Part 3

But the science of language, when wisely conducted, not only presents an interesting analogy to geological stratification; it sometimes goes further, and bears direct witness to important geological changes as conclusive as any evidence derived from the existing conformation of the earth’s crust. How this comes to pass may easily be shown by a few familiar examples. The words _wold_ and _weald_ originally meant _wood_ and _forest_, as the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary and the living use of the German language--_wald_--alike declare; but the wolds at present known in Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, and other parts of England, are generally bare and treeless, and in bad weather very cheerless places indeed. If, then, “there is nothing arbitrary in language,” and all local names tell an historical tale, it is certain that, at the time when those names were imposed, these same sites were part of an immense forest. The geologist, when, in the far-stretching bogs east of Glencoe, and near Kinloch Ewe, and in many other places of Scotland, he calls attention to the fact of layers of gigantic trees lying now deeply embedded under the peat, adduces an argument with regard to the primitive vegetation of our part of the world not a whit more convincing. The same fact of a lost vegetation is revealed in not a few places of England which end in the old word _hurst_, signifying a forest. Again, there is a large family of places in and about the Harz Mountains, in Germany, ending in _ode_, as OSTERODE, HASSELRODE, WERNINGERODE, and so forth. Now most of these places, as specially HASSELRODE, are now remarkably free from those leagues of leafy luxuriance that give such a marked character to the scenery of that mountain district. It is certain, however, that they were at one time in the centre of an immense forest; for the word _rode_, radically the same as our _rid_, and perhaps the Welsh _rhydd_, Gaelic _reidh_, simply means “to make clear” or “clean,” and teaches that the forest in that part had been cleared for human habitation.

Once more: it is a well-known fact in geology that the border limit between sea and land is constantly changing, the briny element in some cliffy places, as to the north of Hull, systematically undermining the land, and stealing away the farmer’s acreage inch by inch and foot by foot; while in other places, from the conjoint action of river deposits and tidal currents, large tracts of what was once a sea-bottom are added to the land. The geological proof of this is open often to the most superficial observer; but the philological proof, when you once hold the key of it, is no less patent. In the Danish language--which is a sort of half-way house between high German and English--the word _oe_ signifies an island. This _oe_, in the shape of _ay_, _ea_, _ey_, or _y_, appears everywhere on the British coast, particularly in the West Highlands, as in COLONSAY, TOROSAY, ORANSAY, and in ORKNEY; and if there be any locality near the sea wearing this termination, not now surrounded by water, the conclusion is quite certain, on philological grounds, that it once was so. Here the London man will at once think on BERMONDSEY and CHELSEA, and he will think rightly; but he must not be hasty to draw STEPNEY under the conditions of the same category, for the EY in that word, if I am rightly informed, is a corruption from _hithe_, a well-known Anglo-Saxon and good old English term signifying a _haven_; and generally, in all questions of topographical etymology, there is a risk of error where the old spelling of the word is not confronted with the form which, by the attritions and abrasions of time, it may have assumed.

These observations, which at the request of the author of the following pages I have hastily set down, will be sufficient to indicate the spirit in which the study of topographical etymology ought to be pursued. Of course, I have no share in the praise which belongs to the successful execution of so laborious an investigation; neither, on the other hand, can blame be attached to me for such occasional slips as the most careful writer may make in a matter where to err is easy, and where conjecture has so long been in the habit of usurping the place of science. But I can bear the most honest witness to the large research, sound judgment, and conscientious accuracy of the author; and feel happy to have my name, in a subsidiary way, connected with a work which, I am convinced, will prove an important addition to the furniture of our popular schools.

COLLEGE, EDINBURGH, _February 1875_.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Anc. (ancient). Ar. (Arabic). A. S. (Anglo-Saxon). Bret. or Brez. (Brezric). Cel. (Celtic). Conf. (confluence). Cym.-Cel. (Cymro-Celtic, including Welsh). Dan. (Danish). Dut. (Dutch). Fr. (French). Gadhelic (including Gaelic, Irish, and Manx). Gael. (Gaelic). Ger. (German). Grk. (Greek). Heb. (Hebrew). Hung. (Hungarian). Ind. (Indian). It. (Italian). Lat. (Latin). Mt. (mountain). Par. (parish). Pers. (Persian). Phœn. (Phœnician). P. N. (personal name). Port. (Portuguese). R. (river). Sansc. (Sanscrit). Scand. (Scandinavian). Sclav. (Sclavonic). Span. (Spanish). Teut. (Teutonic). Turc. (Turkish).

A DICTIONARY OF PLACE-NAMES

A

[Sidenote: A (Old Norse),]

a possession;[2] _e.g._ Craika, Torfa, Ulpha; A (Scand.) also means an island--_v._ EA, p. 71.

[Sidenote: AA, A (Scand.),]

a stream; from Old Norse _â_, Goth. _aha_, Old Ger. _aha_ (water). The word, in various forms, occurs frequently in river names throughout Western Europe, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, and often takes the form of _au_ or _ach_; _e.g._ the rivers Aa, Ach, Aach; Saltach (salt river); Wertach (a river with many islands)--_v._ WARID, etc.; Trupach (troubled stream); Weser, _i.e._ _Wesar-aha_ (western stream); Lauter, _i.e._ _Hlauter-aha_ (clear stream); Danube or Donau, _i.e._ _Tuon-aha_ (thundering stream); Main, _i.e._ _Magin-aha_ (great stream); Fisch-aha (fish stream); Schwarza (black stream); Zwiesel-au (the stream of the whirlpool); Erlach (alder-tree stream); Gron-aha (green stream); Dachau (the clayey stream); Fulda, _i.e._ _Fold-aha_ (land stream); Rod-aha (reedy stream); Saale and Saala from _salz_ (salt stream). The simple _a_ or _o_, with a prefix expressive of the character of the stream, is the most frequent form of the word in Iceland and Scandinavia, and in the districts of Great Britain colonised by Norsemen or Danes; _e.g._ Laxa (salmon river); Hvita (white river); Brora (bridge river); Rotha (red river); Greta (weeping river); Storaa (great river); Thurso (Thor’s river), which gives its name to the town; Lossie, anc. _Laxi-a_ (salmon river).

[Sidenote: AB (Sansc.), AW (Pers.),]

water; _e.g._ Doab (the district of two waters); Menab (the mouth of the water), on the Persian Gulf; Busheab or _Khoshaub_ (good water), a river in Hindostan, also an island in the Persian Gulf; Neelab (blue water); Punjaub (the district of the five streams); Chinab or Chenaub R., said to be a corrupt. of its former name _Chaudra Bhagee_ (the garden of the moon), so called from a small lake of that name from which it proceeds. Cognate with this root is the Gadhelic _abh_, in its forms of _aw_ or _ow_. Thus in Scotland we have the River Awe and Loch Awe; in Ireland, Ow and Owbeg (little stream); Ow-nageerah (the stream of the sheep); Finnow (clear stream). Cognate with these root-words is the Lat. _aqua_ and its derivations in the Romance languages, as well as _ae_ or _ea_ (A.S. water). Forsteman finds river names, allied to the foregoing, throughout Germany and France, in such forms as _ap_, _op_, _ep_, etc., as in the Oppa, Lennep, Barop, Biberaffa.

[Sidenote: ABAD (Pers. and Sansc.),]

a dwelling or town, generally connected with the name of its founder; _e.g._ Hyderabad (the town of Hyder Ali, or of the Lion); Ahmedabad (of the Sultan Ahmed); Furrackabad (founded by Furrack the Fortunate); Agra or Akberabad (founded by Akber); Nujiabad (of Nujibah-Dowlah); Auringabad (founded by Aurungzebe); Jafferabad (the city of Jaffier); Jehanabad (of Shah Jehan); Jellabad (of Jellal, a chief); Moorshedabad (the town of Moorshed Khoolly-Khan); Moorabad (named after Morad, the son of Shah Jehan); Shahabad (of the Shah); Abbas-abad (founded by Abbas the Great); Dowladabad (the town of wealth); Hajiabad (of the pilgrim); Meschdabad (of the mosque); Islamabad (of the true faith); Allah-abad (of God); Secunderabad (named after Alexander the Great); Resoulabad (of the prophet); Asterabad (on the River Aster); Futteabad (the town of victory); Sadabad or Suffi-abad (the town of the _sadi_ or _suffi_, _i.e._ the sage).

[Sidenote: ABER (Cym.-Cel.), ABHIR and OBAIR (Gael.),]

a confluence of waters; applied, in topography, to places at the conf. of streams, or at the embouchure of a river. The derivation of the term has been traced by some etymologists to the conjunction of _ath_ (Gael.), a ford, and _bior_, water; by others to Cym.-Cel. _at_ (at) and _bior_ (water). This prefix is general in many of the counties of Scotland, throughout Wales, and, in a few instances, in Ireland, although in the latter country the synonyms _inver_ and _cumar_ are more frequent. Both words are found in the topography of the Picts, but the Scots of Argyleshire used only _inver_ before they came from Ireland to settle in that district. The word _aber_ seems to have become obsolete among them; and as there are no _abers_ in Ayrshire, Renfrew, and Lanarkshire, the word had probably become obsolete before the kingdom of Strathclyde was formed. Dr. Joyce, in his _Irish Names of Places_, traces its use as prefix or affix to the Irish root _abar_ (a mire), as in the little stream Abberachrinn (_i.e._ the river of the miry place of the tree). In Wales we find Aberconway, Aberfraw, Aberistwyth, Aberavon, Aberayron, Aberdare, Aberdaron, Abergavenny, at the embouchure of the _Conway_, _Fraw_, _Istwyth_, _Avon_, _Aeron_, _Dar_, _Daron_, _Gavenny_. Barmouth, corrupt. from Aber-Mowddy, a seaport in Merioneth, at the mouth of the R. Mowddy. Berriew, corrupt. from Aber-Rhiw (at the junction of the R. Rhiw with the Severn); Aberdaugledden, the Welsh name for Haverford-west, at the mouth of twin rivers resembling two swords (_gledden_), which unite at Milford Haven. It is called by the Welsh now Hwlford (the sailing road) because the tide comes up to the town. Aberhonddu, at the mouth of the R. Honddi or Honddu (the county town of Brecknock), and Aberdovey, at the embouchure of the R. Dovey in Wales. In Scotland, Aberbrothwick or Arbroath, Abercorn, anc. _Aeber-curnig_, Aberdour, Abergeldie, Abernethy, at the embouchure of the _Brothock_, _Cornie_, _Dour_, _Geldie_, and _Nethy_. Aberchirder is _Abhir-chiar-dur_ (the conf. of the dark water); Abercrombie (the curved conf.); Aberfeldy, _i.e._ _Abhir-feathaile_ (the smooth conf.); Aberfoyle (the conf. of the pool, _phuill_); Aberlemno (the conf. of the leaping water, _leumnach_); Arbirlot, anc. _Aber-Elliot_ (at the mouth of the Elliot); Applecross for _Abhir-croisan_ (the conf. of trouble); Old Aberdeen and New Aberdeen, at the mouths of the Don and Dee, Lat. _Devana-castra_; Fochabers (the _plain_, at the river mouth), Gael. _faigh_, a plain; Lochaber (at the mouth of the loch); Barmouth, in Wales, corrupt, of _Aber-Mawdoch_ or _Maw_.

[Sidenote: ABI (Turc.),]

a river; _e.g._ Abi-shiran (sweet river); Abi-shur (salt river); Abi-gurm (warm river); Abi-gard (yellow river); Abi-kuren (the river of Cyrus); Ab-Allah (God’s river).

[Sidenote: ABT (Teut.), an abbot, Lat. _abbatis_. ABIE, an abbey.]

These and similar words, in the Romance languages, derived from the Heb. _abba_ (father), were introduced into the languages of Europe in connection with the monastic system, and are attached to the names of places founded for monks, or belonging to church lands. Thus--Absberg (abbot’s hill); Apersdorf, for _Abbatesdorf_ (abbot’s village); Absholz (abbot’s wood); Abtsroda (abbot’s clearing), in Germany; Appenzell, anc. _Abbatiscella_ (abbot’s church), founded by the Abbot of St. Gall, A.D. 647; Abbeville (abbot’s dwelling), in France; Abbotsbury (the abbot’s fortified place), Dorset; Abbeydare (the abbey on the R. Dare in Hereford); Abbotshall, in Fife, so called from having been the occasional residence of the abbots of Dunfermline; Abdie (belonging to the abbey of Lindores); Abingdon, in Berks (abbot’s hill), Abington (with the same meaning), the name of two parishes in Cambridge and a village in Lanarkshire, and of two parishes in Ireland; Abbotsford (the ford of the Tweed in the abbey lands of Melrose); Abbotsrule (the abbey on the R. Rule in Roxburghshire); Abbeyfeale (on the R. Feale); Abbeyleix (the abbey of Lewy), an Irish chief Abbeygormacan (Irish _mainister_); _Ua-g Cormacain_ (the abbey of the O’Cormacans); Abbeylara, _i.e._ Irish abbey, _leath-rath_ (the abbey of the half-rath); Abbeyshrule, anc. _Sruthair_ (the stream), named for a monastery founded by one of the O’Farells; Abbeystrowry (with the same meaning), in Ireland; Abbensee (the lake of the abbey), in Upper Austria; Newabbey, a _Par_ in Kirkcudbright (named from an abbey founded in 1275 by Devorgilla, the mother of John Baliol); Badia-San-Salvatore (the abbey of the Holy Saviour); Badia-Torrita (the abbey with the little tower), in Italy; Appin, in Argyleshire, anc. _Abbphon_ (abbot’s land), and Appin, in Dull, indicating probably the territory of a Celtic monastery.

[Sidenote: ACH, or ICH,]

a form of the Teut. _aha_ (water), p. 1, as in Salzach (salt stream), but it is also a common affix to words in the Teut. and Cel. languages, by which a noun is formed into an adjective, signifying full of, or abounding in, equivalent to the Lat. terminations _etum_ and _iacum_. Thus, in German topography, we find Lindach, Aichach, Aschach, Buchach, Tannich, Fichtig, _i.e._ abounding in _lime_, _oak_, _ash_, _beech_, _fir_, and _pine_ wood; Affaltrach (in apple-trees); Erlicht (in alders); Heselicht (in hazels); Laubach (in leaves). In Ireland: Darach, Farnach (abounding in oaks and alders); Ounagh, in Sligo, and Onagh, in Wicklow (watery place), from the adjective Abhnach (abounding in streams). In the Sclav. languages, again, the affix _zig_ has the same meaning, as in Leipzig (abounding in lime-trees).

[Sidenote: ACHADH (Gadhelic), AUCH, AUGH, AUCHEN,]

a field, plain, or meadow; _e.g._ Aghinver (the field of the confluence); Aghindarragh (of the oak wood); Achonry, anc. _Achadh-Chonaire_ (Conary’s field); Ardagh (high field); Aghabeg (little field); Aghaboy (yellow field); Aghamore (great field); Aghaboe (the cow’s field); Aghadown (of the fort); Aghadoe, _i.e._ _Achadh-da-eo_ (of the two yew-trees). In Scotland: Auchclach, Auchinleck, Auchnacloich (the stony field); Achray (smooth field); Auchinleith (the physician’s field); Auchindoire (the field of the oak grove); Auchinfad (of the peats); Auchinrath (of the fort); Auchincruive (of the tree, _craoibhe_); Auchline (of the pool); Auchnacraig (of the rock); Auchindinny and Auchteany (the field of the fire)--_teine_, _i.e._ probably places where the Beltane fires were kindled.

[Sidenote: AESC (A.S.), ASK (Scand.), ESCHE (Ger.),]

the ash-tree; _e.g._ Ashton, Ashby, Askham (ash-tree dwelling); Ashrigg (the ash-tree ridge), in England. In Germany: Eschdorf, Eschweil, Eschweiller (ash-tree dwelling); Eschenbach (ash-tree brook); Eschwege (ash-tree road).

[Sidenote: AESP (A.S.), ASP (Scand.),]

the aspen or poplar; _e.g._ Aspley, Aspden (poplar field or valley).

[Sidenote: AIN (Semitic), AAYN,]

a fountain; _e.g._ Aenon (the fountains); Enshemish (the fountain of the sun); Engedi (of the goat); Enrogel (of the fuller’s field); Dothan (the two fountains); Aayn-el-kebira (the great fountain); Ain-halu (the sweet fountain); Aayn-taiba (the good fountain); Engannim (the fountain of the gardens); Enrimmon (of the pomegranates).

[Sidenote: AITE, or AIT (Gadhelic), AEHT, or EIGEN (Teut.),]

a place, a possession; _e.g._ Daviot, anc. _Damh-aite_ (the place of the ox), in Aberdeenshire, and also in Inverness; Tynet, _i.e._ _ait-an-taimhu_ (the place of the river), in Banffshire. In Ireland the word is used in combination with _tigh_ (a house); _e.g._ Atty (the dwelling-place); Atty-Dermot (the dwelling of Dermot); Atti-duff (the dark dwelling); Oedt (the possession), a town in Prussia, on the Niers; Iberstolfs-eigen (the possession of Iberstolf); Iberstolfs-eigen, Smurses-eigen (_i.e._ the possession of Iberstolf and Smurse); Souder-eygen (south possession).

[Sidenote: AITH, or AED, or EID (Scand.),]

a headland; _e.g._ Aithsvoe (the bay of the headland); Aithsthing (the place of meeting on the headland); Eidfoss (the waterfall on the headland).

[Sidenote: AK, or AEK (A.S.), EK, or EG (Scand.), EYKE (Dutch), EICHE (Ger.),]

an oak; _e.g._ Acton, Acworth (oak town and manor); Oakley (oak meadow); Oakham (oak dwelling); Auckland (oakland); Acrise (oak ascent); Wokingham or Oakingham (the dwelling among oaks); Sevenoaks, anc. _Seovanacca_, named from some oak-trees which once occupied the eminence on which it stands, but Okehampton, in Devon, is on the R. Oke. In Germany and in Holland are Eichstadt, Eichdorf, Eikheim (oak dwelling); Ekholta (oak wood); Eichhalden (oak height); Eichstegen (oak path); Echehout, in Hainault (oak wood); Eykebusch (oak thicket).

[Sidenote: AK (Turc.),]

white; _e.g._ Ak-tag, Ak-dagh (the white mountains); Ak-su (white river); Ak-hissar (white castle); Ak-serai (white palace); Ak-shehr (white dwelling); Ak-meschid (white mosque); Ak-kalat (white fortress).

[Sidenote: AL (the Arabic definite article);]

_e.g._ Alkalat (the fortress); Almaden (the mine); Alcantara (the bridge); Alkasar (the palace); Almeida (the table); Almeria (the conspicuous); Almazen (the storehouse); Alcarria (the farm); Alcana (the exchange); Algezira (the island), anc. _Mesopotamia_ (_i.e._ between the rivers); Algeciras (the islands), in Spain; Algarve (the west); Almansa (the plain); Almazara (the mill); Alhambra (the red); Alhucen (the beautiful); Alpuxarras (the grassy mountains).

[Sidenote: ALD, EALD (A.S.), ALT (Ger.), OUDE, OLDEN (Dutch),]

old; _e.g._ Alton, Oldham, Althorpe, Alcaster, Aldwark (old dwelling, farm, camp, fortress); Audlem (old lyme or border); Audley (old field), in England. In Germany: Altenburg, Altendorf, Oldenburg (old dwelling); Altenmarkt (old market); Altmark (old boundary); Altstadt (old place); Altsattel (old seat); Altofen (old oven), so called from its warm baths; Oudenarde (old earth or land); Oudenbosch (old thicket); Oude-capel (old chapel).

[Sidenote: ALDEA (Span. and Port., from the Arabic),]

a village; _e.g._ Aldea-del-Cano (the dog’s village); Aldea-vieya (old village); Aldea-el-Muro (the walled village); Aldea-del-Rio (of the river); Aldea Galliga (of the Gauls).

[Sidenote: ALIT (Cym.-Cel.), ALT (Irish),]

a height or cliff; _e.g._ Alltmaur (the great height); Builth, in Wales, _i.e._ _Bu-allt_ (the steep place of the wild oxen). The Alts (heights or glen-sides), Monaghan; Altachullion (the cliff of the holly); Altavilla, _i.e._ _Alt-a-bhile_ (the glen-side of the old tree); Altinure (the cliff of the yew-tree); Altanagh (abounding in cliffs); Altan (the little cliff).

[Sidenote: ALP, AILPE (Celtic), AIL,]

a rock or cliff; _e.g._ the Alps; Albainn (the hilly or high land), the anc. name of Scotland; Albania, with the same meaning; Alpenach (the mountain stream), at the foot of Mount Pilate; Alva and Alvah (the rocky), parishes in Scotland; Cantal (the _head_ of the rock), in France. In Ireland the word _ail_ takes the form of _oil_, aspirated _foyle_ or _faill_; _e.g._ Foilycleara (O’Clery’s cliff); Foilnaman (the cliff of the women): but while the aspirated form of _ail_ is confined to the south, _aill_ is found all over Ireland; Ayleacotty, _i.e._ _Aill-a-choite_ (the cliff of the little boat); Ailla-gower (the goat’s cliff); Alleen (the diminutive) is found in Alleen-Hogan and Alleen-Ryan (Hogan’s and Ryan’s little cliff). When, however, _foyle_ comes in as a termination, it is commonly derived from _poll_ (a hole), as in Ballyfoyle and Ballyfoile (the town of the hole). The anc. name of Britain, _Albion_, has sometimes been traced to this root, but more generally to the _white_ cliffs (Lat. _albus_) on the coast of Kent, as seen first by the Romans.

[Sidenote: ALR (A.S.), ALNUS (Lat.), AUNE (Fr.),]

the alder-tree; _e.g._ Alr-holt, Aldershot (alder-tree wood); Alresford (Alderford); Alrewas (alder-tree pasture); Alderley (alder-tree meadow), in England; Aulney, Aulnoy, Aulnois, Aunay, Auneau (alder grove), in France.

[Sidenote: ALT (Gadhelic),]

a stream; _e.g._ the Alt, Aldan, Alta (river names); Alt-dowran (otter stream); Aultsigh (gliding stream); Alt-na-guish (the stream of the fir-trees); Aldivalloch, _i.e._ _Allt-a-bhealaich_ (the stream of the pass); Alness, _i.e._ _Allt-an-casa_ (of the cascade); Alltmore (great stream); Auldearn, _i.e._ _Allt-fearn_ (alder-tree stream); Cumbernauld, corrupt. from _Cumar-nan-alta_ (the confluence of the streams); Garavault in Aberdeenshire, Garvault in East Lothian, and Garvald in Dumfriesshire (rough stream); Altderg (red stream).

[Sidenote: ALTUN, or ALTAN (Tartar),]

golden; _e.g._ the Altai, or golden mountains; Altanor (golden lake); Altan-su (golden river); Alta-Yeen (the golden mountains); Altun-tash (golden rock); Altun-kupri (golden bridge).

[Sidenote: AM, or AN,]

contrac. from Ger. _an den_ (on the, or at the); _e.g._ Amberg (at the hill); Amdorf or Ambach, Amsteg, Amwalde (at the village, brook, path, wood).

[Sidenote: AMAR (Old Ger.),]

a kind of grain; _e.g._ Amarbach, Amarthal, Amarwang, Amarveld (the brook, valley, strip of land, field where this grain grew).

[Sidenote: AMBACHT, or AMT (Ger.),]

a district under the government of an Amtman or bailiff; _e.g._ Amt-sluis (the sluice of the Ambacht); Amthof (the court of the Amtman); Graven-Ambacht (the duke’s district); Ambachtsbrug (the bridge of the Ambacht).

[Sidenote: AMBR,]

an Indo-Germanic word, signifying a river, allied to the Sansc. _ambu_ (water). According to Forsteman (_v._ _Deutsche Ortsnamen_) the suffix _r_ was added by most European nations before their separation from the Asiatic tribes, as appears in the Greek _ombros_ and the Lat. _imber_ (a shower). The word appears in the names of tribes and persons, as well as of places, on the European continent; _e.g._ the Ambrones (or dwellers by the water), and perhaps in Umbria; Amberloo and Amersfoort (the meadow and ford by the water), in Holland; and in such river names as the Ammer, Emmer, Emmerich, Ambra, etc.

[Sidenote: ANGER (Ger.),]

a meadow or field; _e.g._ Rabenanger (the raven’s field); Kreutzanger (the field of the cross); Moosanger (mossy field); Wolfsanger (the wolf’s field, or of Wolf, a man’s name); Vogelsanger (the birds’ field); Angerhusen (the field houses); Angerbach (the field brook); Anger (the field), a town in Austria; Angerburg (the fortress in the field).

[Sidenote: ANGRA (Port.),]

a creek or bay; _e.g._ Angra (a sea-port in the Azores); Angra-de-los-reyes (the king’s bay).

[Sidenote: AQUA (Lat.), AGUA (Span. and Port.), ACQUA (It.), EAU (Fr.; Old Fr. AX),]

water; _e.g._ Aix, anc. _Aquæ-Sextiæ_ (the warm springs, said to have been discovered and named by Sextus Calvenus, B.C. 123), in Provence; Aix, in Dauphiny, anc. _Aquæ-Vocontiorum_ (the waters of the Vocontii); Aix-les-bains (the bath waters), in Savoy; Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, celebrated for its mineral springs, and for the chapel erected over the tomb of Charlemagne; Plombières, anc. _Aquæ-plombariæ_ (waters impregnated with lead); Veraqua, in New Granada, corrupt. from _Verdes-aguas_ (green waters); Aigue-perse (the bubbling water), in Auvergne; Aigue-vive (the spring of living water); Aigue-belle (beautiful water); Aigue-noire (black water, etc.), in France; Dax, celebrated for its saline springs, corrupt. from _Civitas aquensis_ (the city of waters); Aigues-mortes (stagnant waters); Aguas-bellas (beautiful waters), Portugal; Aguas-calientes (warm waters), Mexico; Evaux, Evreux (on the waters), France; Evian, anc. _Aquarum_ (the waters), Savoy; Entreves and Entraigues (between the waters), anc. _Interaquæ_; Yvoire, anc. _Aquaria_ (the watery district), on Lake Geneva; Aas or Les Eaux (the waters), Basses Pyrénées; Nerac, anc. _Aquæ Neriedum_ (the waters of the Nerii); Amboise and Amboyna (surrounded by waters); Bordeaux (the dwelling on the water), _borda_, Low Lat. (a dwelling); Vichy, anc. _Aquæ calidæ_ (warm waters), on the Allier; Bex (upon the two waters), at the juncture of the Rhone and Avençon; Outre L’Eau (beyond the water); Acapulca, in Mexico, corrupt. from _Portus aquæ pulchræ_ (the port of beautiful waters); Agoa-fria (cold water), Brazil; Aqui, in North Italy, celebrated for its baths; Acireale, anc. _aguas calientes_ (the warm waters); Agoa-quente (hot spring), Brazil.

[Sidenote: ARA,]

a frequent element in river names, with various and even opposite meanings. Some of the river names may have come from the Sansc. _ara_ (swift, or the flowing), and in Tamil _aar_ means simply a river. There is another Sanscrit word _arb_ (to ravage or destroy), with which the Gadhelic words _garw_, _garbh_ (rough) may be connected; and, on the other hand, there is the Welsh _araf_ (gentle). According to the locality and the characteristics of the stream, one must judge to which of these roots its name may belong. There are, in England, the Aire, Arre, Arro, Arrow; in France, the Arve, Erve, Arveiron, etc.; in Switzerland and Germany, the Aar, Are; in Spain and Italy, the Arva, Arno; and in Scotland, the Ayr, Aray, Irvine, etc. Many of these names may signify simply flowing water (the river), while others beginning with the syllable _ar_ may be referred to the adjectival forms, _araf_, _arb_, _ara_, or _garbh_, followed by another root-word for _water_, as in Arrow (the swift stream); Yarrow (the rough stream); _ow_ (water); Arveiron (the furious stream); _avon_ (water); Arar (the gentle stream), now the Saone.

[Sidenote: ARD, AIRD (Gadhelic),]