 _De Bello Hispaniensi_, 40 Expedition of the Helvetians, 41 Population of Gaul, 42 Arvernians, Æduans, 42 The German tribes. Ariovistus, 43 Cæsar’s conquest over Ariovistus, 43 War against the Belgians, 43 Cæsar’s treatment of the Usipetes, 44 His war with the Veneti, Expedition to Britain, 45 Cæsar crosses the Rhine, 46 Rising of the Eburones under Ambiorix. Insurrection of Vercingetorix, 46 Cæsar made prisoner by the Gauls, 47 Cæsar’s treatment of Vercingetorix, 48 End of the war, 48

CIVIL WAR BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY.

Situation of Cæsar at the end of the Gallic wars, 48 C. Scribonius Curio, 49 Demand of the opponents of Cæsar, 50 Cæsar crosses the Rubicon, 53 Pompey flies before Cæsar, 54 Cæsar in Rome, 55 Pompey goes over to Greece, 55 Cæsar goes to Spain. Siege of Marseilles, 56 Death of Curio, 57 Cæsar nominates himself dictator. His legislation, 57 Cæsar passes over to Illyricum, 58 Defeat near Dyrrachium, 59 Taking of Gomphi, 60 Battle of Pharsalus, 60 Flight of Pompey, 62 Murder of Pompey, 63 Cæsar in Egypt, 63 Insurrection in Alexandria, 64 War with Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, 65 Cæsar return to Rome, 65 Meeting of the troops in Rome, 66 The African war, 66 Battle near Thapsus, 67 M. Porcius Cato of Utica, 65 Cæsar appears before Utica, 69 Suicide of Cato, 69 Juba, 70 The Spanish war, 70 Battle near Munda, 70 Cæsar’s triumph, 71 Cæsar’s last enterprises and plans, 72 Veteran Colonies. Colony at Corinth and Carthage, 74 Legislation, 74 Increase of the Patricians, 75 Cæsar’s desire for the title of king, 76 M. Junius Brutus, 76 Cassius Longinus, 78 Conspiracy against Cæsar, 79 Murder of Cæsar, 80

STATE OF ROME AFTER THE MURDER OF CÆSAR. TRIUMVIRATE OF ANTONY, OCTAVIAN, AND LEPIDUS. DEATH OF CICERO.

Indecision of the conspirators after Cæsar’s death, 81 Cæsar’s will, 82 C. Octavius, 83 M. Antony, 83 Cicero, 84 Cicero’s letter to Brutus, 88 War in Mutina, 89 M. Æmilius Lepidus. Munatius Plancus, 90 Octavius becomes consul, 91 _Lex Pedia_, 91 Meeting of Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus on an islet in the river Reno. Triumvirate, 91 Proscription, 92 Death of Cicero, 93 Character of Cicero’s writings, 95 Battle near Philippi, 97 Death of Cassius, 98 Second Battle. Death of Brutus, 99 Horace, 99

THE PERUSIAN WAR. PEACE OF BRUNDUSIUM. PEACE OF MISENUM. EVENTS DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. END OF THE CIVIL WAR.

Antony. Cleopatra, 100 Destruction of the Julian colonies, 101 Perusian war, 103 Taking of Perugia, 103 Peace of Brundusium, 104 Sextus Pompey, 104 War in Sicily. Peace of Misenum, 105 Labienus, 106 Asinius Pollio. Munatius Plancus, 107 Antony’s campaign against the Parthians, 107 Octavian takes up arms against Sextus Pompey, 108 Lepidus forsaken, 110 Battle of Actium, 110 Fight at Actium, 110 Octavian in Egypt, 113 Death of Antony and Cleopatra, 118 _Feriæ Augustæ_, 114

ROME A MONARCHY. MEASURES OF AUGUSTUS FOR THE CONSOLIDATION OF HIS POWER.

Monarchical power of Octavian, 116 Octavian takes the surname of Augustus 117 Reorganization of the senate, 118 Jurisdiction, taxes, army, 119 Constitution of the provinces, 120 _Ærarium_, 121 _Lex Ælia Sentia_, 122 Extension of the Roman franchise, 122 Police, 122 Division of the town into fourteen regions, 123 _Præfectus urbi_, 123 The Courts of Justice restored into the hands of the Knights, 124 Italy divided into regions, 124 _Cohortes prætoriæ._ _Auxilia_, 125 Increase of soldier’s pay, 126

LITERATURE.

Perfection of the Latin language by Cicero and his contemporaries, 126 Varro. P. Nigidius Figulus. M. Lælius Rufus. Curio. C. Licinius Calvus, 127 Sallust. Lucretius. Catullus, 128 Valerius Cato, 128 Perfection of his metres, 129 Dec. Laberius. Furius Bibaculus. Varro Atacinus. Asinius Pollio, 129 Munatius Plancus. Hirtius. Augustan age. Valerius Messala, 130 Virgil, 131 Horace, 133 Tibullus. Lygdamus, 137 Cornelius Gallus, 138 Varius, 138 Propertius, 189 Ovid, 139 Cornelius Severus. Pedo Albinovanus, 140 Livy. Dec. Laberius. P. Syrus. Valgius, 141 Greek literature. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 141

PRIVATE LIFE OF AUGUSTUS. AGRIPPA. MÆCENAS. FAMILY CONNEXIONS. BUILDINGS.

Character of Augustus, 142 Livia. Agrippa, 143 C. Cilnius Mæcenas, 144 Marcellus. Julia. Death of Agrippa, 146 Tiberius Claudius Nero. Lucius and Caius Cæsar, 147 Buildings of Augustus, 148

WARLIKE ENTERPRISES OF AUGUSTUS. HIS DEATH. GENERAL SURVEY OF THE EMPIRE.

War in Dalmatia, 149 The Cantabrian war, 149 New war in Dalmatia, Mœsia, Pannonia, 150 War against the Alpine races, 151 War in Germany, 152 Nero Claudius Drusus, 153 Tiberius, 153 Marbod. State of civilization in Germany, 154 Revolt in Dalmatia and Pannonia, 155 Quintilius Varus. Arminius, 156 Battle in the Teutoburg Forest, 157 Consequences of the battle, 158 Germanicus. Agrippina, 160 Death of Augustus, 160 Extent of the Roman Empire, 161 Legislation of Augustus, 162

TIBERIUS.

Importance of the Imperial history, 163 Sources. Tacitus. Suetonius, 164 Velleius Paterculus, 165 Early history of the Emperor Tiberius, 165 Tiberius succeeds Augustus to the throne, 168 Mutiny of the troops in Illyricum and on the Rhine, 169 Abolition of the popular elections, 169 War of Germanicus in Germany, 170 Drusus, son of Tiberius, Germanicus, 171 Piso. Death of Germanicus, 172 _Crimen majestatis._ Informers, 173 Death of Livia, 174 Napoleon’s opinion of Tiberius, 174 Ælius Sejanus, 174 Macro, 176 Death of Tiberius, 177

CAIUS CÆSAR, OTHERWISE CALIGULA.

Events of the childhood of Caius, 177 His character, 177 Suetonius’ life of Caligula, 178 Prodigality of Caligula, 179 Expedition against the Germans, 179 Buildings, 180 Murder of Caligula. The Republic is to be proclaimed, 180

TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS CÆSAR.

Character of Claudius, 180 Historical works of his, 183 Amnesty. _Donativum_ to the soldiers, 182 Rule of Slaves. Polybius. Narcissus. Pallas. Agrippina, 183 Aqua Claudia. Buildings. Draining of the Lake Fucinus, 183 Britain becomes a Roman province, 184

LITERATURE AFTER THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS. MORAL CONDITION OF ROME AND THE PROVINCES.

Influence of the Greek Rhetoricians, 184 The elder Seneca. The philosopher Seneca. Pliny the elder, 185 Lucan. Quintilian, 186 Nero. Fabius Rusticus, 186 Moral condition of the empire, 187

NERO.

Natural talents of Nero, 188 Burrhus. Seneca. Agrippina. Poppæa Sabina, 189 Burning of the city of Rome. The golden palace of Nero, 190 Execution of Seneca, and others. War in Britain and in Armenia, 191 Insanity of Nero, 192 Rebellion under Julius Vindex, 192 T. Virginius Rufus, 193 _Servius Sulpicius Galba_ proclaimed emperor in Spain, 193 Emperor in Spain, 193 Galba’s march against Rome, 194 Nero’s death, 194

SERVIUS SULPICIUS GALBA. M. SALVIUS OTHO. A. VITELLIUS.

Dissatisfaction towards Galba, 195 Galba adopts Calpurnius Piso, 195 Murder of Galba. Otho proclaimed emperor, 196 Vitellius proclaimed emperor by the troops on the German frontier, 196 Battle near Bedriacum, 197 Vitellius becomes emperor, 198 Rebellion of the Mœsian legions under Antonius Primus. The Syrian under T. Flavius Vespasianus. The Parthian under Licinius Mucianus, 198 The Jewish war. Josephus, 199 Vespasian, 199 Mucianus, 200 Battle near Cremona, 200 Burning of the Capitol. Murder of Vitellius, 201

T. FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS. TITUS. DOMITIANUS.

Domitian, 201 Helvidius Priscus, 202 State of Gaul, 202 Rebellion of Civilis, 204 Character of Vespasian, 204 Execution of Helvidius Priscus, 206 Death of Vespasian, 207 _Titus_, 207 Buildings, 208 Fire in Rome. Catastrophe of Herculanum and Pompeii, 209 _Domitian_, 209 Paraphrase of the _Phænomena_ of Aratus, 209 Endowment for Rhetoricians, 210 _Agon Capitolinus_, 210 State of literature. Statius, 210 Condition of the army, 210 War in Britain. Agricola, 211 War against the Chatti, and other German people, 211 War against the Dacians, 212 Cruelty of Domitian, 212 Delatores, 213 Murder of Domitian. _Forum Palladium_, 214

M. COCCEIUS NERVA. M. ULPIUS TRAJANUS.

Nerva, 214 Adoption of Trajan, 215 Death of Nerva. Trajan’s accession to the throne, 217 Character of Trajan, 217 War in Dacia, 219 War with the Parthians, 219 Conquests in the East, 220 Trajan dies at Selinus, 221

ART AND LITERATURE UNDER TRAJAN.

Apollodorus of Damascus, 221 Architecture under Trajan, 222 _Forum Ulpium._ Trajan’s column, 223 Later buildings, and castings, 224 Literature. Tacitus, 224 Pliny the younger, 226 Florus, 227 Greek literature. Dio Chrysostom, 227 Plutarch, 228

HADRIAN. T. ANTONINUS PIUS. M. AURELIUS ANTONINUS.

Adoption of Hadrian, 229 Remission of taxes, 229 Outbreak of the Jews, under Barkochba, 230 Hadrian’s journey through the provinces. Love for Athens, 280 Hadrian’s melancholy, 230 Adoption of Ælius Verus, and of T. Antoninus (Pius), 231 Foundation of Roman jurisprudence, 281 Literature. _Lingua rustica_, 281 Contempt for the old writers, 232 Hadrian favours Greek literature, 282 Gellius. Fronto, 233 African school. Apuleius, Tertullian, 233 Greek literature, 234 Lucian. Galen. Pausanias, 286 _Moles Hadriani._ Hadrian’s villa, 285 Hadrian as an author, 286 _T. Antoninus Pius_, 236 Wars on the borders, 236 Insurrections. Earthquakes, 237 Gaius. Sextus Empiricus. Appian, 237 Manufactures of Egypt, 237 _M. Aurelius Antoninus_, philosopher, 237 Stoicism. Junius Rusticus. Epictetus. Arrian, 289 War on the borders, 240 L. Verus, 240 War against the Parthians, 240 Plague, 241 War with the German nations, 241 Rebellion of Avidius Cassius, 243 Death of M. Aurelius, 246 Gellius, 247

COMMODUS. PERTINAX. DIDIUS JULIANUS. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS.

Commodus. M. Perennis, 247 Extravagance and cruelty of Commodus, 248 Murder of Commodus, 249 _Pertinax_, 249 _Didius Julianus_, one of the prætorians, aims at the sovereignty, 249 Clodius Albinus, 250 _Septimus Severus_, 250 War of Pescennius Niger, 252 Victory over Clodius Albinus, 253 War against the Parthians, 253 M. Bassianus Antoninus Caracalla, 254 Julia Domna, 254 Changes in the administration of Italy, 255 _Correctores_, 255

M. ANTONINUS CARACALLA. MACRINUS. ELAGABALUS. ALEXANDER SEVERUS.

_M. Bassianus Caracalla_, Geta, 256 Murder of Geta, 256 Caracalla’s journey through the provinces, 257 Massacre at Alexandria, 257 The right of citizenship given to all the subjects of the Roman empire, 257 Fondness of Caracalla for Alexander the Great, 258 War against the Parthians, 258 Murder of Caracalla, 259 _Macrinus_, 259 Julia Domna, 259 Mamæa, 260 Insurrection of Elagabalus, 260 Macrinus conquered and beheaded, 260 _Elagabalus_, 260 Alexander Severus adopted as Cæsar by Elagabalus, 261 Rebellion against Elagabalus. His death, 261 _Alexander Severus_, 261 His rule. Domitius Ulpianus, 262 Advance of the Germans. Downfall of the Parthian dynasty, 263 The Persians headed by one of the race of Sassan, 264 War with the Persians, 264

END OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS. MAXIMIN, GORDIAN, FATHER AND SON. MAXIMUS AND BALBINUS. GORDIAN III. PHILIP. DECIUS.

Mutiny against Alexander Severus Maximin, 266 Murder of Severus, and of Mamæa, 267 _Maximin_ becomes emperor, 267 Insurrection of the Gordians in Africa, 268 Death of the Gordians, 268 _Maximus_ and _Balbinus_, 269 Murder of Maximin, 269 _Gordian III._, 270 _M. Julius Philippus_, 271 The thousandth anniversary of the city, 271 Of Philip’s having embraced Christianity, 272 Marinus, 272 _Decius_, 272 Spread of Christianity, 273

STATE OF THINGS AT ROME. FINE ARTS. LITERATURE.

Freemen, 274 Difference between imperial and senatorial provinces abolished, 274 Art. Literature, 274 Jurisprudence, Papinian, Ulpian, 275 Curtius. Petronius, 276

INVASION OF THE GOTHS. DEATH OF DECIUS. GALLUS TREBONIANUS ÆMILIAN. VALERIAN. GALLIENUS. THE THIRTY TYRANTS.

Rising of the Germans in the Roman empire, 277 The Franks. Swabians. Goths, 277 Combat of Decius with the Goths. His death, 278 _Gallus Trebonianus_, 278 Æmilianus. Valerian, 279 P. Licinius Gallienus becomes the colleague of Valerian, 279 War with the German people. In Mesopotamia and Syria. Imprisonment of Valerian, 280 Death of Valerian. The thirty tyrants, 281 Odenathus. Zenobia, 282 The empire of Palmyra, 283

CLAUDIUS GOTHICUS. AURELIAN. TACITUS PROBUS. CARUS.

Death of Gallienus, 284 _M. Aurelius Claudius Gothicus_, 284 Victory of Claudius over the Goths. Claudius dies of the plague, 284 _Aurelian_, 284 Dacia resigned to the Goths, 285 War with Zenobia. Longinus executed, 286 National development of France, 286 Murder of Aurelian, 287 _Tacitus_, 287 _Probus_, 288 _Carus_, 289 _Carinus_, 290

DIOCLETIAN. LITERATURE AND GENERAL STATE OF THE THEN WORLD. MAXIMIAN. HIS SUCCESSORS. CONSTANTINE. _Diocletian_, 291 Outbreak of the plague, 291 Literature. Nemesian. Calpurnius. Lactantius, 292 Arnobius. New-Platonism, 293 Character of Diocletian, 293 Diocletian takes Maximian as his colleague, 293 New plan of administration of Diocletian, 294 _Galerius._ _Constantius_, 295 Revolt of Britain under Carausius, 296 Reduction of Egypt. Campaign of Galerius against Persia, 296 Persecutions of the Christians, 297 Resignation of Diocletian and Maximian, 297 _Severus_, and _Maximus Daza_, appointed Cæsars, 297 Return of Maximian. _Maxentius_, 297 _Constantius_, 298 Licinius, 298 Death of Maximian, 299 War of Constantius with his colleague, 299 Battle near Adrianople, 300 Wars, 300 Oppression of taxes, 301 Change in the monetary system, 301 Character of Constantine, 302 His establishment of the Christian religion, 302 His cruelty in the last years of his life, 303 Constantinople, 303

THE SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE. JULIAN THE APOSTATE. JOVIAN. VALENTINIAN I. VALENS, GRATIAN. VALENTINIAN II. THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. MAXIMUS.

Constantine’s will declared a forgery, 304 _Constantine_, _Constans_, _Constantius_, 305 Magnentius, 305 Vetranio. Gallus. Julian, 306 Gallus made Cæsar, 306 Julian made Cæsar, 307 His successes in Gaul and Germany, 308 _Julian_ proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, 308 Death of Constantius. The bishop Athanasius, 309 Persecution of the Homoousians, 309 Julian as a writer. His opposition to Christianity, 310 Revolt in Antioch. Misopogon, 312 War against Persia, 312 Julian’s death, 314 _Jovian._ _Valentinian I._ _Valens_, 316 _Gratian_, 316 Breaking in of the Goths and Huns, 317 Reception of the Goths in the Roman empire, 318 Insurrection of the Goths in Marcianopolis, 318 Battle near Adrianople. Fall of Valens, 319 _Theodosius_, colleague of Gratian, 319 Campaigns with the Goths, 320 Murder of Gratian. _Maximus_, emperor of the West, 321 _Valentinian II._ Arbogastes. _Eugenius_, 321 Battle near Aquileia, 321 Rufinus. Division of the empire, 322

LITERATURE, AND FINE ARTS.

Anvsonius. Epitomes. Grammar. Donatus. Charesius, Diomedes, 323 Servius. Festus. Nonius Marcellus. Macrobius, 323 Ammianus Marcellinus, 323 Rhetoricians. Marius Victorinus Symmachus. Panegyrists, 324 Claudian. Merobaudes, 324 Sidonius Apollinaris. Renatus Profuturus, 325 Christian Literature. St. Jerome. St. Augustine, 325 Sulpicius Severns. Cælius Sedulius. Claudius Mamertus. Salvian Prudentius. Pope Hilary, 326 Pope Leo, 327 Greek literature. Historians, 327 Eunapius. Priscus. Malchus. Candidus, 327 Architecture. Mosaic, 327

DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. HONORIUS. ARCADIUS. STILICHO. ALARIC. RADAGAISE. ADOLPHUS. CONSTANTINE. GERONTIUS. PLACIDIA. VALENTINIAN III. BONIFACE. AETIUS. GENSERIC. ATTILA. PETRONIUS MAXIMUS. AVITUS. RICIMER. MAJORIAN. SEVERUS. ANTHEMIUS. OLYBRIUS. GLYCERIUS. JULIUS NEPOS. ORESTES. ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS. _Arcadius._ _Honorius._ Stilicho. Rufinus, 328 Alaric, 329 Stilicho conquers Alaric near Pollentia, 330 Restoration of the walls of Rome, 330 _Monte Testaccio_, 330 Radagaise driven back by Stilicho, 331 Weight of taxation in Gaul, 331 _Bagaudæ_, 332 Conspiracy against Stilicho. He is murdered, 333 Alaric appears in Rome. Capitulation. Alaric for the second time turns towards Rome, 333 _Attalus_, 333 Burning of Rome. Death of Alaric, 334 Adolphus. Placidia, 334 Constantine in Britain. Gerontius, 334 Maximus. Constantius, 335 _Theodosius II._ _Johannes_, 335 Valentinian III. Placidia. Boniface. Aëtius, 336 Boniface calls the Vandals into Africa, 337 The Donatists, 337 Genseric makes himself master of Carthage, 337 Piracy of the Vandal fleets. The Huns, 338 Aëtius. Battle in the _Campi Catalaunici_, 340 Attila in Italy. Founding of Venice, 341 Murder of Aëtius. Death of Valentinian III., 342 _Petronius Maximus_, 342 Pillage in Rome by the Vandals, 342 _Avitus._ Ricimer. _Majorian_, 343 Ægidius, Marcellinus, 344 _Anthemius._ _Olybrius_, 345 Ricimer conquers Rome, 346 _Glycerius_, 346 _Julius Nepos_, 346 Orestes. _Romulus Augustulus_, 347 Odoachar. End of the Roman Empire, 347 _Fine arts and literature_, 347

LECTURES ON ROMAN HISTORY.

POLITICAL STATE OF THE WORLD THEN KNOWN. LEGISLATION. THE WAR WITH THE PIRATES.

The states of Europe at this time were as follows. The Roman empire comprised, besides Italy, Provence and part of Dauphiné, the whole of Languedoc with Thoulouse, and Spain with the exception of Biscay and Asturias, although the more distant peoples there were less under its sway. The war against Sertorius had thus far completed the subjection of Spain: beyond were the free Cantabrians, a numerous nation composed of tribes which were quite independent of each other. In Gaul, the Æduans had the ascendancy; yet most of the peoples were without any bond of union, utterly weak, and already overwhelmed by the German tribes. Dalmatia and Illyria were subject to Rome; but her rule did not reach far into the interior, and in the Bosnian mountains the natives still kept their freedom. Macedon, of which the extent was the same as it had been under its last kings, and Greece were Roman provinces. The inhabitants of Thrace, and the tribes north of mounts Scodrus and Scardus, were free.

In Asia, the Bithynian monarchy had been broken up, the last king, Nicomedes, having left his realms by will to the Romans. Mithridates had in Western Asia, Pontus and part of Cappadocia; and on the shores of the Black Sea, his dominions were still wider: the north of Armenia, the country north of Erzerum, Georgia (Iberia), Imeritia (Colchis), Daghestan, and also the peoples south of the Cuban were tributary to him; the Bosporus and the Greek towns in the Crimea were to all intents and purposes provinces of his empire; his influence was even felt as far as the Dniester, on the banks of which his supremacy was acknowledged, and his connexions moreover reached beyond the Danube into Thrace, even to the Roman frontier. The kingdom of the Seleucidæ had quite fallen to pieces, the disputes about the succession, after the death of Demetrius, having split the country into a number of small principalities which carried on feuds against each other with great fury: at last, Antiochus, a petty prince on the coast who could hardly keep his ground, applies in vain for help to the Romans. The other districts, longing for peace, are glad to acknowledge Tigranes as their king, who rules from the frontier of Erzerum as far as Cœle-Syria, over Great Armenia, Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, Hyrcania, Kurdistan, and part of Cilicia: his empire yielded him very rich revenues. In the East, it bordered on the Parthians, who possessed nearly the whole of modern Persia and Babylonia; in Eastern Persia and part of Khorassan, the kings of Bactria may at that time have been still in existence, unless the Scythians had already conquered these countries. Media also did not perhaps belong to the Parthians even quite down to the breaking out of Pompey’s war. Indeed their empire was very loosely connected; the Parthian sovereigns were in the full meaning of the word kings of kings, the provinces being ruled by their once tributary kings. The towns on the coasts of Phœnicia, and in Cœle-Syria and Judæa, were free: the princes (tetrarchs) of Jerusalem, of the race of the Maccabees, were independent, and even bore the title of kings. In Cœle-Syria, numbers of such tetrarchies had been formed.

Egypt under the Ptolemies was confined to its narrowest bounds, from the river of Egypt to Elephantine; yet it was very rich. Its kings had still a yearly revenue of 12,500 talents, as they were the sole owners of the land. But the state was exceedingly weak and disorganised, being under the most wretched and contemptible government. In Asia Minor, the Romans had of latter years acquired through P. Servilius Isauricus Pisidia, Lycia, and Pamphylia: these countries had until then been free; the first, since the war with Antiochus; the two last, since the settlement of the Rhodian affairs. Part of Cilicia was yet independent, each place by itself: here were the real nests of pirates. Cyprus was a dependency of the Ptolemies, but under kings of its own.

In Africa, after the death of Jugurtha, there was another king of the house of Masinissa on the throne of Numidia. His name, however, is unknown: for the inscription in Reinesius, which is said to have been in existence in the sixteenth century, and in which Gauda is mentioned, has not as yet been found again, and is therefore very doubtful. In Sylla’s time, a Hiempsal was lord of Numidia. The country was certainly confined within much narrower limits than it had been under Micipsa, and before the war with Jugurtha; but, it was still a kingdom. The province of Africa was governed by Roman proconsuls.

The Scordiscans and Tauriscans, those Gallic races which had formerly been so harassed by those who had sprung from the same stock with themselves, were dwelling on the banks of the Danube; higher up were the Boians, who were independent, and also the people of Noricum which was already subject to the supremacy of Rome. The German tribes can at that time have scarcely dwelt farther south than the Mayne; there was probably a line from that river and the Neckar through the Odenwald and the Spessart towards Thuringia. The boundary of the German nation in the east cut deep into Poland.

Although the institutions of Sylla could not be overthrown by Lepidus, yet there were many of them, particularly the transfer of the administration of justice to the senate, so hateful from the shameful manner in which they were worked, that even many of the well-meaning among the ruling party abhorred them, and openly declared themselves against them. The venality of the courts of justice was quite glaring: we may learn what their condition was from Cicero’s orations; it was such that honest men were ashamed of the vile abuse. To make the judges independent, was therefore the great question of the day. But while it was wished to wrest the jurisdiction from the grasp of the senate, there was also, on the other hand, some reason to beware of the knights; and therefore an expedient was sought for, to keep that immense privilege from falling entirely into their hands. In such times, the line of demarcation between the different ranks is formed only by landed or by moneyed property; as soon as people want to generalize, there is no other standard but this, although it is a thoroughly false one. Such a classification then becomes unavoidable: Rome was on this wrong road, as France is now. There was in that age, and very likely there had been even as early as the war of Hannibal, a census fixed for the senators; either of 800,000 or 1,000,000 sesterces, being at any rate more considerable than the minimum of the _census equestris_. Now the _Lex Judiciaria_ of Lucius Aurelius Cotta (682) enacted that a number of senators, knights, and _tribuni ærarii_, chosen it would seem by the tribes from people of a lower census than that of the equestrian order, should in about equal proportions constitute the courts as a very numerous jury (Asconius on Cicero).[1] This was a great improvement; the judges indeed were still bad enough; yet they were after all infinitely better than those taken from the senate.