Chapter 14 of 72 · 3890 words · ~19 min read

Part 14

#-s# in #abs#, _from_, #ex#, _out of_; similarly #us-que#, _in every case_, _ever_, #us-quam#, _anywhere at all_. #-tus# has the meaning of an ablative: as, #intus#, _from within_, _within_; #antīquitus#, _from old times_, _anciently_; #funditus#, _from the bottom_, _entirely_. #-ō# denotes the ‘place to which’ in adverbs from pronoun stems: as, #eō#, _thither_; #quō#, _whither_; #illō#, or #illūc#, for #illoi-ce#, _thither_, after #hūc#; #hōc#, commonly #hūc#, perhaps for #hoi-ce# (99) _hither_. #-im# denotes the ‘place from which:’ as, #istim#, commonly #istinc#, _from where you are_; #illim#, commonly #illinc#, _from yonder_; #hinc#, _hence_; #exim#, _thereupon_; also #-de#: as, #unde#, _whence_ (#quo-#, 146), #sī-cunde#, _if from any place_, #nē-cunde#, _lest from anywhere_. #-ter#: as comparative (347): #praeter#, _further_, _beyond_, #inter#, _between_; denoting manner: #ācriter#, _sharply_; #amanter#, _affectionately_; rarely from #-o-# stems: as, #firmiter#, _steadfastly_.

CORRELATIVE ADVERBS.

711. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Int. Interrogative Indef. Indefinite Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c. Rel. Relative.

II. SENTENCES AS ADVERBS.

712. Some adverbs are condensed sentences: as,

#īlicet#, _you may go, straightway_ (#īre licet#); #scīlicet#, _you may know, obviously, of course_ (#scīre licet#); #vidē̆licet#, _you can see, plainly_ (#vidēre licet#); #nūdiustertius#, _now is the third day, day before yesterday_ (#num dius#, i.e. #diēs#, #tertius#); #forsitan#, _maybe_ (#fors sit an#); #mīrum quantum#, _strange how much, astonishingly_; #nesciō quō pactō#, #nesciō quōmodo#, _somehow or other, unfortunately_.

(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB.

713. The verb is inflected by attaching person endings to the several stems.

THE STEM.

714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed by the speaker.

715. There are three MOODS, _Indicative_, _Subjunctive_, and _Imperative_.

716. There are six TENSES in the indicative, three of the present system, _Present_, _Imperfect_, and _Future_; and three of the perfect system, _Perfect_, _Pluperfect_, and _Future Perfect_. The subjunctive lacks the futures; the imperative has only the present.

717. The meanings of the moods and tenses are best learnt from reading. No satisfactory translation can be given in the paradigms, especially of the subjunctive, which requires a variety of translations for its various uses.

718. The verb has two principal stems: I. The Present stem, which is the base of the present system; II. The Perfect stem, which is the base of the perfect active system.

719. The perfect system has no passive; its place is supplied by the perfect participle with a form of #sum#, _am_, or less frequently of #fuī#, _am become_.

720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, #maereō#, _mourn_; some have only the perfect system: as, #meminī#, _remember_. Some verbs have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems: as, present indicative #ferō#, _carry_, perfect indicative #tulī#, and perfect participle #lātus#; present #possum#, _can_, perfect #potuī#.

THE PERSON ENDING.

721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by pointing out the person of the subject. There are three PERSONS, the _First_, used of the speaker, the _Second_, of what is spoken to, and the _Third_, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indicates number and voice.

722. There are two NUMBERS: the _Singular_, used of one, and the _Plural_, used of more than one.

723. There are two VOICES: the _Active_, indicating that the subject acts, and the _Passive_, indicating that the subject acts on himself, or more commonly is acted on by another.

724. Only transitive verbs have all persons of the passive. Intransitive verbs have in the passive only the third person singular, used impersonally; the participle in this construction is neuter.

725. Some verbs have only the passive person endings, but with a reflexive or an active meaning; such are called _Deponents_: see 798.

726. The person endings are as follows:

## ACTIVE VOICE.

+------------------+---------------+--------------------------+ | _Mood._ | IND. & SUB. | IMPERATIVE. | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _Number._ | SING. | PLUR. | SING. | PLUR. | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _First person._ | -m | -mus | _not used_ | _not used_ | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _Second person._ | -s | -tis | _none_, -tō | -te, -tōte | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _Third person._ | -t | -nt | -tō | -ntō | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+

PASSIVE VOICE.

727. In the perfect indicative active, the second person singular ends in #-tī#, and the third person plural in #-runt# for an older #-ront#, or in #-re#. #-re# is most used in poetry and history, and by Cato and Sallust; #-runt# by Cicero, and almost always by Caesar.

728. In the indicative #-m# is not used in the present (except in #sum#, _am_, and #inquam#, _quoth I_), in the perfect or future perfect, or in the future in #-bō#. #-s# is not used in #es# for #ess#, _thou art_, and in #ēs#, _eatest_ (171, 1).

729. In inscriptions, #-d# sometimes stands for #-t# (149, 2) in the third person singular, and sometimes #-t# is not used: as, FECID, _made_, for _fēcit_; DEDE, _gave_, for #dedēt# or #dedit#. And other forms of the third person plural of the indicative active are sometimes used: as, Pisaurian DEDROT, DEDRO (with syncope, 111) for #dederunt#, _gave_; EMERV, _bought_, for #ēmērunt#; once DEDERI, probably for #dedēre# (856).

730. In the passive second person singular, Terence has always, Plautus commonly #-re#; later it is unusual in the present indicative, except in deponents; but in other tenses #-re# is preferred, especially in the future #-bere#, by Cicero, #-ris# by Livy and Tacitus. The second person plural passive is wanting; its place is supplied by a single participial form in #-minī#, which is used without reference to gender, for gender words and neuters alike (297).

731. Deponents have rarely #-mino#, in the imperative singular: as, second person, #prōgredimino#, _step forward thou_ (Plaut.); in laws, as third person: FRVIMINO, _let him enjoy_; or #-tō# and #-ntō# for #-tor# and #-ntor#: as, #ūtitō#, _let him use_; #ūtuntō#, _let them use_. In a real passive, #-ntō# is rare: as, CENSENTO, _let them be rated_.

NOUNS OF THE VERB.

732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of the verb; they are:

Three Infinitives, _Present Active_ and _Passive_, and _Perfect Active_, sometimes called the _Infinitive Mood_. For the future active and passive and the perfect passive, compound forms are used.

The _Gerund_ and the _Gerundive_.

Two _Supines_.

Three Participles, _Present_ and _Future Active_, and _Perfect Passive_.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the principal parts are known; these are given in the dictionary.

734. The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a verb are the _Present Indicative Active_, _Present Infinitive Active_, _Perfect Indicative Active_, and _Perfect

## Participle_: as,

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. regō, _rule_ regere rēxī rēctus laudō, _praise_ laudāre laudāvī laudātus moneō, _advise_ monēre monuī monitus audiō, _hear_ audīre audīvī auditus

735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the _Present Indicative_, _Present Infinitive_, and _Perfect Participle_: as,

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. PART. queror, _complain_ querī questus mīror, _wonder_ mīrārī mīrātus vereor, _fear_ verērī veritus

## partior, _share_ partīrī partītus

DESIGNATION OF THE VERB.

736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first person singular: as, #regō#; #laudō#, #moneō#, #audiō#; or by the present infinitive active: as, #regere#; #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#. Deponents are named by the corresponding passive forms: as, #queror#; #mīror#, #vereor#, #partior#; or #querī#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#.

737. For convenience, verbs with #-ere# in the present infinitive active are called _Verbs in_ #-ere#; those with #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, _Verbs in_ #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as _Verbs in_ #-ī#; or _Verbs in_ #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, respectively.

THEME OF THE VERB.

738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called the _Theme_. In primitives, the theme is a root; in denominatives, the theme is a noun stem.

Thus, #reg-# in #reg-ō# is a root; while #vesti-# in #vesti-ō#, _dress_, is a noun stem. The noun stem is sometimes modified in form. Oftentimes the noun stem is only presumed: as, #audi-# in #audi-ō#.

739. Some verbs have a denominative theme in the present system, and a primitive theme in the perfect system, others have the reverse.

740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, or, if deponent, in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, are denominative; most other verbs are primitive.

Thus, #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#, are denominative; while #esse#, #dare#, (#dē#)#lēre#, #regere#, #querī#, are primitive. A few verbs, however, which have the appearance of denominatives, are thought to be primitive in their origin.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE VERB.

741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to the form of the present system: I. Root verbs, and verbs in #-ere#, mostly primitive; II. Verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, mostly denominative.

742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, #ā#, #ē#, #i#, #ī#: thus, #laudās#, #monēs#, #regis#, #audīs#, sometimes called the _first_, _second_, _third_, and _fourth conjugation_ respectively.

I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.

743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called _Root Verbs_, or by some, _irregular_ (744-781). Most primitives are verbs in #-ere#, like #regō# (782).

(A.) ROOT VERBS.

_Irregular Verbs._

(_a._) WITH A PREVALENT BARE ROOT.

744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in almost all their forms are #sum#, _am_, #dō#, _give_, _put_, and compounds; and with the root doubled, #bibō#, _drink_, #serō#, _sow_, and #sistō#, _set_.

(1.) #sum#, _am_ (#es-#, #s-#).

745. #sum#, _am_, is used only in the present system (720). The perfect system is supplied by forms of #fuī# (#fu-#).

746. For the first person #sum#, Varro mentions #esum# as an archaic form. This #e# was probably prefixed by analogy with the other forms; for the #-m#, and for #es#, see 728. For #sim#, &c., and #siem#, &c., see 841. In the imperfect #eram#, &c., and the future #erō#, &c., #s# has become #r# (154).

747. The indicative and imperative #es# is for older #ess# (171, 1), and is regularly used long by Plautus and Terence. The #e# of #es# and #est# is not pronounced after a vowel or #-m#, and is often omitted in writing: as #experrēcta es#, pronounced #experrēctas#; #epistula est#, pronounced #epistulast#; #cōnsilium est#, pronounced #cōnsiliumst#. In the dramatists, #-s# preceded by a vowel, which is usually short, unites with a following #es# or #est#: thus, #tū servos es# becomes #tū servos#; #similis est#, #similist#; #virtūs est#, #virtūst#; #rēs est#, #rēst#.

748. Old forms are: SONT (inscr. about 120 B.C.); with suffix #-scō# (834), #escit# (for #*esscit#), _gets to be_, _will be_, #escunt#; present subjunctive, #siem#, #siēs#, #siet#, and #sient# (841), common in inscriptions down to 100 B.C., and in old verse; also in compounds; imperative #estōd# rare.

749. The present participle is used only as an adjective. It has two forms: #sontem# (accusative, no nominative), which has entirely lost its original meaning of _being_, _actual_, _the real man_, and has only the secondary meaning of _guilty_, and #īnsōns#, _innocent_; and #-sēns# in #absēns#, _away_, #praesēns#, _at hand_, #dī cōnsentēs#, _gods collective_; also once INSENTIBVS. #sum# has no gerund or gerundive.

750. A subjunctive present #fuam#, #fuās#, #fuat#, and #fuant# occurs in old Latin; and an imperfect #forem#, #forēs#, #foret#, and #forent#, in all periods. The present infinitive #fore#, _to get to be_, _become_, has a future meaning. Old forms in the perfect system are FVVEIT (29, 1), FVET; #fūit#, #fūimus#, #fūerim#, #fūerit#, #fūerint#, #fūisset# (Plaut., Enn.). #fuī# has no perfect participle or supine.

751. #possum#, _can_.

+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: possum, posse; (potuī, see 875.) | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | _Pres._ | possum, potes, | possumus, potestis, | | | potest | possunt | | _Imp._ | poteram, poterās, | poterāmus, poterātis, | | | poterat | poterant | | _Fut._ | poterō, poteris, | poterimus, poteritis, | | | poterit | poterunt | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | _Pres._ | possim, possīs, possit | possīmus, possītis, possint | | _Imp._ | possem, possēs, posset | possēmus, possētis, possent | | | | +---------+-------------------------+------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | _Pres._ | posse | ---- | +---------+-------------------------+------------------------------+

752. #possum# is formed from #pote#, _able_, and #sum#, juxtaposed (166, 2; 396). The separate forms #potis sum#, &c., or #pote sum#, &c., are also used, and sometimes even #potis# or #pote# alone takes the place of a verb; in either case #potis# and #pote# are indeclinable, and are applied to gender words and neuters both.

753. #t# is retained before a vowel, except in #possem#, &c., for #potessem#, &c., and in #posse#; #t# before #s# changes to #s# (166, 2). Old forms are: #possiem#, &c., (748), #potessem#, #potisset#, #potesse#. Rare forms are POTESTO (inscr. 58 B.C.), and passives, as #potestur#, &c., with a passive infinitive (1484). #possum# has no participles; the perfect system, #potuī#, &c., is like #fuī#, &c. (745).

(2.) #dō#, _give_, _put_ (#dā-#, #da-#).

754. There are two verbs #dō#, one meaning _give_, and one meaning _put_. The #dō# meaning _put_ is oftenest used in compounds; the simple verb has been crowded out by #pōnō#. The present system of #dō# is as follows:

+-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: dō, dare, dedī, datus. | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | _Pres._ | dō, dās, dat | damus, datis, dant | | _Imp._ | dabam, dabās, dabat | dabāmus, dabātis, dabant | | _Fut._ | dabō, dabis, dabit | dabimus, dabitis, dabunt | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | _Pres._ | dem, dēs, det | dēmus, dētis, dent | | _Imp._ | darem, darēs, daret | darēmus, darētis, darent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | dā or datō, datō | date or datōte, dantō | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | _Pres._ | dare | dāns | | | | | | | GERUND. | | | _Gen._ | dandī, &c. | | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | _Pres._ | ----, | damur, | | | daris or -re, | daminī, | | | datur | dantur | | _Imp._ | dabar, | dabāmur, | | | dabāre or -ris, | dabāminī, | | | dabātur | dabantur | | _Fut._ | dabor, | dabimur, | | | dabere or -ris, | dabiminī, | | | dabitur | dabuntur | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | _Pres._ | ----, | ----, | | | dēre or -ris, | dēminī, | | | dētur | dentur | | _Imp._ | darer, | darēmur, | | | darēre or -ris, | darēminī, | | | darētur | darentur | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | dare or dator, dator | daminī, dantor | | | | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | _Pres._ | darī | dandus | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+

755. In the present system #a# is short throughout in the first syllable, except in #dās# and #dā#. For #dedī#, #datus#, and supines #datum#, #datū#, see 859 and 900.

756. Old forms: #danunt# of uncertain origin (833) for #dant#. From another form of the root come #duis#, #duit#; #interduō#, #concrēduō#, perfect #concrēduī#; subjunctive #duim#, #duīs# (#duās#), #duit# and #duint# (841), and compounds, used especially in law language, and in praying and cursing; #crēduam#, #crēduās# or #crēduīs#, #crēduat# or #crēduit#.

757. Real compounds of #dō# have a present system like #regō# (782); in the perfect and the perfect participle, #e# and #a# become #i#: as, #abdō#, _put away_, #abdere#, #abdidī#, #abditus#; #crēdō#, _put trust in_. #perdō#, _fordo_, _destroy_, and #vēndō#, _put for sale_, have gerundives #perdendus#, #vēndundus#, and perfect participles #perditus#, #vēnditus#; the rest of the passive is supplied by forms of pereō and #vēneō#. #reddō#, _give back_, has future #reddibō# 3 times (Plaut.). In the apparent compounds with #circum#, #pessum#, #satis#, and #vēnum#, #dō# remains without change, as in 754.

[Erratum: 756. . missing]

(3.) #bibō#, #serō#, and #sistō#.

758. #bibō#, _drink_, #serō#, _sow_ (for #*si-sō#, 154), and #sistō#, _set_, form their present stem by reduplication of the root (189). The vowel before the person endings is the root vowel, which becomes variable, like a formative vowel (824). These verbs have the present system like #regō# (782).

(_b._) WITH THE BARE ROOT IN PARTS.

#inquam#, #eō#, and #queō#.

759. #inquam#, #eō#, and #queō# have the bare root as present stem, in almost all their parts; in a few parts only the root is extended by a formative vowel (829).

(1.) #inquam#, _say I_, _quoth I_.

760. #inquam#, _say I_, is chiefly used in quoting a person’s direct words; and, from its meaning, is naturally very defective. The only parts in common use are the following:

+---------------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Singular. | Plural. | | _Pres._ | inquam, inquis, inquit | ----, ----, inquiunt | | _Fut._ | ----, inquiēs, inquiet | ----, ----, ---- | +---------------------------------------------------------+

761. Rare forms are: subjunctive #inquiat# (Cornif.), indicative imperfect #inquiēbat# (Cic.), used twice each; indicative present #inquimus# (Hor.), perfect #inquiī# (Catull.), #inquīstī# (Cic.), once each; imperative #inque#, 4 times (Plaut. 2, Ter. 2), #inquitō#, 3 times (Plaut.). For #inquam#, see 728.

762. (2.) #eō#, _go_ (#ī-# for #ei-#, #i-#)