Part 33

#quam mox coctumst prandium?# Pl. _R._ 342, _how soon is lunch all cooked?_ #cui sī esse in urbe licēbit, vīcimus#, _Att._ 14, 20, 3, _if he shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours_. #periī, sī mē aspexerit#, Pl. _Am._ 320, _I’m gone, if he lays eyes on me_.

1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated

## action (1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English:

as,

#reliquī, quī domī mānsērunt, sē atque illōs alunt#, 4, 1, 5, _the others, that stay at home, always support themselves and the above-mentioned also_. #sī quī aut prīvātus aut populus eōrum dēcrētō nōn stetit, sacrificiīs interdīcunt#, 6, 13, 6, _if any man or any community does not abide by their decree, they always debar them from sacrifices_. So also with #quom# or #cum#, #quotiēns#, #simul atque#, #ubī̆#. Compare 1618.

[Erratum: 1611 ... #nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs# auri]

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.

1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past action, completed before another past action expressed or understood: as,

#scrīpseram#, _I had written_. #Pyrrhī temporibus iam Apollō versūs facere dēsierat#, _Div._ 2, 116, _in Pyrrhus’s day Apollo had quite given up making poetry_. #mortuus erat Āgis rēx. fīlium relīquerat Leōtychidem#, N. 17, 1, 4, _Agis the king had died; he had left a son Leotychides_.

1615. The pluperfect often expresses a past resulting state: as,

#castra oportūnīs locīs erant posita#, 7, 69, 7, _the camp was pitched on favourable ground_. #ita ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs aestus complēverat, et onerāriās tempestās adflīctābat#, 4, 29, 2, _thus at one and the same time the tide had filled the men-of-war, and the gale of wind kept knocking the transports about_. This use is analogous to that of the perfect in 1608.

1616. In letters, the pluperfect is sometimes used to denote action occurring previous to the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

#ūnam adhūc ā tē epistolam accēperam#, _Att._ 7, 12, 1, _I have only had one letter from you thus far_. This use is analogous to that of the imperfect in 1601, and very often, where this pluperfect would be applicable, the perfect is used.

1617. The pluperfect is sometimes used where the perfect would be expected. Particularly so when it anticipates a past tense to follow in a new sentence: as, #quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat. neque tamen Catilīnae furor minuēbātur#, S. _C._ 24, 1, _this terrified the conspirators at first; and yet Catiline’s frenzy was not getting abated_. Verbs of saying are also often put in the pluperfect in subordinate sentences referring to a preceding statement: as, #Epidamniēnsis ille, quem dūdum dīxeram, adoptat illum puerum surruptīcium#, Pl. _Men. prol._ 57, _said man of Epidamnus that I named erewhile adopts said kidnapped boy_.

1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated

## action. In such sentences the preterite is preferred in English: as,

#hostēs ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, incitātīs equīs adoriēbantur#, 4, 26, 2, _every time the enemy caught sight of detached

## parties, they would always charge full gallop_. Compare the analogous

perfect in 1613.

[Erratum: 1617 ... #quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat# popularīs]

THE FUTURE TENSE.

1619. The future indicative expresses future action, either momentary or continuous: as,

#scrībam#, _I shall write_, _I shall be writing_, or _I will write_, _I will be writing_. The future commonly expresses either prediction, or will, determination, promise, threat: as, (_a._) #tuās litterās exspectābō#, _Att._ 5, 7, _I shall be on the lookout for letters from you_. (_b._) #vīvum tē nōn relinquam; moriēre virgīs#, _V._ 4, 85, _I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod_. But separate forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between _shall_ and _will_ in the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin: thus, in #occīdar equidem, sed victus nōn perībō#, Cornif. 4, 65, _I shall be murdered, to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man_, the difference between the prediction contained in _I shall_, and the determination contained in _I will_, cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative.

1620. The future is often used in diffident assertion, to express an assumption, a belief, conviction, or concession, of the speaker himself, without implying its universal acceptance: as,

#dīcēs#, _TD._ 2, 60, _you will say_. #dīcet aliquis#, _TD._ 3, 46, _somebody will say_ (1556). #dabit hoc Zēnōnī Polemō#, _Fin._ 4, 51, _Polemo will concede this point to Zeno_. #excūdent aliī spīrantia mollius aera, crēdō equidem#, V. 6, 847, _with greater grace, I well believe, shall others shape the bronze that breathes_. Particularly in conclusions: as, #sequētur igitur vel ad supplicium beāta vīta virtūtem#, _TD._ 5, 87, _happiness then will walk with goodness even to the scaffold_. Or in general truths: as, #cantābit vacuus cōram latrōne viātor#, J. 10, 22, _the pourë man whan he goth by the weye, bifore the thevës he may synge and pleye_.

1621. The future sometimes predicts that a thing not yet known to be true will prove to be true: as, #haec erit bonō genere nāta#, Pl. _Per._ 645, _this maid, you’ll find, is come of honest stock_, i.e. #esse reperiētur#. Compare the imperfect in 1598.

1622. In Plautus and Terence, the future is sometimes used in protestations, wishes, or thanks: as, #ita mē dī amābunt#, T. _Hau._ 749, _so help me heaven_. #dī tē amābunt#, Pl. _Men._ 278, _the gods shall bless thee_. Usually, however, the subjunctive: see 1542 and 1541.

1623. The future is sometimes used in questions of deliberation or appeal: as, #dēdēmus ergō Hannibalem?# L. 21, 10, 11, _are we then to surrender Hannibal?_ #hancine ego ad rem nātam memorābō?# Pl. _R._ 188, _am I to say that I was born for such a fate?_ Oftener the present subjunctive (1563), or sometimes the present indicative (1531).

1624. The future is sometimes used, particularly in the second person, to express an exhortation, a direction, a request, a command, or with #nōn# a prohibition: as,

#crās ferrāmenta Teānum tollētis#, H. _E._ 1, 1, 86, _tomorrow to Teanum you will take your tools_. #bonā veniā mē audiēs#, _DN._ 1, 59, _you will listen to me with kind indulgence_. #tū intereā nōn cessābis#, _Fam._ 5, 12, 10, _meantime you will not be inactive_. #haec igitur tibī̆ erunt cūrae#, _Fam._ 3, 9, 4, _you will attend to this then_, i.e. #haec cūrābis#.

1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences subordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future: as,

#profectō nihil accipiam iniūriae, sī tū aderis#, _Att._ 5, 18, 3, _I am sure I shall suffer no harm, if you are with me_. #ut mēd esse volēs, ita erō#, Pl. _Ps._ 239, _as you will have me be, so will I be_. #ut is quī audiet, cōgitet plūra, quam videat#, _DO._ 2, 242, _so that the hearer may imagine more than he sees_. But sometimes a present is used (1593).

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1626. The future perfect indicative expresses completed future action: as,

#scrīpserō#, _I shall have written_, or _I will have written_. The future perfect is very common in Latin, particularly in protasis with a relative, with #cum#, #ubī̆#, &c., with #antequam# or #priusquam#, with #ut (... ita)#, _as (... so)_, or with #sī#, to express action anterior in time to a future; in English, this future perfect is usually represented by a loose present or perfect: as, #quicquid fēceris, adprobābō#, _Fam._ 3, 3, 2, _whatever you do, I shall think right_. Examples will be given further on, in speaking of the complex sentence.

1627. It may be mentioned here that the future perfect in protasis and apodosis both denotes two actions occurring at one and the same time; these actions are usually identical: as,

#quī Antōnium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum cōnfēcerit#, _Fam._ 10, 19, 2, _the man that puts down Antony will put an end to this cruel war_, i.e. putting down Antony will be ending the war. #respīrārō, sī tē vīderō#, _Att._ 2, 24, 5, _I shall take breath again, if I set eyes on you_.

1628. The future perfect sometimes denotes a future resulting state: as,

#molestus certē e͡i fuerō#, T. _Andr._ 641, _at all events I shall have proved a bane to him_. #meum rē̆ī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō#, 4, 25, 3, _I will have my duty all done to country and commander too_.

1629. The future perfect is sometimes used to express rapidity of future

## action, often with the implication of assurance, promise, or threat: as,

#abierō#, Pl. _Most._ 590, _I’ll instantly be gone_. #iam hūc revēnerō#, Pl. _MG._ 863, _B._ 1066, _I’ll be back here again forthwith_. #prīmus impetus castra cēperit#, L. 25, 38, 17, _the first rush will see the camp carried_.

1630. The future perfect often denotes action postponed to a more convenient season, or thrown upon another person.

Often thus with #post#, #aliās#, and particularly #mox#: as, #vōbīs post nārrāverō#, Pl. _Ps._ 721, _I’ll tell you by and by_, i.e. I won’t tell you now. #ad frātrem mox īerō#, Pl. _Cap._ 194, _I’ll to my brother’s by and by_, i.e. not yet. #fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō#, L. 1, 23, 8, _that is a question for him to settle_, i.e. not me. Especially #vīderō#: as, #quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō#, _Fin._ 1, 35, _what the reason was, I won’t consider now_. #rēctē secusne aliās vīderimus#, _Ac._ 2, 135, _whether right or not, we will consider some other time_, i.e. never. #vōs vīderitis#, L. 1, 58, 10, _that is a question for you_, i.e. not me.

1631. The future perfect sometimes denotes action which will have occurred while something else takes place: as,

#nōn erō vōbīs morae: tībīcen vōs intereā hīc dēlectāverit#, Pl. _Ps._ 573^a, _I will not keep you long; meantime the piper will have entertained you here_. #tū invītā mulierēs, ego accīverō puerōs#, _Att._ 5, 1, 3, _do you, sir, invite the ladies, and I will meantime have fetched the children_.

1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future, especially in the first person singular in old Latin: as,

#ego mihī prōvīderō#, Pl. _Most._ 526, _I’ll look out for myself_. #erōs in obsidiōne linquet, inimīcūm animōs auxerit#, Pl. _As._ 280, _he’ll leave his owners in a state of siege, he’ll swell the courage of the enemy_. Similarly Cicero, in the protases #sī potuerō#, #sī voluerō#, #sī licuerit#, #sī placuerit#.

[Erratum: 1630 ... not yet. #fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō# . invisible]

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE WITH #sum#.

1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of #sum# expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time indicated by the tense of the verb: as,

#cum hōc equite pugnātūrī estis#, L. 21, 40, 10, _with this kind of cavalry are you going to fight_. #bellum scrīptūrus sum, quod populus Rōmānus cum Iugurthā gessit#, Sall. _I._ 5, 1, _I purpose to write the history of the war that the people of Rome carried on with Jugurtha_. #fīet illud, quod futūrum est#, _Div._ 2, 21, _whatever is destined to be, will be_. #Delphōs petiīt, ubī̆ columnās, quibus impositūrī statuās rēgis Perseī fuerant, suīs statuīs dēstināvit#, L. 45, 27, 6, _he went to Delphi, where he appropriated for his own statues the pillars on which they had intended to put statues of king Perses_.

THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past

## action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as,

#migrantīs cernās#, V. 4, 401, _you can descry them swarming out_ (1556). #comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat?# _V._ 5, 14, _he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared?_ (1565). See also 2075.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION.

1636. Two or more independent simple sentences may be coordinated to form a compound sentence in one of two ways: either without a connective, or with a connective.

What applies to the coordination of sentences, also applies to the coordination of the parts of sentences in abridged sentences (1057).

(A.) WITHOUT A CONNECTIVE.

1637. When simple sentences or parts of sentences are coordinated without any connective, this mode of arrangement is called _Asyndetic Coordination_ or _Asyndeton_.

Asyndeton, whether in unabridged or in abridged sentences, is more usual with three or more members than with two. It occurs particularly often in Plautus, Terence, Ennius, and Cato, also in Cicero, especially in his early works and letters.

1638. The sentences in which asyndeton occurs are commonly such as might be connected by words meaning _and_ or _but_; less often by words meaning _as_, _for_, &c. Asyndeton is especially common:

1639. (_a._) In animated narration of events happening at the same moment, in description, and in climaxes. Also in mention of colleagues in office, and in many set phrases and formulas: as,

#vēnī, vīdī, vīcī#, Caesar in Suet. _Iul._ 37, _came, saw, overcame_. #nostrī celeriter ad arma concurrunt, vāllum cōnscendunt#, 5, 39, 3, _our men rush speedily to arms, clamber up the palisade_. #huic s. c. intercessit C. Caelius, C. Pānsa, tribūnī pl.#, _Fam._ 8, 8, 7, _this decree of the senate was objected to by Caelius and Pansa, tribunes of the commons_. #hī ferre agere plēbem#, L. 3, 37, 7, _there were these people worrying and harrying the commons_ (1535).

1640. (_b._) In contrasts or antitheses: as,

#opīniōnis commenta dēlet diēs, nātūrae iūdicia cōnfirmat#, _DN._ 2, 5, _the fictions of speculation are swept away by time, but the judgements of nature are confirmed_. Particularly when either member is positive, the other negative: #vincere scīs, Hannibal, victōriā ūtī nescīs#, L. 22, 51, 4, _you know how to conquer, Hannibal, but not how to use victory_, says Maharbal after Cannae, 216 B.C.

1641. Asyndeton is very common with two or more imperatives: as, #ēgredere ex urbe, Catilīna, līberā rem pūblicam metū, in exsilium proficīscere#, _C._ 1, 20, _go forth from Rome, Catiline, relieve the commonwealth from its fear, depart into exile_. Particularly when the first is #age#, _come on_, _mark me_, or #ī#, _go_ (1572). But from Horace on, #ī nunc#, _go to now_, is followed by #et# with a second imperative in derisive orders. In old Latin, the imperatives may be joined by #et# or even #atque#.

1642. Asyndeton is also common with parentheses. These often take the place of a modern foot-note: as, #lēgātus capite vēlātō fīlō (lānae vēlāmen est) ‘audī, Iuppiter,’ inquit#, L. 1, 32, 6, _the envoy with his head covered with a ‘filum’ (that is to say a wrap of wool) says ‘bow down thine ear, Jupiter.’_ Parentheses however are often introduced, from Terence on by #nam#, and from Sallust and Cicero on, by #et#, #neque#, #autem#, #enim#, &c.

(B.) WITH A CONNECTIVE.

(1.) CONJUNCTIONS AS CONNECTIVES.

1643. Simple sentences or parts of sentences may be connected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.

(_a._) COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1644. Copulative conjunctions denote union, and connect both the sentences and their meaning. They are #et#, #-que#, #atque# or #ac#, _and_, and #neque# or #nec#, _neither_.

1645. (1.) #et#, _and_, is the commonest copulative, and connects either likes or unlikes; with two members only, it is either used between them, or is prefixed for emphasis to both: as,

#Dumnorīx apud Sēquanōs plūrimum poterat et Helvētiīs erat amīcus#, 1, 9, 3, _Dumnorix was very influential among the Sequani and a friend to the Helvetians_. #Dēmocritus alba discernere et ātra nōn poterat#, _TD._ 5, 114, _Democritus could not tell white and black apart_. #et discipulus et magister perhibēbantur inprobī#, Pl. _B._ 425, _both pupil and master were rated as knaves_.

1646. With three or more members, #et# is either used between the members or, frequently, prefixed for emphasis to all. Often, however, it is omitted throughout (1637), or a third member is appended by #-que# (1651): as,

#persuādent Rauricīs et Tulingīs et Latovicīs utī ūnā cum hīs proficīscantur#, 1, 5, 4, _they induce the Rauricans, Tulingans, and Latovicans to join them in their march_. #is et in custōdiam cīvēs Rōmānōs dedit et supplicātiōnem mihī̆ dēcrēvit et indicēs maximīs praemiīs adfēcit#, _C._ 4, 10, _this person voted in the first place to put Roman citizens in ward, then to decree a thanksgiving in my honour, and lastly to reward the informers with liberal gifts_.

1647. Two members belonging closely together as a pair, and connected by #et#, #atque#, or #-que#, are sometimes put asyndetically with another member or members: as,

#Aeduī ferunt sē dēiectōs prīncipātū; queruntur fortūnae commūtātiōnem et Caesaris indulgentiam in sē requīrunt#, 7, 63, 8, _the Aeduans set forth that they were cast down from the chief place; they complain of the change of fortune, and say they miss Caesar’s former kindness to them_. #nūntiātum est equitēs Ariovistī propius tumulum accēdere et ad nostrōs adequitāre; lapidēs in nostrōs conicere#, 1, 46, 1, _it was reported that Ariovistus’s cavalry were moving nearer the hillock and galloping up to the Romans; that they were throwing stones at our men_.

1648. #et# has sometimes the meaning of _also_ or of _and also_,

## particularly when there is a change of speakers, or before a pronoun:

as, #et hoc sciō#, Plin. _Ep._ 1, 12, 11, _I know that too_. Sometimes also after #vērum#, #nam#, and #simul#, especially when a pronoun follows. Not in Caesar.

1649. (2.) #-que#, _and_, combines members which belong together and make a whole, though they may be different or opposed to each other; the second member is often a mere appendage: as,

#rogat ōratque tē#, _RA._ 144, _he begs and entreats you_, or _he earnestly entreats you_. #lībertī servolīque nōbilium#, _RA._ 141, _the freedmen and slaves of the great_, or _retainers, bond and free_. #omnēs ea, quae bona videntur, sequuntur fugiuntque contrāria#, _TD._ 4, 12, _everybody runs after what seems good and avoids the opposite_. #-que# is usually put after the first word of the new member. It is

## particularly common in old or legal style.

1650. The combination #-que . . . -que#, _both . . . and_, is very common in poetry: as, #noctēsque diēsque#, E. in _CM._ 1, _both night and day_. In prose, it is used by Sallust when the first word is a pronoun: as, #mēque rēgnumque meum#, _I._ 10, 2, _both myself and my throne_; and by Livy to connect two relative sentences: as, #omnēs quīque Rōmae quīque in exercitū erant#, 22, 26, 5, _everybody, both people in Rome and people in the army_.

1651. After two members without a connective, a third member is sometimes appended by #-que#: as,

#satis habēbat hostem rapīnīs, pābulātiōnibus, populātiōnibusque prohibēre#, 1, 15, 4, _he was satisfied with keeping the enemy from plundering, foraging, and ravaging_.

1652. (3.) #atque#, or before any consonant except #h# often #ac#, _and_, _and besides_, adds something belonging essentially to what goes before, but more important as a supplement or extension; as,

#sē ex nāvī prōiēcit atque in hostēs aquilam ferre coepit#, 4, 25, 4, _he sprang overboard and furthermore proceeded to bear the eagle upon the enemy_. #magna dīs immortālibus habenda est atque huic Iovī Statōrī grātia#, _C._ 1, 11, _we owe a great debt of gratitude to the gods immortal in general, and to yon Jove the Stayer in particular_. #atque . . . atque# occurs for #et . . . et# once in Vergil, and once in Silius Italicus.

1653. #atque# is used in comparisons, after words of likeness and unlikeness: as,

#parī spatiō trānsmissus, atque ex Galliā est in Britanniam#, 5, 13, 2, _the journey across is just as long as it is from Gaul to Britain_. #īdemque iussērunt simulācrum Iovis facere maius et contrā, atque anteā fuerat, ad orientem convertere#, _C._ 3, 20, _and they furthermore gave orders to make a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one, and to turn it round to the east, the opposite of the way it originally faced_. Sometimes #et# is thus used after #alius#, #aliter#, #aequē#, #pariter#, &c.: see the dictionary.

1654. With adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, #atque# sometimes takes the place of #quam# _than_, when the first member of comparison is negative (1895): as, #amīcior mihi nūllus vīvit atque is est#, Pl. _Mer._ 897, _I have no greater friend alive than that man is_. So in Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Catullus, Vergil, rarely in Cicero, and in Horace even when the first member is positive.

1655. A sentence is often introduced by #et#, #-que#, or #atque#, where _but_ would be used in English, particularly so when a positive sentence follows a negative one: as,

#Sōcratēs nec patrōnum quaesīvit nec iūdicibus supplex fuit adhibuitque līberam contumāciam#, _TD._ 1, 71, _Socrates did not try to find an advocate nor bow the knee to his judges, but he was plain-spoken and defiant_. #nostrōrum mīlitum impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt#, 4, 35, 2, _the enemy could not stand the dash of our people, but turned their backs_. #hominis nē Graecī quidem ac Mȳsī potius#, _QFr._ 1, 1, 19, _a creature who is not even a Greek, but more of a Mysian_.

1656. Two sentences, one of which would ordinarily be introduced by a subordinating temporal conjunction, are sometimes, mostly in poetry, coordinated by #et# or #-que#: as, #dīxit et in silvam pennīs ablāta refūgit#, V. 3, 258, _she spake, and on her pinions sweeping, vanished to the wood_, i.e. #simul atque dīxit, refūgit#.

1657. (4.) #neque# or #nec#, _neither_, _nor_, _and . . . not_, _but . . . not_, is used as a negative copulative, sometimes as a negative adversative: as,

#opīniōnibus volgī rapimur in errōrem nec vēra cernimus#, _Leg._ 2, 43, _we are swept into error by the delusions of the world and cannot make out the truth_. #nōn enim temere nec fortuī̆tō creātī sumus#, _TD._ 1, 118, _for we were not created at adventure nor by accident_. #subsidiō suīs iērunt collemque cēpērunt, neque nostrōrum mīlitum impetum sustinēre potuērunt#, 7, 62, 8, _they went to aid their people and carried the hill, but they could not stand the fiery onset of our soldiers_. #neque# or #nec# is often repeated: as, #nec meliōrēs nec beātiōrēs esse possumus#, _RP._ 1, 32, _we can neither be better nor wiser_.

1658. #nec# is rarely used in the sense of #nē . . . quidem#, _not even_, _not . . . either_: as, #nec nunc#, H. _S._ 2, 3, 262, _not even now_, a free quotation of #nē nunc quidem#, T. _Eu._ 46. #nec . . . quidem#, _and not even_, is used once or twice for the common #ac nē . . . quidem# or #et nē . . . quidem#.

1659. Instead of #neque# or #nec#, _and not_, the copulatives #et#, #atque#, rarely #-que#, followed by a negative, #nōn#, #nēmō#, #nihil#, &c., are sometimes used in Cicero and Livy, less often in old Latin, and rarely in Caesar and Sallust: as, #quid tū fēcissēs, sī tē Tarentum et nōn Samarobrīvam mīsissem?# _Fam._ 7, 12, 1, _what would you have done, if I had sent you to Tarentum, and not to Samarobriva?_ Particularly thus #et nōn#, or oftener #ac nōn#, in corrections. But ordinarily #neque# or #nec# is preferred to #et nōn#, and #nec quisquam#, &c., to #et nēmō#, &c. (1445).

1660. When #neque# is followed by another negative, the assertion is positive (1452): as,

#nec hoc ille nōn vīdit#, _Fin._ 4, 60, _and the man did not fail to see this_. This positive use begins with Varro. In old Latin two negatives, and particularly #neque . . . haud#, are often used, as in old English, to strengthen the negation (1453).