Chapter 9 of 72 · 3988 words · ~20 min read

Part 9

#Caesar#, #Gāius#, #Sūlla#, men’s names; #pater#, _father_; #erus#, _master_; #scrība#, _scrivener_; #Tiberis#, _the Tiber_; #Aquilō#, _a Norther_; #Lūcrētilis#, _Mt. Lucretilis_.

406. The river names: #Allia#, #Dūria#, #Sagra#, #Lēthē#, and #Styx# are feminine. Also the mountain names #Alpēs#, plural, _the Alps_, and some Greek names of mountains in #-a# or #-ē#: as, #Aetna#, _Mt. Etna_; #Rhodopē#, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, as #Sōracte#.

FEMININES.

407. Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,

#Gāia#, #Glycerium#, women’s names; #mālus#, _apple-tree_; #quercus#, _oak_; #īlex#, _holm-oak_; #abiēs#, _fir_.

408. Masculine are: #bōlētus#, _mushroom_, #carduus#, _thistle_, #dūmī#, plural, _brambles_, #intibus#, _endive_, #iuncus#, _rush_, #oleaster#, _bastard olive_, #rubus#, _bramble_, #rumex#, _sorrel_, #scirpus#, _bulrush_, and rarely #fīcus#, _fig_. Also some of Greek origin: as, #acanthus#, #amāracus#, #asparagus#, and #crocus#. Neuter are: #apium#, _parsley_, #balsamum#, _balsam-tree_, #rōbur#, _heart of oak_, and some names with stems in #-er-# (573).

MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.

409. MOBILE NOUNS have different forms to distinguish sex: as, #Iūlius#, a man, _Julius_, #Iūlia#, a woman, _Julia_; #cervus#, _stag_, #cerva#, _hind_; #socer#, _father-in-law_, #socrus#, _mother-in-law_; #victor#, _conqueror_, #victrīx#, _conqueress_. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ (611), belong to this class.

410. Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be of _Common Gender_: as, #adulēscēns#, _young man_ or _young woman_; #dux#, _leader_; #īnfāns#, _baby_, _child_; and many other consonant stems or stems in #-i-#, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ (611), belong to this class.

411. EPICENES have one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus, #aquila#, _eagle_, is feminine, though it may denote a _he-eagle_ as well as a _she-eagle_; #anatēs#, _ducks_, feminine, includes _drakes_.

[Erratum: 411 ... as well as a _she-eagle_; _she-eagle_:]

NEUTERS.

412. Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,

#vīvere ipsum#, _mere living_; #istūc ‘taceō,’# _your ‘I won’t mention;’_ #longum vale#, _a long goodbye_; #o Graecum#, _Greek O_. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing with #littera# understood.

VARIABLE GENDER.

413. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as, #epulum#, neuter, #epulae#, feminine, _feast_. See #balneum#, #frēnum#, #jocus#, #locus#, #margarīta#, #ostrea#, #rāstrum#, in the dictionary.

NUMBER.

414. There are two numbers, the _Singular_ used of one, the _Plural_ of more than one.

415. #ambō#, _both_, and #duo#, _two_, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an old _Dual_ number, denoting two.

416. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.

Such are: proper names: as, #Cicerō#, _Cicero_; #Rōma#, _Rome_; material and abstract substantives: as, #oleum#, _oil_, #vīnum#, _wine_, #iūstitia#, _justice_; and gerunds: as, #regendī#, _of guiding_. For the occasional use of the plural, 1105-1110.

417. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.

Such are: names of persons of a class: as, #maiōrēs#, _ancestors_; #superī#, _the beings above_; #mānēs#, _ghosts_; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as, #Sāturnālia#, _festival of Saturn_; #kalendae#, _first of the month_; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as, #arma#, _arms_; #artūs#, _joints_; #quadrīgae#, _four-in-hand_; #exsequiae#, _funeral rites_; of some places: as, #Faleriī#; #Vēī#; #Pompēī#; #Athēnae#, _Athens_; #Alpēs#, _the Alps_.

418. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,

#aedis#, _temple_, #aedēs#, _house_; #auxilium#, _aid_, #auxilia#, _auxiliaries_; #carcer#, _jail_, #carcerēs#, _race-barriers_; #Castrum#, _Castle_, #castra#, _camp_; #comitium#, _meeting-place_, #comitia#, _election_; #cōpia#, _abundance_, #cōpiae#, _troops_; #facultās#, _ability_, #facultātēs#, _wealth_; #fīnis#, _end_, #fīnēs#, _boundaries_; #grātia#, _favour_, #grātiae#, _thanks_; #impedīmentum#, _hindrance_, #impedīmenta#, _baggage_; #littera#, _letter (of the alphabet)_, #litterae#, _epistle_; #rōstrum#, _beak_, #rōstra#, _speakers stand_. See also #aqua#, #bonum#, #fortūna#, #lūdus#, #opera#, #pars#, in the dictionary.

CASE.

419. Nouns have five cases, the _Nominative_, _Genitive_, _Dative_, _Accusative_, and _Ablative_.

The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation of _of_, the dative of _to_ or _for_, and the ablative of _from_, _with_, _in_, or _by_. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are called _Oblique Cases_.

420. Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called the _Locative_. Masculine stems in #-o-# and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called the _Vocative_.

421. The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except that #o# of #-o-# stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus: #-ae#, #-ī#, #-is#, #-ūs# (#-ĕī#), indicate respectively stems in #-ā-#, #-o-#, a consonant or #-i-#, #-u-#, and #-ē-#, as follows:

GENITIVE SINGULAR. GENITIVE PLURAL. STEMS IN.

-ae, mēnsae, _table_ -ārum, mēnsā-rum -ā-, mēnsā-, N. mēnsa -ī, dominī, _master_ -ōrum, dominō-rum -o-, domino-, N. dominus -is, rēgis, _king_ -cons. um, rēg-um -consonant, rēg-, N. rēx -is, cīvis, _citizen_ -ium, cīvi-um -i-, cīvi-, N. cīvis -ūs, portus, _port_ -uum, portu-um -u-, portu-, N. portus (ĕ̄ī, rĕ̄ī), _thing_ (-ērum, rē-rum) -ē, rē-, N. rēs

422. Gender nominatives usually add #-s# to the stem: as, #servo-s# or #servu-s#, _slave_, #rēx# (164, 1), #cīvi-s#, #portu-s#, #rē-s#. But stems in #-ā-# or in a continuous consonant (#-l-#, #-n-#, #-r-#, or #-s-#) have no #-s#: as, #mēnsa#, #cōnsul#, _consul_, #flāmen#, _special priest_, #pater#, _father_, #flōs#, _flower_.

423. Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: as #nōmen#, _name_; or a shortened stem: as, #exemplar#, _pattern_; but stems in #-o-# take #-m#: as, #aevo-m# or #aevu-m#, _age_. In the plural #-a# is always used: as, #rēgna#, _kingdoms_, #nōmina#, #cornua#, _horns_. For #-s# in adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see 612.

424. Gender accusatives singular add #-m# to the stem: as, #mēnsa-m#, #servo-m# or #servu-m#, #nāvi-m#, _ship_, #portu-m#, #die-m#. The consonant stems have the ending #-em#: as, #rēg-em#; most substantive stems in #-i-# and all adjectives also drop #-i-# and take #-em#: as, NĀV-EM, #trīst-em#, _sad_. In the plural, gender stems add #-s# before which the vowel is long: as, #mēnsā-s#, #servō-s#, #rēgē-s#, #nāvī-s# or #nāvē-s#, #portū-s#, #rē-s#.

425. The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as, #mēnsā#, #dominō#, #nāvī#, #portū#, #rē#. The ablative of consonant stems usually has #-e# (rarely #-ī-#, see 502): as, #patre#, _father_; and that of substantive #-i-# stems has #-e# more commonly than #-ī#: as, #nāve#.

426. The ablative singular of #-ā-# and #-o-# stems ended anciently in #-ād# and #-ōd# respectively: as, PRAIDAD, PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in #-īd#: as, AIRID, COVENTIONID. But #-d# is almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early (149).

427. The genitive plural adds #-rum# to #-ā-#, #-o-#, and #-ē-# stems: as, #mēnsā-rum#, #dominō-rum#, #rē-rum#; and #-um# to consonant stems, #-i-# stems, and #-u-# stems: as, #rēg-um#, #cīvi-um#, #portu-um#.

428. The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in #-ā-# and #-o-# take #-is#, which blends with the stem vowel (400): as, #mēnsīs#, #dominīs#; other stems have #-bus#, before which consonant stems are extended by #i#: as, #rēgi-bus#, #nāvi-bus#, #portu-bus# or #porti-bus#, #rē-bus#.

429. Some pronouns and a few adjectives have some peculiar case endings; see 618-694.

430. Many nouns are defective in case.

Thus, many monosyllables have no genitive plural: as, #aes#, _copper_, #cor#, _heart_, #cōs#, _whetstone_, #dōs#, _dowry_, #ōs#, _face_, #pāx#, _peace_, #pix#, _pitch_, #rōs#, _dew_, #sāl#, _salt_, #lūx#, _light_; many words have no genitive, dative, or ablative plural: as, #hiemps#, _winter_; especially neuters: as, #fār#, _spelt_, #fel#, _gall_, #mel#, _honey_, #pūs#, _matter_, #rūs#, _country_, #tūs#, _frankincense_. Many words in #-tu-# (#-su-#) have only the ablative (235). For #-ē-# stems, see 600. Other words more or less defective are #exlēx#, #exspēs#, #fās# and #nefās#, #īnfitiās#, #inquiēs#, #īnstar#, #luēs#, #nēmō#, #opis# and #vicis# genitives, #pondō# and #sponte# ablatives, #secus#, #vīs#. Many adjectives ‘of one ending’ want the nominative and accusative neuter plural and genitive plural.

431. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, #frūgī#, _thrifty_, an old dative; #nēquam#, _naughty_, an old accusative; #quot#, _how many_; #tot#, _so many_; and most numerals (637). These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive without varying their own forms.

THE SUBSTANTIVE

STEMS IN #-ā-#.

_The First Declension._

Genitive singular #-ae#, genitive plural #-ā-rum#.

432. Stems in #-ā-# include substantives and adjectives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.

433. Names of males are masculine (405): as, #scrība#, _writer_; also #Hadria#, _the Adriatic_, and rarely #damma#, _deer_, and #talpa#, _mole_.

434. The nominative of stems in #-ā-# ends in the shortened stem vowel #-a#.

435. Stems in #-ā-# are declined as follows:

+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+ | Example | mēnsa, _table_, mēnsā-, F. | Stem and | | | | case | | Stem | | endings | +----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+ | Singular | | | | _Nom._ | mēnsa _table_, _a_ (or _the_) _table_ | -a | | _Gen._ | mēnsae _a table’s_, _of a table_ | -ae | | _Dat._ | mēnsae _to_ or _for a table_ | -ae | | _Acc._ | mēnsam _a table_ | -am | | _Abl._ | mēnsā _from_, _with_, or _by a table_ | -ā | +----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+ | Plural | | | | _Nom._ | mēnsae _tables_ (or _the_) _tables_ | -ae | | _Gen._ | mēnsārum _tables’_, _of tables_ | -ārum | | _Dat._ | mēnsīs _to_ or _for tables_ | -īs | | _Acc._ | mēnsās _tables_ | -ās | | _Abl._ | mēnsīs _from_, _with_, or _by tables_ | -īs | +----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+

[Erratum: THE SUBSTANTIVE header supplied from Table of Contents]

SINGULAR CASES.

436. #-ā-# of the stem was shortened in the nominative and accusative singular at an early period (130, 132). A few apparent examples of the nominative in #-ā#, found in the oldest writers, seem due to metrical causes: as, #aquilā́# (Enn.). But #-ā# occurs in Greek proper names (445). A couple of old masculine nominatives in #-ās# are quoted (422): #pāricīdās#, _murderer_, and #hosticapās#, _taker of enemies_. In the accusative singular #-ām# occurs once: #inimīcitiā́m# (Enn.).

437. The genitive sometimes ends (1.) in #-āī# in poetry: as, #aulāī#, _of the hall_; #pīctāī#, _embroidered_; (2.) in #-ās#: as, #molās#, _of a mill_. This genitive is rare, but was always kept up in the word #familiās# with #pater# or #māter#, sometimes with #fīlius# or #fīlia#: #pater familiās#, _the goodman_, #māter familiās#, _the housewife_. But #pater familiae#, or in the plural #patrēs familiārum#, is equally common.

438. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ae#: as, #Rōmae#, _at Rome_, _in Rome_; #mīlitiae#, _in war_, _in the field_, _in the army_.

PLURAL CASES.

439. Compounds ending with #-cola#, _inhabiting_, and #-gena#, _born_, and patronymics, sometimes have the genitive plural in #-ū̆m# in poetry: as, #caelicolū̆m#, _of occupants of heaven_; #Graiugenū̆m#, _of Greek-born men_; #Aeneadū̆m#, _of Aeneas’s sons_; also names of peoples: as, #Lapithū̆m#, _of the Lapithae_. With these last #-ū̆m# occurs even in prose: as, #Crotōniātū̆m#, _of the Crotona people_. Others in #-ŭm# are #drachmŭm#, #amphorū̆m#.

440. In the dative and ablative plural, #-eis# sometimes occurs (443): as, #tueis ingrātieis#, _against your will_ (Plaut.). Nouns in #-ia# have rarely a single #ī#: as, #pecūnīs#, _by moneys_ (Cic.); #taenīs#, _with fillets_ (Verg.); #nōnīs Iūnīs#, _on the fifth of June_ (Cic.). See 24.

441. In the dative and ablative plural, words in #-āia#, or plural #-āiae#, have #-āīs#, and those in #-ēia# have #-ēīs# (127, 7): as KAL. MAIS, _on the calends of May_ (inscr.); #Bāīs#, _at Bajae_ (Hor.); #plēbēīs#, _plebeian_.

442. The dative and ablative plural sometimes end in #-ābus#,

## particularly in #deābus#, _goddesses_, and #fīliābus#, _daughters_, to

distinguish them from #deīs#, _gods_, and #fīliīs#, _sons_. #ambae#, _both_, and #duae#, _two_, regularly have #ambābus# and #duābus#.

443. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

G. #-ai#, which may be monosyllabic or disyllabic in pronunciation: PVLCHRAI; LAVERNAI; #-āēs#, after 80 B.C., chiefly in proper names, mostly Greek: HERAES; rarely in appellatives: DOMINAES; #-ēs#: MINERVES; #-ā#, VESTA; COIRA, i.e. #Cūrae#. D. #-ai#, in all periods (96): FILIAI; #-ā#: FORTVNA; #-ē# (96): FORTVNE. Ac. #-a# (61): TAVRASIA; MAGNA SAPIENTIA. Ab. #-ād# (426): PRAIDAD. Loc. #-ai#: ROMAI. Plural: N. #-ai# (96): TABELAI DATAI; #-ā#, rare: MATRONA; #-ē#, rare and provincial (96): MVSTE, i.e. #mystae#. D. and Ab. #-eis#, very often (98): SCRIBEIS; D. #-ās#, once: DEVAS CORNISCAS, i.e. #dīvīs Cornīscīs#. Ab. #-ēs# once (98): NVGES, i.e. #nūgīs#.

[Erratum: 443 ... TABELAI DATAI; #-ā#, rare DATAI:]

GREEK NOUNS.

444. Greek appellatives always take a Latin form in the dative singular and in the plural, and usually throughout: thus, #poēta#, M., _poet_, and #aula#, F., _court_, are declined like #mēnsa#. Masculines have sometimes a nominative #-ēs# and accusative #-ēn#: as, #anagnōstēs#, _reader_, #anagnōstēn#; rarely an ablative #-ē#: as, #sophistē#, _sophist_. Greek feminines in #-ē# sometimes have Greek forms in late writers: as, N. #grammaticē#, _philology_, G. #grammaticēs#, Ac. #grammaticēn#, Ab. #grammaticē# (Quintil.).

445. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative masculine #-ās#, #-ēs#: as, #Prūsiās#, #Atrīdēs#; feminine #-ā#: as, #Gelā#, #Phaedrā#; #-ē#: as, #Circē#. Genitive feminine #-ēs#: as, #Circēs#. Accusative masculine #-ān#, #-dēn#: as, #Aenēān#, #Pēlīdēn#; feminine #-ēn#: as, #Circēn#. Ablative feminine #-ē#: as, #Tīsiphonē#. Vocative #-ā# or #-a#: as, #Atrīdā#, #Atrīda#, #Thyesta#; #-tē#: as, #Boōtē#; #-dē#: as, #Aeacidē#.

STEMS IN #-o-#.

_The Second Declension._

Genitive singular #-ī#, genitive plural #-ō-rum#.

446. Stems in #-o-# include substantives and adjectives, masculine or neuter.

447. Most names of plants in #-us# are feminine (407); also the following: #alvos# or #alvus#, _belly_, #colus#, _distaff_, #domus#, _house_, #humus#, _ground_, #vannus#, _fan_.

448. The nominative of masculines ends, including the stem vowel, in #-o-s#, or usually #-u-s#; some end in #-r#; neuters end in #-o-m#, or usually #-u-m#.

449. (1.) Stems in #-o-# with the nominative in #-us# or #-um# are declined as follows:

+--------+----------------------------+------------+--------------+ |Examples| dominus, _master_, |rēgnum, | Stem | | | domino-, M. | _kingdom_,| and case | | Stems | |rēgno-, Ne. | endings | +--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+ |Singular| | | M. | Ne. | | _Nom._ | dominus, _a_ (or _the_) | rēgnum | -us | -um | | | _master_ | | | | | _Gen._ | dominī, _a master’s_ | rēgnī | -ī | -ī | | _Dat._ | dominō, _to_ | | | | | | or _for a master_ | rēgnō | -ō | -ō | | _Acc._ | dominum, _a master_ | rēgnum | -um | -um | | _Abl._ | dominō, _from_, _with_, | rēgnō | -ō | -ō | | | or _by a master_ | | | | | _Voc._ | domine, _master_ | | -e | | +--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+ | Plural | | | | | | _Nom._ | dominī, (_the_) _masters_ | rēgna | -ī | -a | | _Gen._ | dominōrum, _of masters_ | rēgnōrum | -ōrum| -ōrum | | _Dat._ | dominīs, _to_ or | | | | | | _for masters_ | rēgnīs | -īs | -īs | | _Acc._ | dominōs, _masters_ | rēgna | -ōs | -a | | _Abl._ | dominīs, _from_, _with_, | rēgnīs | -īs | -īs | | | or _by masters_ | | | | +--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+

450. #deus#, _god_, is declined as follows: N. #deus#, G. #deī#, D. and Ab. #deō#, Ac. #deum#. Plural: N. #deī#, #di͡i#, commonly #dī#, G. #deōrum# or #deŭm#, D. and Ab. #deīs#, #di͡is#, commonly #dīs#, Ac. #deōs#.

451. (2.) Stems in #-o-# with the nominative in #-r# or in #-āius#, #-ēius#, or #-ōius# are declined as follows:

SINGULAR CASES.

452. #-us# and #-um# were originally #-os# and #-om#. But #-us# was used in the earliest times, #-um# somewhat later, and both became prevalent between 218 and 55 B.C. (107, _c_). After #u# or #v#, however, the #-os# and #-om# were retained till toward 50 A.D. (107, _c_); also after #qu#; but #-cus# and #-cum# often displaced #-quos# and #-quom# (157): as, #equos#, #equom#, or #ecus#, #ecum#, _horse_; #antīquos#, #antīquom#, or #antīcus#, #antīcum#, _ancient_. In the vocative #-e# was always used, and is retained by Plautus in #puere#, _thou boy_.

453. Words in #-rus# with a long penult, as, #sevērus#, _stern_, and the following substantives with a short penult are declined like #domimus# (449):

erus, _master_ iūniperus, _juniper_ numerus, _number_ umerus, _shoulder_ uterus, _womb_

For adjective stems in #-ro-# with nominative #-rus#, see 615.

454. Masculine stems in #-ro-# preceded by a short vowel or a mute, except those above (453), drop #-os# in the nominative, and have no vocative: as, stem #puero-#, N. #puer#, _boy_ (111, _b_). Most masculines in #-ro-# have a vowel before #r# only in the nominative #-er# (111, _b_): as #agro-#, N. #ager#. But in compounds ending in #-fer# and #-ger#, _carrying_, _having_, and the following, the vowel before #-r# is a part of the stem, and is found in all the cases:

adulter, Līber, _paramour_, _Liber_ gener, socer, _son-in-law_, _father-in-law_ puer, vir, _boy_, _man_ līberī, vesper, _children_, _evening_

For #Mulciber#, #Hibēr#, and #Celtibē̆r#, see the dictionary; for adjective stems in #-ro-# with nominative #-r#, see 616. Once #socerus# (Pl.).

455. #nihilum#, _nothing_, usually drops #-um# in the nominative and accusative, becoming #nihil# or #nīl#, and similarly #nōn#, _not_, may be for #noenum#, _naught_ (99). #famul# is used for #famulus#, _slave_, by Ennius and Lucretius, once each (111, _b_).

456. Substantives ending in #-ius# or #-ium# (but never adjectives), have commonly a single #-ī# in the genitive singular: as,

#Vergilius#, G. #Vergílī# (87); #fīlius#, _son_, G. #fīlī#; #cōnūbium#, _marriage_, G. #cōnūbī#.

457. Vergil has once a genitive #-iī#, #fluviī#, _river’s_. Propertius has #-iī# two or three times; with Ovid, Seneca, and later writers, #-iī# is common: as, #gladiī#, _of a sword_; even in proper names, which were the last to take #-iī#: as, #Tarquiniī#; but family names almost always retain a single #-ī#. Locatives have #-iī#: as, #Iconiī# (Cic.).

458. Proper names ending in #-āius#, #-ēius#, or #-ōius# have #-āī#, #-ēī#, or #-ōī# in the genitive and vocative singular and nominative plural, and #-āīs#, #-ēīs#, or #-ōīs# in the dative and ablative plural (127, 7): as,

#Gāius#, G., V., and N. Pl. #Gāī#, D. and Ab. Pl. #Gāīs#; #Pompēī#, #Pompēīs#; #Bōī#, #Bōīs#. In verse #-ēī# of the vocative is sometimes made one syllable (120): as, #Pompe͡i#; #Volte͡i# (Hor.).

459. Latin proper names in #-ius# have the vocative in #-ī# only: as,

#Vergilius#, V. #Vergílī#; #Mercurius#, V. #Mercúrī# (87). So, also, #fīlius#, #fīlī#, _son_; #genius#, #genī#, _good angel_; #volturius#, #volturī#, _vulture_; #meus#, #mī#, _my_.

460. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ī#: as, #Ephesī#, _in Ephesus_; #humī#, _on the ground_; #bellī#, _in war_.

[Erratum: 455 ... #noenum#, _naught_ (99). final . invisible]

PLURAL CASES.

461. In the nominative plural masculine, #-ei# sometimes occurs (465): as, #nātei geminei#, _twins born_ (Plaut.); #-eis# or #-īs# is rare (465): as, #Sardeis#, _Sardians_; #oculīs#, _eyes_; not infrequently #hīsce#, _these here_ (Plaut.); masculine stems in #-io-# have rarely a single #-ī#: as, #fīlī#, _sons_. For #-āī#, #-ēī#, or #-ōī#, see 458. The nominative and accusative plural of neuters ended anciently in #-ā# (130, 2). But #-ā# was shortened at an early period.

462. In the common genitive plural #-ōrum#, the #-o-# of the stem is lengthened (123). A genitive plural in #-ū̆m# (or, after #v#, in #-ŏ̄m#) is common from #dīvos#, #dīvus#, and #deus#, _god_; from #dēnārius#, _denar_, #modius#, _peck_, #nummus#, _money_, #sēstertius#, _sesterce_, and #talentum#, _talent_, with numerals; and from cardinals and distributives (641): as, #dīvŏ̄m#, #divū̆m#, #deū̆m#; #mīlle sēstertiŭm#; #ducentū̆m#; #bīnŭm#. The #u# was originally long (132); but it was shortened before 100 A.D.

463. Other masculine substantives have occasionally this genitive: as, #līberū̆m#, _of children_; particularly in set phrases and in verse: as, #centuria fabrū̆m#, _century of mechanics_; #Graiū̆m#, _of Greeks_. With neuter substantives, as #oppidū̆m#, for #oppidōrum#, _of towns_, and with adjectives it is rare.

464. In the dative and ablative plural, #-eis# is rare (98): as, #Epidamnieis# (Plaut.). Stems in #-io-# have rarely a single #ī#: as, #fīlīs#, _for sons_. For #-āīs#, #-ēīs#, or #-ōīs#, see 458. #ambō#, _both_, and #duo#, _two_, have #ambōbus# and #duōbus# (640).

465. Other case forms are found in inscriptions as follows:

N. #-os#, #-om#, with #o# retained (107, _c_): FILIOS, TRIBVNOS; POCOLOM; in proper names #-o# (66): CORNELIO; #-u#, rare: LECTV; #-is#, or #-i#, for #-ius# (135, 2): CAECILIS; CLAVDI; neuter #-o# (61): POCOLO. G. oldest form #-ī#: VRBANI; #-ei#, from 146 B.C. to Augustus: POPVLEI; CONLEGEI; #-iī# from stems in #-io-# not before Tiberius: COLLEGII. Ac. #-om# (107, _c_): VOLCANOM; #-o# (61): OPTVMO VIRO; #-u#: GREMIV. Ab. #-od#, not after 186 B.C. (426): POPLICOD, PREIVATOD. Plural: N. #-ei#, always common (98): VIREI; FILEI; -ēs, #-eis#, #-īs# (461): ATILIES; COQVES; LEIBEREIS, i.e. #līnerī#; MAGISTREIS; MAGISTRIS; #-ē#, rare: PLOIRVME, i.e. #plūrumī#. G. #-ōm# or #-ō# (61) ROMANOM; ROMANO; #-ōro# (61): DVONORO. D. and Ab. #-eis#, the only form down to about 130 B.C. (98): ANTIQVEIS; PROXSVMEIS; #-ēs#, twice: CAVATVRINES.

[Erratum: 465 ... COLLEGII. Ac. #-om# (107, _c_): VOLCANOM (107 _c_)]

GREEK NOUNS.

466. Greek stems in #-o-# are generally declined like Latin nouns, but in the singular sometimes have #-os# in the nominative, #-on# in the nominative or accusative neuter, rarely #-ū# in the genitive, or #-ō# in the feminine ablative. Plural, nominative sometimes #-oe#, masculine or feminine, and genitive, chiefly in book-titles, #-ōn#: as,

Nominative #Īlios#; #Īlion# or #Īlium#. Genitive #Menandrū#, _of Menander_. Ablative feminine adjective #lectīcā octōphorō#, _in a sedan with eight bearers_. Plural: nominative #Adelphoe#, _the Brothers_; #canēphoroe#, _basket-bearers_, feminine. Genitive #Geōrgicōn liber#, _book of Husbandry_. For #Androgeōs#, #Athŏ̄s# and #Panthūs#, see the dictionary.

CONSONANT STEMS.

_The Third Declension._

Genitive singular #-is#, genitive plural #-um#.

467. Consonant stems are mostly substantive, and include both gender words and neuters.

Comparatives and a few other words are adjective. For the gender of substantives, see 570.

468. The nominative of consonant stems ends in #-s# (or #-x#); or in #-n# (#-ō#), #-l#, #-r#, or #-s# of the stem, rarely in #-c# or #-t#.

469. Most consonant stems have one syllable less in the nominative than in the genitive.

Such words are called _Imparisyllabic_ words or _Imparisyllables_: as, nominative #rēx#, _king_, one syllable; genitive #rēgis#, _of a king_, two syllables.

470. Many consonant stems have a double form: one form used in the nominative singular (neuters have this form in the accusative also), another form in the other cases: as,

#iūdex#, _juror_, stem of nominative #iūdec-# (136, 2), of other cases #iūdic-#; #flāmen# (103, _a_), _special priest_, #flāmin-# (103, _a_); #virgō#, _maid_, #virgin-# (105, _g_); #auceps# (107, _d_), _fowler_, #aucup-# (104, _c_); #ebur# (107, _c_), _ivory_, #ebor-#; #genus#, _race_, #gener-# (145; 107, _c_); #trīstius# (346), _sadder_, #trīstiōr-# (346); #corpus# (107, _c_), _body_, #corpor-# (105, _i_); #pater# (135, 2), _father_, #patr-#. In such instances the stem of the oblique cases is taken for brevity to represent both forms of the stem.

I. MUTE STEMS.