Part 6

(7.) In the imperial age, #ss# after long vowels and diphthongs was regularly changed to #s#: as, #clausī#, _I closed_; #ūsus#, _used_ (166, 2); but always #ēsse#, _to eat_ (769); #ll# changed to #l# after diphthongs: as, #caelum#, _chisel_ (166, 6); also when preceded by #ī# and followed by #i#: as, #vīlla#, _country-place_, but #vīlicus# (adject.); #mille#, _thousand_, but #mīlia# (642). Elsewhere #ll# was retained after long vowels: as, #pūllus# (166, 7), _clean_; #rāllum#, _ploughshare_, from #rādō# with suffix #-lo-# (209). In Cicero’s time (Quint. 1, 7, 20) the spelling was still #caussa# (155, _b_), _matter_; #cāssus# (930), _fallen_; #divīssiō# (cf. 912), _division_. Vergil also, according to Quintilian, retained the doubled consonants, and the best manuscripts of both Vergil and Plautus frequently show #ll# and #ss# for later #l# and #s#, as do inscriptions: as, PROMEISSERIT, _he might have promised_ (49 B.C.); ACCVSSASSE, _to have accused_.

(8.) After a long vowel #d# was dropped before consonant #u# (#v#): as, #svāvis#, _sweet_, for #*svādvis# from #svād-# (cf. #svādeō#).

(9.) #r# before #st# was dropped: as, #tostus#, _roasted_ (1004) for #*torstus# from the stem #tors-# (cf. #torreo# with assimilated #-rs-#, 166, 8).

(10.) #-rts-# changed to #-rs#: as, #arsī#, _I burnt_, for #*artsī# (1000). #-rcsc-# changed to #-sc-#: as, #poscō#, _I demand_, for #*porcscō# (834).

(11.) In #ipse#, _self_, for #*is-pse#, an #s# has disappeared before #-ps-#

(12.) #d# (#t#) disappears between #r# and #c#: as, #cor-culum# for #cord(i)-culum# (275).

171. FINAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant: as, #es# for #*es-s#, _thou art_, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable; and the following cases of assimilation: #ter# for #*terr# from #*ters# (cf. #terr-uncius#, _a quarter of an_ #ās#, _a farthing_, 1272, for #*ters-uncius#, 166, 8); #fār#, _spelt_, for #*farr#, from #*fars# (489); #fel#, _gall_, for #*fell#, from #*fels# (482); in #mīles#, _soldier_, for #*mīless# from #*mīlets# (cf. Gen. #mīlitis#, 477) the final syllable is still long in Plautus. #hoc#, _this_, for #*hocc# from #*hod-c(e)#(the neuter #*hod# from the stem #ho-#, as #istud#, #illud# (107, _c_) from #isto-#, #illo-#) counts as a long syllable even in classical poetry.

(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, final #t# is dropped in #lac#, _milk_ (478); final #d# in #cor#, _heart_ (476).

(3.) When final #s# was preceded by #r# or #l#, it was assimilated to these liquids, and final #rr# and #ll# were then simplified to #r# and #l#. See the examples under (1). Wherever final #-rs# and #-ls# appear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #puls#, _pottage_, for #*pults# (533); #pars#, _part_, for #*parts# (533); all with syncope (111) of the vowel #i# in the nominative #sg#.

(4.) Original final #ns# was changed to #s# and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #sanguīs#, _blood_ (2452), for #*sanguins# from the stem #sanguin-# (486). Wherever final #-ns# appears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #ferēns#, _carrying_, for #*ferents#, from the stem #ferent-#; #frōns#, _foliage_, for #*fronds#, from the stem #frond-#.

(5.) A dental mute before final #s# is dropped: as, #hērēs#, _heir_, for #*hērēds# (475); #virtūs#, _virtue_, for #*virtūts# (477); #nox#, _night_, for #*nocts# (533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as, #fornāx# (#x# = #cs#), _furnace_, from the stem #fornāc-# (531); #lēx#, _law_, from the stem #leg-# (472); #urbs#, _city_, from the stem #urb-# (480); #ops# from the stem #op-#, _help_ (480).

[Errata: 170.2 ... #iūdex#, _judge_, for #iūsdex#; #iūsdex#, #abin#, _goest thou?_ for #abisn(e)#; #abisn(e)#,]

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.

172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is called _Anaptyxis_ (Greek ἀναπτύσσειν, _unfold_). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110, 111).

(1.) The suffix #-clo-# (242), changed to #-culo-#, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix #-culo-# (267): as, #pōculum#, _cup_, for #pōclum# (Plaut.); #vehiculum#, _carriage_, for #vehiclum# (Plaut.). But #-clo-# is more common in Plautus than #-culo-#, especially after long vowels. The suffixes #-blo-# (245), and #-bli-# (294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of the #l# (60): as, #stabulum#, _resting-place_; #stabilis#, _steady_. The group #-ngl-# also changes to #-ngul-#: as, #angulus# (164, 6).

(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as, #mina#, _mina_, for #*mna# (μνᾶ); and in Old Latin #drachuma# (Plaut.) for later #drachma#, _drachma_ (δραχμή); #techina#, _trick_, from Greek τέχνη; #Tecumēssa# for #Tecmēssa# (Τέκμησσα).

(3.) Before syllabic (83) #l# and #r# a vowel is developed (111, _b_): as, #íncertus#, _uncertain_, for #*íncr̥tus#; #fácultās#, _capability_, for #fácl̥tās#. Likewise before syllabic #n# (139).

DISSIMILATION.

173. (1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables #l# is sometimes changed to #r#: as, #caeruleus#, _sky-blue_, for #*caeluleus#, from #caelum#; #Parīlia#, by the side of #Palīlia#, from #Palēs#; the suffix #-clo-# appears as #-cro-# after an #l#: as, #lavācrum#, _bath_, #simulācrum#, _image_ (241); the suffix #-āli-# under like conditions changes to #-āri-#; as, #molāre#, _of a mill_ (313), but #augurāle#, _of an augur_.

(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as, #praestīgiae#, _jugglery_, for #praestrīgiae#. This also applies to the spirant #s# followed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfects #stetī#, for #*stestī#; #spopondī#, for #*spospondī# (859), where the second syllable, and in #quisquiliae#, _sweepings_, for #*squisquiliae#, where the first syllable was lightened.

CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.

174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:

(1.) The final #-ā# of #ā-#stems, by analogy to the more frequent #-o-#stems, usually changed to #-o#, which in atonic syllables became #-i# (105): as, #āli-ger#, _winged_, for #*ālo-ger# from #ālā-#.

(2.) Stems in #-on-# substitute #-o-# for #-on-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #homi-cída#, _murderer_, for #*homo-cīda# (105) from #homon-# (Nom. #homō#).

(3.) Some stems in #-s# substitute #-o-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #foedi-fragus#, _treaty-breaking_, for #*foedo-fragus# from the stem #foedos-# (Nom. #foedus#, Gen. #foederis#; 154).

[In section 174, anomalous forms such as #-o-#stems (without space) are in the original.]

SYLLABLES.

175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the _Ultima_; the last syllable but one is called the _Penult_; the last syllable but two is called the _Antepenult_.

176. The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.

LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.

177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by #x# or #z#: as,

#dūcēbās#; #volvunt#. In #dūcēbās# both the vowels and the syllables are long; in #volvunt# the vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to be _long by position_. #h# does not count as a consonant (58) and #qu# (or #qv#, 27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, in #adhūc# and #aqua# the first syllable is short.

178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute or #f# followed by #l# or #r# is not long: as #tenebrae#. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: as #obruit#.

LOSS OF SYLLABLES.

179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is called _Haplology_.

Thus, #sēmodius# for #sēmimodius#, _half a bushel_; #calamitōsus# for #*calamitātōsus#, from the stem #calamitāt-# (262) and suffix #-oso-# (336); #voluntārius#, for #voluntātārius# (262, 309); #cōnsuētūdō#, for #cōnsuētitūdō# (264). See also 255; 379.

B. FORMATION.

180. FORMATION is the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.

181. A word containing a single stem is called a _Simple_ word: as, #magnus#, _great_, stem #magno-#; #animus#, _soul_, stem #animo-#. A word containing two or more stems is called a _Compound_ word: as, #magnanimus#, _great-souled_, stem #magnanimo-#.

182. Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, in #ductōrī#, _for a leader_, the root is #duc-#, _lead_, the stem is #ductōr-#, _leader_, and #-ī# is the inflection ending, meaning _for_.

ROOTS.

183. A ROOT is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.

184. A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thus #iug-#, _yoke_, does not mean _a yoke_ nor _I yoke_; it merely _suggests_ something about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as, #iug-u-m#, _a yoke_.

185. Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.

186. Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.

187. A root sometimes has two or more forms: as, #fīd-# (for #feid-#), #foed-#, #fid-#, _trust_; #gen-#, #gn-#, _sire_; #tol#, #tl#, _bear_; see 135, 145.

Thus, #fīd-# is found in #fīd-us#, _trusty_, #fīd-ūcia#, _confidence_, #fīd-ūciō#, _I pledge_, #fīd-ūciārius#, _in trust_, #fīd-ere#, _put trust in_, #fīd-ēns#, _courageous_, #fīd-entia#, _courage_; #foed-# in #foed-us#, _pledge of faith_, #foed-erātus#, _bound by a pledge of faith_; #fid-# in #fid-ēs#, _faith_, #fid-ēlis#, _faithful_, #fid-ēliter#, _faithfully_, #fid-ēlitās#, _faithfulness_, #per-fid-us#, _faithless_, #per-fid-ia#, _faithlessness_, #per-fid-iōsus#, _full of faithlessness_, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly. #gen-# in #gen-itor#, _sire_, #gn-# in #gi-gn-ere#, _beget_, #gn-ā-# in #gnā-tus#, _son_.

188. A root ending in a vowel is called a _Vowel Root_: as, #da-#, _give_; a root ending in a consonant is called a _Consonant Root_: as, #rup-#, _break_. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √#teg-#, to be read ‘root #teg-#.’

189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is called _Reduplication_: as, #mur-mur#, _murmur_; #tur-tur#, _turtle-dove_; #po-pul-us#, _people_; #ul-ul-āre#, _yell_.

PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.

190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in #-āre# and #-īre#.

Thus, from #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, _speak_, are formed #ōrā-tor#, _speaker_, and #ōrā-tiō#, _speech_; from #audī-#, stem of #audīre#, _hear_, are formed #audī-tor#, _hearer_, and #audī-tiō#, _hearing_.

191. Verbs in #-ēre#, and those in #-āre# and #-īre# in which the #ā# or #ī# is confined to the present system (868, 874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

#doc-tor#, _teacher_, #doc-umentum#, _lesson_, #doc-ilis#, _teachable_ (√#doc-#, #docēre#); #sec-tor#, _cutter_ (√#sec-#, #secāre#); #dom-itor#, _tamer_, #dom-inus#, _master_, #dom-itus#, _tamed_ (√#dom-#, #domāre#); #sarc-ina#, _package_ (√#sarc-#, #sarcīre#).

192. But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ēre#: as, #monē-ta#, _mint_ (#monēre#); #acē-tum#, _vinegar_ (#acēre#); #virē-tum#, _a green_ (#virēre#); #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādēre#); #habē-na#, _rein_ (#habēre#); #egē-nus#, _needy_ (#egēre#); #verē-cundus#, _shamefast_ (#verērī#); #valē-tūdō#, _health_ (#valēre#).

193. Verbs in #-ere#, and particularly such as have a present in #-nō#, #-scō#, #-tō# or #-iō# (832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

#vic-tor#, _conqueror_ (√#vic-#, #vincere#); #incrē-mentum#, _growth_ (√#crē-#, #crēscere#); #pul-sus#, _a push_ (√#pol-#, #pellere#).

194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as, #lecti-stern-ium#, _a couch-spreading_ (#sternere#, √#ster-#, #strā-#); #vinc-ibilis#, _conquerable_ (#vincere#, √#vīc-#); #pāsc-uum#, _pasture_ (#pāscere#, √#pā-#); #pect-en#, _comb_ (#pectere#, √#pec-#); #fall-āx#, _deceitful_ (#fallere#, √#fal-#).

STEMS.

195. A STEM is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a _Formative Suffix_.

Thus, in the word #ducis#, _leader’s_, the stem, which is identical with the root #duc-#, means _leader_; a root thus serving as a stem is called a _Root Stem_; in #ductōris#, _leader’s_, the stem is formed by the formative suffix #-tōr-#, denoting the agent, attached to the √#duc-#.

196. New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, from #ōrātōr-#, _speaker_, is formed by the addition of the suffix #-io-#, a new stem #ōrātōr-io-#, N. #ōrātōrius#, _speaker’s_.

197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.

PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.

198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called a _Primitive_. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called a _Denominative_.

(_a._) Primitives: from √#rēg-#, #reg-#, _guide_: #rēx#, stem #rēg-#, _king_; #rēgnum#, stem #rēg-no-#, _kingdom_; #rēctus#, stem #rēc-to-#, _guided_; #regere#, stem #reg-e-#, _guide_. From #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, _speak_: #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-#, _speaker_; #ōrātiō#, stem #ōrā-tiōn-#, _speech_.

(_b._) Denominatives: from noun stem #rēg-#, _king_: #rēgīna#, stem #rēg-īnā#, _queen_; #rēgius#, stem #rēg-io-#, #rēgālis#, stem #rēg-āli-#, _royal_. From #ōrātiōn-#, _speech_: #ōrātiūncula#, stem #ōrātiūn-culā-#, _little speech_. From #rēg-no-#, _kingdom_: #rēgnāre#, stem #rēgnā-#, _to rule_. From #iūs#, _law_: #iūrāre#, _swear_, stem #iūrā# (154).

[Errata: 198a ... #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-# #ōrā tōr-# with invisible hyphen 198b ... #iūrāre#, _swear_, stem #iūrā# _stem_ #iūrā# in italics]

(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.

WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

199. Some roots are used as noun stems: as, #duc-#, N. #dux#, _leader_ (√#duc-#, _lead_); #rēg-#, N. #rēx#, _king_ (√#rēg-#, _guide_);

## particularly at the end of a compound: as, #con-iug-#, N. #coniūnx#,

_yoke-fellow_, _spouse_ (#com-#, √#jug-#, _yoke_); #tubi-cin-#, N. #tubicen#, _trumpeter_ (#tubā-#, √#can-#, _play_).

WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

200. SIMPLE formative suffixes are vowels: as, #-ā-#, #-o-#, #-i-#, #-u-#; also #-io-#, #-uo-#, (#-vo-#); or such little syllables as #-mo-#, #-min-#; #-ro-#, #-lo-#; #-ōn-#; #-no-#, #-ni-#, #-nu-#; #-to-#, #-ti-#, #-tu-#; #-ter-#, #-tōr-#; #-unt-# (#-nt-#); #-es-# (#-er-#), #-ōr-#; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form. COMPOUND suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as, #-tōr-io-#, #-ti-mo-#, &c., &c.

201. The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

fug-ā- fuga, _flight_ +fug-+, _fly_ fīd-o- fīdus, _trusty_ +fīd-+, _trust_ ac-u- acus, _pin_ +ac-+, _point_ od-io- odium, _hate_ +od-+, _hate_ pluv-iā- pluvia, _rain_ +plov-+, _wet_ ar-vo- arvom, _tilth_ +ar-+, _till_ al-vo- alvos, _belly_ +al-+, _nurture_ sal-vo- salvos, _safe_ +sal-+, _safe_ fā-mā- fāma, _tale_ +fā-+, _tell_ teg-min- tegmen, _cover_ +teg-+, _cover_ sel-lā- sella, _seat_ +sed-+, _sit_ err-ōn- errō, _stroller_ +errā-+, _stroll_ som-no- somnus, _sleep_ +sop-+, _sleep_ plē-no- plēnus, _full_ +plē-+, _fill_ rēg-no- rēgnum, _realm_ +rēg-+, _guide_ da-to- datus, _given_ +da-+, _give_ lec-to- lectus, _bed_ +leg-+, _lie_ gen-ti- gēns, _race_ +gen-+, _beget_ sta-tu- status, _stand_ +sta-+, _stand_ rēc-tōr- rēctor, _ruler_ +rēg-+, _guide_ e-unt-, iēns, _going_ +i-+, _go_ rege-nt- regēns, _guiding_ +rege-+, _guide_ gen-er- genus, _race_ +gen-+, _beget_ fur-ōr- furor, _madness_ +fur-+, _rave_

202. Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.

Thus, #-lo-#: #fīlio-lo-#, N. #fīlio-lu-s#, _little son_ (#fīlio-#); #hortu-lu-s#, _little garden_ (#horto-#, 105, _h_); but #-ulo-#: #rēg-ulu-s#, _petty king_ (#rēg-#); #ger-ulu-s#, _porter_ (√#ges-#, _bear_), #-ci-#: #pugnā-ci-#, N. #pugnā-x#, _full of fight_ (#pugnā-re#); but #-āci-#: #fer-āx#, _productive_ (√#fer-#, _bear_), #-to-#: #laudā-to-#, N. #laudā-tu-s#, _praised_ (#laudā-re#); but #-āto-#: #dent-ātus#, _toothed_ (#denti-#). #-tu-#: #equitā-tu-#, N. #equitā-tu-s#, _cavalry_ (#equitā-re#); but #-ātu-#: #sen-ātu-s#, _senate_ (#sen-#). #-lā-#: #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādē-re#, 192); but #-ēlā-#: #loqu-ēla#, _talk_ (√#loqu-#, _speak_). #-tāt-#: #cīvi-tāt-#, N. #cīvi-tā-s#, _citizenship_ (#cīvi-#); but #-itāt-#: #auctōr-itā-s#, _authority_ (#auctōr-#). #-cio-#: #aedīli-cio-#, N. #aedīli-ciu-s#, _of an aedile_ (#aedīli-#); but #-icio-#: #patr-iciu-s#, _patrician_ (#patr-#). #-timo-#: #fīni-timo-#, N. #fīni-timu-s#, _bordering_ (#fīni-#); but #-itimo-#: #lēg-itimu-s#, _of the law_ (#lēg-#).

203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix #-io-# (304) will be found #-c-io-#, #-īc-io-#, #-tōr-io-#, and #-ār-io-#. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.

[Errata: 201 (table) ... fā-mā- final - missing or invisible e-unt-, _anomalous comma may be intentional (this and following word are both participles)_]

I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.

(A.) PRIMITIVES.

I. THE AGENT.

204. The suffixes #-tōr-#, #-o-#, #-ā-#, #-lo-#, and #-ōn-#, are used to denote the _Agent_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

lēc-tōr- lēctor, _reader_ √+lēg-+, _read_ scrīb-ā- scrība, _writer_ √+scrīb-+, _write_ fig-ulo- figulus, _potter_ √+fig-+, _mould_ err-ōn- errō, _stroller_ errā-re, _stroll_

(1.) #-tōr-# (N. #-tor#).

205. #-tōr-#, N. #-tor#, or #-sōr-#, N. #-sor# (159, 202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is #-trī-ci-#, N. #-trī-x#. #-tōr-# is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.

206. (_a._) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.

#ōrā-tōr-#, N. #ōrā-tor#, _spokesman_, _speaker_ (#ōrā-re#); #lēc-tor#, _reader_ (√#leg-#, _read_). Workmen and tradesmen: #arā-tor#, _ploughman_, #pās-tor#, _shepherd_, #pīc-tor#, _painter_, #sū-tor#, _shoemaker_. Semi-professional: #captā-tor#, _legacy-hunter_, #dēlā-tor#, _professional informer_. Government officials: #cēn-sor#, _appraiser_, _censor_, #imperā-tor#, _commander_, #prae-tor#, (_leader_), _praetor_, #dictā-tor#, #līc-tor#. Of the law: #āc-tor#, _manager_, #accūsā-tor#, _accuser_, #spōn-sor#, _bondsman_, #tū-tor#, _guardian_. From presumed verb stems (202): #sen-ātor#, _senator_ (#sen-#); #viā-tor#, _wayfarer_ (#viā-#); #fundi-tor#, _slinger_ (#fundā-#). #-tro-#, N. #-ter#, has the meaning of #-tōr-#: as, #aus-tro-#, N. #aus-ter# (_scorcher_), _south-wester_ (√#aus-#, _burn_).

207. In the present sense #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as, #bellā-tor#, _a man of war_, _warlike_; #dēlīberā-tor#, _a man of caution_; #cessā-tor#, _a loiterer_; #dērī-sor#, _a mocker_, _ironical_; #cōnsūmp-tor#, _apt to destroy_, _destructive_; #aedificā-tor#, _building-mad_.

208. (_b._) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,

#castīgā-tor meus#, _my mentor_, or _the man who has upbraided me_; #olīvae inven-tor#, _the deviser of the olive_ (Aristaeus); #reper-tor vītis#, _the author of the vine_ (Bacchus); #patriae līberā-tōrēs#, _the emancipators of the nation_.

(2.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#), #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-lo-# (N. #-lu-s#); #-ōn-# (N. #-ō#).

209. #-o-# and #-ā-# stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds. #-o-#, N. #-u-s#: #coqu-o-#, N. #coqu-o-s# or #coc-u-s#, _cook_ (√#coqu-#, _cook_); #causidic-u-s#, _pleader_ (#causā-#, √#dic-#, _speak_). #-ā-#, N. #-a#: #scrīb-ā-#, N. #scrīb-a#, _clerk_ (√#scrīb-#, _write_); #agricol-a#, _husbandman_ (#agro-#, √#col-#, _till_).

210. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-s# (202): #ger-ulo-#, N. #ger-ulu-s#, _bearer_ (√#ges-#, _bear_); #fig-ulu-s#, _potter_ (√#fig-#, _shape_, _mould_).

211. #-ōn-#, N. #-ō-#: #err-ōn-#, N. #err-ō#, _stroller_ (#errā-re#); especially in compounds: #praed-ō#, _robber_ (#praedā-rī#); #praec-ō# for #*praevocō#, _herald_ (#prae-vocā-re#); #combib-ō#, _fellow-drinker_ (#com-#, √#bib-#, _drink_).

II. THE ACTION.

212. The suffixes #-ā-#, #-io-#, #-iā-#; #-min-#; #-i-ōn-#, #-ti-ōn-#; #-lā-#; #-mā-#, #-nā-#; #-tā-#, #-tu-#; #-er-#, #-or-#, #-ōr-#, are used to denote the _Action_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM. od-io- odium, _hate_ √+od-+, _hate_ āc-tiōn- āctiō, _action_ √+āg-+, _do_ ques-tu- questus, _complaint_ √+ques-+, _complain_ fur-ōr- furor, _rage_ √+fur-+, _rave_

213. Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.

(1.) #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-io-# (N. #-iu-m#); #-iā-# (N. #-ia#), #-iē-# (N. #-iē-s#).

214. #-ā-#, N. #-a#, is rare in words of action: #fug-ā-#, N. #fug-a#, _flight_ (√#fug-#, _fly_); most words are concrete: #mol-a#, _mill_ (√#mol-#, _grind_); #tog-a#, _covering_ (√#teg-#, _cover_).

215. #-ūr-ā-#, N. #-ūr-a#, is rare: #fig-ūrā-#, N. #fig-ūra#, _shape_ (√#fig-#, _shape_).

216. #-tūr-ā-#, N. #-tūr-a#, or #-sūr-ā-#, N. #-sūr-a# (159, 202), akin to the agent in #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#): #armā-tūrā-#, N. #armā-tūra#, _equipment_ (#armā-re#); #pīc-tūra#, _painting_, i.e., _act of painting_ or _picture_ (√#pig-#, _paint_). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office: #cēn-sūra#, _taxing_, _censor’s office_ (cf. #cēnsōr-#); #prae-tūra#, _praetorship_ (cf. #praetōr-#).

217. #-io-#, N. #-iu-m#, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in #-io-# (many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in #-io-# (249).

218. (_a._) #-io-# is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems: #od-io-#, N. #od-iu-m#, _hate_, _hateful thing_, _hateful conduct_ (√#od-#, _hate_); some words become concrete: #lab-iu-m#, _lip_ (√#lab-#, _lick_).

219. (_b._) Most primitives in #-io-# are compounds: as, #adag-iu-m#, _proverb_ (#ad#, √#ag-#, _speak_); #ingen-iu-m#, _disposition_ (in, √#gen-#, _beget_); #dīscid-iu-m#, _separation_, #exscid-iu-m#, _destruction_ (#dī-#, #ex#, √#scid-#, _cleave_); #incend-iu-m#, _conflagration_ (in, √#cand-#, _light_); #obsequ-iu-m#, _compliance_ (#ob-#, √#sequ-#, _follow_); #conloqu-iu-m#, _parley_ (#com-#, √#loqu-#, _talk_); #obsid-iu-m#, _siege_ (#ob#, √#sed-#, _sit_).

220. #-t-io-#, N. #-t-iu-m#: #spa-tio-#, N. #spa-tiu-m#, _stretch_ (√#spa-#, _span_, _stretch_); #sōlsti-tiu-m#, _sun-stand_, _solstice_ (#sōl-#, √#sta-#, _stand_); #ini-tiu-m#, _a beginning_ (#in#, √#i-#, _go_).

221. #-iā-#, N. #-ia#: #fur-iā-#, N. #fur-iae#, plural, _ravings_, _madness_ (√#fur-#, _rave_); #pluvia#, _rain_ (√#pluv-#, _rain_). Most stems in #-iā-# are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning: _dēlic-iae_, _allurements_, _pet_ (#dē#, √#lac-#, _allure_); #excub-iae#, _patrol_ (#ex#, √#cub-#, _lie_).

222. #-iē-#, N. #-iē-s#, a variation of #-iā-#, usually denotes result (604): #ser-iē-#, N. #ser-iē-s#, _row_ (√#ser-#, _string_); #spec-iē-s#, _sight_, _looks_ (√#spec-#, _spy_, _see_); #pernic-iē-s#, _destruction_ (#per#, √#nec-#, _murder_).

223. #-t-iē-#, N. #-t-iē-s#: #permi-tiē-#, N. #permi-tiē-s#, _wasting away_ (#per#, √#mi-#, _less_).

(2.) #-min-# (103) (N. #-men#); #-din-#, #-gin-# (105, _g_) (N. #-dō#, #-gō#).

224. #-min-#, N. #-men# (202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.

#certā-min-#, N. #certā-men#, _contest_ (#certā-re#); #crī-men#, _charge_ (√#cer-#, #crī-#, _sift_); #spec-imen#, _what is inspected_, _sample_ (√#spec-#, _spy_, _see_); #lū-men#, _light_ (√#lūc-#, _light_); #flū-men#, _flood_, _stream_ (√#flugṷ-#, _flow_); #ag-men#, _what is led_, _train_ (√#ag-#, _lead_). Words in #-min-# often mean nearly the same as those in #-mento-# (239): as, #levā-men#, #levā-mentu-m#, _lightening_; #teg-umen#, #teg-umentu-m#, _covering_.

225. #ē-din-#, #-ī-din-# (202): #-ē-din-#, N. #-ē-dō#: #grav-ēdin-#, N. #grav-ēdō#, (_heaviness_), _catarrh_ (√#grav-#, _heavy_), #-ī-din-#, N. #-ī-dō#: #cup-īdin-#, N. #cup-īdō#, _desire_ (√#cup-#, _desire_); #lib-idō#, _whim_ (√#lib-#, _yearn_).

226. #-ā-gin-#, #-ī-gin-# (202): #-ā-gin-#, N. #-ā-gō#: #vorā-gin-#, N. #vorā-gō#, _gulf_ (#vorā-re#); #imā-gō#, _representation_ (#*imā-#, cf. #imitārī#). #-ī-gin-#, N. #-ī-gō#: #orī-gin-#, N. #orī-gō#, _source_ (#orī-rī#); #cāl-īgō#, _darkness_ (√#cāl-#, _hide_). A few denominatives have #-ū-gin-#, N. #-ū-gō#: #aer-ūgin-#, N. #aer-ūgō#, _copper rust_ (#aer-#).

(3.) #-i-ōn-# (N. #-i-ō#); #-ti-ōn-# or #-si-ōn-# (N. #-ti-ō# or #-si-ō#).

227. #-i-ōn-#, N. #-i-ō#: #opīn-iōn-#, N. #opīn-iō#, _notion_ (#opīnā-rī#); #condic-iō#, _agreement_ (#com-#, √#dic-#, _say_); #contāg-iō#, _touch_ (#com-#, √#tag-#, _touch_). Some words are concrete: #leg-iō#, _pick_, _legion_ (√#leg-#, _pick_). A few are denominatives: #commūn-iō#, _mutual participation_ (#commūni-#).

228. #-ti-ōn-#, N. #-ti-ō#, or #-si-ōn-#, N. #-si-ō# (159, 202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.

#cōgitā-tiōn-#, N. #cōgitā-tiō#, _a thinking_, _a thought_ (_cōgitā-re_); #exīstimā-tiō#, _judging_, _reputation_ (#exīstimā-re#); #coven-tiō#, commonly #cōn-tiō#, _meeting_, _speech_ (#com-#, √#ven-#, _come_); #dēpul-siō#, _warding off_ (#dē-#, √#pol-#, _push_); #oppugnā-tiō#, _besieging_, _method of besieging_ (#oppugnā-re#); #occultā-tiō#, _hiding_, _chance to hide_, _possibility of hiding_ (#occultā-re#). Some words denote the place where: #sta-tiō#, _a stand_ (√#sta-#, _stand_); some become collectives or concretes: #salūtā-tiō#, _greeting_, _levee_, _guests at a levee_ (#salūtā-re#); #mūnī-tiō#, _fortification_, i.e., _act of fortifying or works_ (#mūnī-re#).

(4.) #-ē-lā-# (N. #-ē-la#), #-tē-lā-# (N. #-tē-la#).