III.
“Our horses we soon found, and we galloped to Ryder’s residence. Lights were produced, and we sat down. We were black, ragged, and dirty. We looked at each other, and, in spite of our miserable adventure, roared with laughter.”
“‘We may laugh,’ exclaimed Tom, ‘but if this adventure becomes known, and we are found out, Cornwall will be too hot for us the next seven years. We have made a pretty night of it. We have lost our money, been obliged to pretend to pray for two long hours, before a great heap of gunpowder, while that grim-faced, ugly, red-capped brute threatened us with an immediate passage into eternity. And our money forsooth must go to build a meeting-house! Bah! It is truly horrible. The old fellow has played the old soldier on us with a vengeance, and we shall be the laughing-stock of the whole country.’”
“The affair was not yet ended. Reports were spread that three men disguised as black demons, with horns and tails, had entered the cottage of ‘The Old Gardener,’ who had not only terrified them, but had frightened them out of a good sum of money, which he intended to devote to the building of a new Methodist meeting-house. It was given out that on the following Sunday ‘The Old Gardener’ intended to preach a sermon, and afterwards solicit subscriptions for the meeting-house, when he would relate the remarkable manner in which he had been providentially assisted with funds for the building. Our mortification was complete. Tom, whose hatred of Methodism was intense, declared he would blow up the meeting-house as soon as it was built. Our curiosity, however, was excited, and we all three determined to hear our adventure of the night related by ‘The Old Gardener,’ if we could contrive to be present without being suspected.”
“Sunday evening arrived. The meeting-house was crammed to suffocation; and with the dull lights then burning in the chapel, we had no difficulty in concealing ourselves. The sermon was short, but the statement of our adventure was related most minutely and circumstantially in the old man’s quaint, homely, and humorous phraseology. This evening he seemed to excel himself, and was exultingly humorous.”
“‘I never,’ said he, ‘saw black faces pray with greater devotion. I have some doubt, however,’ he slily observed, ‘if their prayers were quite heavenward. They sometimes turned their faces towards the door, but a lifting of the flint and steel kept them quiet.’”
“He then added, with a shake of the head and an exulting laugh: ‘But they had not smelt powder like the old soldier they came to rob. No, no; it was a large heap—ay, large enough to frighten old General Clive himself. The candle was lighted, the flint and steel were ready. You may ask, my friends, if I myself was not afraid. No, no, my dear friends,’ shouted he, ‘this large stock of apparent gunpowder was—it was my whole year’s stock of leek (onion) seed!’”
“The whole congregation somewhat irreverently laughed; even the saints almost shouted; many clapped their hands. I was for a moment stupefied by the announcement, but at last could hardly suppress my own laughter.”
“We subscribed to the fund to avoid suspicion, and left the meeting. After the sermon we joined each other, but could not speak. We could hardly chuckle ‘leek-seed,’ and then roared with laughter.”
“It was a good joke, though not exactly to our taste. It has, however, more than once served for subsequent amusement.”
“The chapel was built with the money collected by the gardener. Time and circumstances now induce me to think that there has been no detriment to morality or religion by the erection of the meeting-house, which was afterwards known as ‘The Leek-seed Chapel.’”—ST. JAMES’S MAGAZINE.
APPENDIX.
A. ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTION.
I. PRINCIPAL AND CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
(See § 24.)
§ 1. =Infinitives, Participles, and that form of the Infinitive preceded by +zu+ which is called Supine, stand at the end of the clause=; as—
+Er war ärmlich, aber doch sauber ~gekleidet~.+
He was poorly, but yet neatly dressed.
+Sein zürnender Oheim hatte ihn zu sich ~gerufen~.+
His angry uncle had bid him come to him.
+Seine Tante wird morgen zu uns ~kommen~.+
His aunt will come to us to-morrow.
+Sie hat uns ~versprochen~, morgen zu ~kommen~.+
She has promised us to come to-morrow.
§ 2. In a clause containing _both_ an infinitive and a participle, =the infinitive stands last=; as—
+Der Diener würde es ~nicht gethan haben~, wenn er ihn nicht freundlich darum gebeten hätte.+
The servant would not have done it, if he had not kindly asked him to do it.
+Der Brief muß gut ~geschrieben werden~, denn er enthält wichtige Mitteilungen.+
The letter must be well written, for it contains important communications.
§ 3. In a clause containing =two infinitives, the one governing the other stands last=; as—
+Er mag mit einem solchen Menschen nichts ~zu thun haben~.+
He does not like to have anything to do with such a man.
§ 4. =Separable prefixes= of compound verbs =are placed at the end= of the clause when the verb is used in a _simple tense_; as—
+Der König ~ging~ jeden Morgen um elf Uhr ~aus~ und ~kam~ gegen zwölf Uhr ~zurück~.+
The king went out every morning at eleven o’clock and returned towards twelve o’clock.
§ 5. In a clause containing =two objects=, both =expressed by nouns=, that of the =person= stands =before= that of the =thing=; as—
+Am nächsten Abend gab er ~dem Manne~ das ~Geld~ zurück.+
The next evening he returned the money to the man.
§ 6. When _both_ objects represent _persons_, the =accusative generally stands first=; as—
+Man hat ~den~ Verbrecher ~dem~ Richter überliefert.+
They have delivered the criminal to the judge.
§ 7. In clauses containing _two_ objects, one being _a personal pronoun_ and the other _a noun_, =the pronoun stands first=; as—
+Der fremde Herr gab ~mir einige Äpfel~ und Birnen.+
The stranger gave me some apples and pears.
§ 8. When =both objects are personal pronouns=, the =accusative= _generally stands_ =first=; as—
+Sie hat ~es mir~ gesagt.+
She has said it to me.
+Man hat ~sie ihm~ genommen.+
They have taken her away from him.
§ 9. _A._ Adverbial expressions of =time= generally stand =before the object= (except it is a pronoun) and =always before= adverbial expressions of =manner= and =place=; as—
+Wir haben ~gestern drei~ Briefe erhalten.+
Yesterday we received three letters.
+Er ist ~heute plötzlich~ nach ~London~ abgereist.+
He has suddenly left for London to-day.
But we must say—
+Wir haben ~Sie heute~ mit Ungeduld erwartet.+ (+~Sie~+ pers. pron.)
We have been expecting you to-day with impatience.
_B._ Adverbial expressions of =manner= and =place= generally stand before the Infinitive or Participle when the verb is in a compound tense, but take the last place in the clause when the verb is in a simple tense; as—
+Die Schüler haben ihre Aufgaben ~sehr gut~ gemacht.+
The pupils have done their lessons _very well_.
+Sie machen ihre Aufgaben ~immer sehr gut~.+
They do their lessons always very well.
+Sind Sie ~gestern im Theater~ gewesen?+
Were you _at the theatre yesterday_?
+Ich gehe ~nie ins Theater~.+
I _never_ go _to the theatre_.
=When the subject, which may be preceded by its attributes, occupies the first place in a principal clause, either the copula or the verb must follow immediately.=
§ 10. The negation +=nicht=+ stands =after= the =accusative=; as—
+Er schreibt den Brief ~nicht~, sondern sein Bruder.+
He is not writing the letter, but his brother is.
+Er hat den Brief ~nicht~ geschrieben.+
He has not written the letter.
§ 11. In questions +=nicht=+ sometimes stands =before= the =accusative=; as—
+Haben Sie ~nicht~ meinen Brief erhalten?+
Have you not received my letter?
§ 12. In general the negation +=nicht=+ stands before that part of the sentence which it affects; as—
+Ich bin ~nicht~ krank gewesen.+
I have not been ill.
+Wir sprechen ~nicht~ von ihm, sondern von seinem Vetter.+
We do not speak of him, but of his cousin.
+Die Natur hatte sie ~nicht~ mit Schönheit ausgestattet.+
Nature had not endowed her with beauty.
II. INVERTED CONSTRUCTION.
§ 13. The _ordinary_ way of arranging the words is to place the =subject= and its adjuncts =first=, and the =predicate= with its adjuncts =after=; as—
+Der gute Vater+ (subj.) +ist heute Morgen mit seinen drei Töchtern nach London abgereist+ (predicate with adjuncts).
The good father has left this morning for London with his three daughters.
=But this construction is sometimes inverted, so as to place the predicate, or a part of the predicate, before the subject.= This is the case:
(_a_) =In interrogative clauses=; as—
+~Kommt~ der Mann heute?+
Does the man come to-day?
+~Ist~ der Vater nach London abgereist?+
Has the father left for London?
+~Hat~ er kein Geld bei sich?+
Has he no money about him?
(_b_) =In imperative clauses=; as—
+Senden Sie diesen Brief zur Post!+
Send this letter to the post-office!
(_c_) =In exclamatory clauses=; as—
+~Hätte~ er auf mich gehört!+
Would he had listened to me!
(_d_) =In subordinate clauses beginning with an adverbial conjunction.= (See § 124 of Lange’s German Grammar.)
§ 14. The _ordinary_ way of arranging the words is often departed from for the sake of =emphasizing a part of the predicate=. In this case the part to be emphasized is placed at the _beginning_ of the sentence, and the =construction must be inverted=, that is to say the =subject= must be placed =after the verb=; as—
+~Die letzten Worte hatte~ der junge Mensch mit gehobener Stimme gesprochen.+
The last words the young man had spoken with an elevated tone of voice.
+~Heute kann~ er nicht abreisen, sondern morgen.+
He cannot depart to-day, but to-morrow.
+~Mit dem zwölf Uhr Zuge kann~ er nicht mehr fahren, denn es ist zu spät.+
He cannot go by the twelve o’clock train, for it is too late.
These sentences would read in the _ordinary_ construction: +Der junge Mensch hatte die letzten Worte mit gehobener Stimme gesprochen. Er kann nicht heute abreisen, sondern morgen. Er kann nicht mehr mit dem zwölf Uhr Zuge fahren, denn es ist zu spät.+ The words »+Die letzten Worte+,« »+heute+,« »+mit dem zwölf Uhr Zuge+,« have been made _emphatic_ by being placed at the _beginning_ of the sentence, which required the _verb_ and the _subject_ to interchange places.
§ 15. Sometimes =a subordinate clause= (that is to say a clause dependent on another clause, without which it would not be understood) =is made emphatic by being placed before the principal clause=. Then also the =subject= of the _principal clause_ must be placed =after= the =verb=; as—
+Als er in die Stube kam, ~fand er~ mich am Schreibtische.+
When he came into the room, he found me at the desk.
In this example the _principal_ clause is »+er fand mich am Schreibtische+,« and the _subordinate_ clause is contained in the words »+Als er in die Stube kam+;« this latter clause has been emphasized by being placed before the principal clause, but it required the _principal_ clause to be _inverted_, so as to place the _subject_ (+er+) after the _verb_ (+fand+).
Here are some more examples of the same class:
+Weil er ein guter Junge ist, ~will~ ich ihm seine Bitte gewähren.+
Because he is a good fellow, I will grant his request.
+Nachdem er gegessen und getrunken hatte, ~ging er~ nach Hause.+
After having eaten and drunk, he went home.
III. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
(See § 24.)
§ 16. In subordinate clauses beginning with a relative pronoun, a relative conjunction, or a subordinative conjunction, =the verb= stands =at the end=; as—
+Man zeigte mir ein Buch, ~das~ viele schöne Bilder ~enthielt~.+
They showed me a book which contained many beautiful pictures.
+Wir waren im Zimmer, ~als~ er ~eintrat~.+
We were in the room when he entered.
§ 17. When the =verb= is in a =compound tense=, the =auxiliary= verb stands =last=; as—
+Nachdem sie ihn ~begrüßt hatte~, kam sie schnell auf mich zu.+
After she had welcomed him, she approached me quickly.
§ 18. When there are _two_ verbs, one of which is a verb of mood, =the verb of mood stands last=; as—
+Er sagte, daß er nicht ~kommen könne~.+
He said that he could not come.
§ 19. When there are _two_ verbs, the one being an infinitive, and the other an inflected verb, =the inflected verb stands last=; as—
+Der Sohn starb gerade zu der Stunde, in welcher sein Vater ihn ~wiederzusehen hoffte~.+
The son died the very hour his father hoped to see him again.
§ 20. When there are _two infinitives_ and _an auxiliary verb_, the =auxiliary= verb has the =first= place, whilst the =governing infinitive= stands =last=; as—
+Er überlegte, wie er es ~werde vermeiden können~.+ (+können+ is the governing verb.)
He considered how he might be able to avoid it.
+Er sagte, daß er es nicht ~habe thun mögen~.+ (+mögen+ is the governing verb.)
He said that he did not like to do it.
§ 21. Sometimes the =conjunction=, which generally connects the subordinate clause with the principal clause, _is_ =omitted= _and understood_. In this case the construction is like that of a _principal clause_; as—
+Er fürchtete, ~ich könne~ mich erkälten.+ (+Er fürchtete, daß ich mich ~erkälten könne~.+)
He was afraid I might catch cold.
§ 22. Sometimes the =auxiliary= verb is =omitted= _and understood_; as—
+Daß er mir ~genommen~ (wurde), ist mein größtes Leid.+
That he was taken from me is my greatest sorrow.
§ 23. =In subordinate clauses the prefixes of separable compound verbs are not separated from the verb=; as—
+Er war so beschäftigt, daß er in vierzehn Tagen nicht ~ausging~.+
He was so busy that he did not go out for a fortnight.
§ 24. _A._ The co-ordinative conjunctions—+~aber~+, +~allein~+, +~denn~+, +~nämlich~+, +~oder~+, +~sondern~+, +~sowohl — als~+, and +~und~+—serve to connect two or more independent statements with each other, which have either one common subject or predicate, or have each a subject and predicate of their own (co-ordinate clauses). =Co-ordinative conjunctions do not affect the regular order of construction explained in= §§ 1-12, and generally stand at the beginning of the co-ordinate clauses which they introduce; but +~aber~+ and +~nämlich~+ are often placed after the verb, and sometimes even stand in the middle of the clause; as—
+Die Frau war dem Manne früh gestorben; dieser ließ dem hinterlassenen Kinde ~aber~ jede mögliche Sorgfalt angedeihen.+
A subordinate clause, i.e. a clause dependent on another clause, without which it would not be understood, is joined to a principal clause by means of a relative pronoun, or a conjunction, which latter may be either a relative, a subordinative, or an adverbial conjunction. (See § 124 of Lange’s German Grammar.) The effect produced upon the construction by relative pronouns, relative conjunctions, and subordinative conjunctions has been explained in §§ 16-23.
_B._ =Adverbial conjunctions, like all other adverbial expressions commencing a clause, require the verb to stand before the subject=, as has been pointed out in § 124 of Lange’s German Grammar.
B. THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
§ 25. The Indicative Mood is the Mood of Actuality, whilst the Subjunctive Mood is the Mood of Possibility. The nature of the Indicative may be said to be _objective_, because it is used to express positive facts. The nature of the Subjunctive may be said to be _subjective_, because it represents the statement made as a mere subjective supposition, or as resting on the mere hearsay evidence of other persons.
=The Indicative Mood denotes Positiveness and Certainty.=
=Conjunctions never determine the mood in which a verb is to be used.= The mood is always determined by the nature of the statement we wish to make. So one and the same verb may be followed, in the dependent clause, either by the Indicative or the Subjunctive Mood.
EXAMPLES.
+Der Gefangene ~ist~ tot; er ~ist~ heute Morgen gestorben.+ (Positive statement.)
The prisoner is dead; he died this morning.
+Ich bin überzeugt, daß er es ~gesagt hat~.+ (Certainty.)
I am convinced that he has said it.
+Der Mensch ~ist~ sterblich.+ (A fact.)
Man is mortal.
+Ich habe gehört, daß er zum Minister ~ernannt ist~.+
I have heard that he has been appointed a minister, (and I do not doubt it).
(Here the Indicative Mood is used, because I wish to imply that I have _no doubt_ about the accuracy of the statement.)
+Ich habe gehört, daß er zum Minister ~ernannt sei~+ (see § 30).
I have heard that he has been appointed a minister, (but I rather doubt it).
(Here the Subjunctive Mood is used because I wish to express a _doubt_ about the accuracy of the statement, which is expressed in English by the words ‘but I rather doubt it.’)
C. THE SUBJUNCTIVE (OR CONJUNCTIVE) MOOD.
(See § 25.)
§ 26. Since, in the best modern works of English Literature, we frequently find the Indicative employed instead of the Subjunctive in clauses of uncertainty and supposition, and since, with the exception of the verb _to be_, it is evidently the tendency of the English language to reject the distinction of the Subjunctive Mood, the student will encounter no small difficulty in learning the right use of the German Subjunctive, which is most extensively used, and gives often great power, conciseness, and elegance to the mode of speaking.
=The Subjunctive Mood= is used both in principal and subordinate clauses, and =denotes Uncertainty and Supposition=.
EXAMPLES.
+Man sagt er ~sei~ gestorben+ (see § 29). (Uncertainty.)
People say (i.e. it is rumoured) he is dead.
+Plato glaubte, daß nur ~ein~ Gott ~sei~.+ (Supposition.)
Plato thought that there was only _one_ God, (but that it was a matter of doubt).
§ 27. =The Subjunctive expresses Command, Wish, and Concession.=
EXAMPLES.
+Er ~nehme~ seine Weite, wie’s Brauch ist!+ (Schiller.) (Command.)
Let him take his distance as it is customary!
+Gott ~sei~ mit dir!+ (Wish.)
God be with you!
+Er ~gehe~, wohin er Lust hat.+ (Concession.)
He may go wherever he pleases.
§ 28. =The Subjunctive is used in Indirect Speech= (oratio obliqua), i.e. when words which have been actually spoken are _quoted_ not as they were spoken, but _in substance_ only; it stands especially after the verbs +~sagen~+, to say; +~erzählen~+, to relate; +~melden~+, to report; +~berichten~+, to relate, to report; +~hören~+, to hear; as—
+Er sagte ihm, er ~sei~ ein Verschwender.+
He told him he was a spendthrift.
+Sie behauptete, sie ~habe~ den Brief nicht erhalten.+
She asserted that she had not got the letter.
+Sein Freund meldete, daß er nicht kommen ~könne~, mich zu besuchen.+
His friend reported that he could not come to see me.
§ 29. =The Subjunctive is used when the statement made in the subordinate clause is intended to be represented not as a fact, but as a mere idea, as a mere conception of the person speaking.= We find it, therefore, especially after verbs denoting _a request_, _a wish_, _a hope_, _an apprehension_, _a permission_, _an advice_, and _a command_; as—
+meinen+, to mean. +glauben+, to believe. +vermuten+, to presume. +zweifeln+, to doubt. +scheinen+, to seem. +hoffen+, to hope. +fürchten+, to fear. +wollen+, to be willing. +bitten+, to ask. +befehlen+, to command. +verlangen+, to demand. +ermahnen+, to admonish. +raten+, to advise. +bestehen+, to insist upon,
And others of a like meaning.
EXAMPLES.
+Lassen Sie uns ~hoffen~, daß unser Streben von Erfolg ~sein werde~.+
Let us hope that our endeavours may be successful.
+Ich bat ihn, daß er mir ~helfen möge~.+
I asked him to help me.
+Ich ~fürchtete~, daß er ein Bein ~gebrochen habe~.+
I was afraid that he had broken a leg.
+Wir ~bitten~, daß der Gefangene frei ~gelassen werde~.+
We request that the prisoner be released.
+Er ~zweifelt~ daran, daß man ihn für unschuldig ~erklären werde~.+
He doubts if he will be declared innocent.
+Wir werden stets ~verlangen~, daß man uns unsere Rechte ~gewähre~.+
We shall always demand that our rights be given to us.
+Ich ~rate~ dir, daß du fleißiger ~werdest~.+
I advise you to become more industrious.
+Ich ~bestehe darauf~, daß sich der Lord ~entferne~.+ (Schiller.)
I insist upon the Lord’s retiring.
§ 30. With regard to the _Tense_ in which the Subjunctive ought to stand in subordinate clauses of the character mentioned above, the general rule is, that—
=We use the same tense of the Subjunctive Mood which, in direct speech, or in a principal clause, would be used in the Indicative Mood=,
except that
=the Perfect of the Subjunctive is used instead of the Imperfect of the Indicative, and that the Pluperfect of the Indicative is changed into the Perfect of the Subjunctive, with the help of one of the conjunctions +ehe+, +bevor+, and +nachdem+.=
The following table will make this clear:—
_Direct Speech._ _Indirect Speech._
+Er sagte: »Ich lese.«+ +Er sagte, er lese.+ (Present (Present.) Subj.)
+Er sagte: »Ich habe gelesen.«+ +Er sagte, er habe gelesen.+ (Perfect.) (Perfect Subj.)
+Er sagte: »Ich werde lesen.«+ +Er sagte, er werde lesen.+ (First Future.) (First Future Subjunctive.)
+Er sagte: »Ich werde gelesen +Er sagte, er werde gelesen haben+ haben+ (Second Future), +wenn (Second Future Subj.), +wenn sein mein Freund mich abholen wird.«+ Freund ihn abholen werde+ (First (First Future.) Future Subjunctive).
But— But—
+Er sagte: »Ich las, als sein +Er sagte, er =habe gelesen=, als Freund schrieb.«+ (Imperfect.) sein Freund =geschrieben habe=.+ (Perfect Subjunctive.)
+Er sagte: »Ich hatte gelesen+ +Er sagte, er =habe gelesen=+ (Pluperfect), +als mein Freund (Perfect Subjunctive), +=ehe= schrieb.«+ (Imperfect.) sein Freund =geschrieben habe=.+ (Perfect Subjunctive.)
It will be seen, therefore, that =the verb= in the subordinate clause =stands either in the Present, in the Perfect, or in the Future=.
EXAMPLES.
+Der Diener antwortete, er ~sei~ nicht imstande die Arbeit zu thun, denn er ~sei~ zu schwach.+ (Present Subj.)
The servant answered that he was unable to do the work, for he was too weak.
+Er erzählte mir, er ~habe~ ein Unglück ~gehabt~.+ (Perfect Subj.)
He told me he had met with a misfortune.
+Sie behauptete, daß sie nie in ihrem Leben krank ~gewesen sei~.+ (Perfect Subj.)
She affirmed that she had never been ill in all her life.
+Er sagte, daß er sich um eine Stelle bewerben ~werde~.+ (First Future.)
He said that he was going to apply for a situation.
§ 31. =The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, however, must be used instead of the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Conditional instead of the Future Subjunctive=, when any ambiguity might arise as to the mood employed, that is to say in cases where the form of the Present, of the Perfect, or of the Future is _identical_ both in the Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood. For example, in the sentence—
»+Sie sagte mir, ihre Töchter ~gingen~ niemals auf Bälle+;«
‘She said to me that her daughters never went to balls;’
the verb +~gingen~+ stands in the _Imperfect Subjunctive_ and _not_ in the _Present_, because the third person plural of the Present Indicative and the corresponding person of the Present Subjunctive _are identical_ in the conjugation of this verb. Both are »+~sie gehen~+,« the verb, therefore, must be put in the _Imperfect Subjunctive_ to show clearly the mood employed.
§ 32. =The Subjunctive is employed in adverbial clauses of purpose and of manner=, when the subordinate clause generally begins with the conjunctions +~daß~+, +~auf daß~+, +~damit~+, and +~als ob~+; as—
+Du sollst deinen Vater und deine Mutter ehren, ~auf daß~ dir’s ~wohlgehe~ und du lange ~lebest~ auf Erden.+
Thou shalt honour thy father and thy mother, that thou mayest prosper and thy days be long on earth.
+Ist es nicht, ~als ob~ dies Volk mich zum Gott ~mache~?+ (Schiller.)
Does it not seem as if the people meant to make a God of me?
§ 33. =The Imperfect Subjunctive and the Pluperfect Subjunctive= are used to express something possible, or something capable of being done, also to denote a mere supposition on the part of the speaker, or for the purpose of stating an opinion with _caution_ or _modesty_; as—
+Es ~könnte~ sein, daß er nicht zu Hause ~wäre~.+
Literally: It might be possible that he were not at home, i.e. He may possibly not be at home.
+Ich ~hätte~ wohl Lust, ihm einen Besuch zu machen.+
I should like indeed to pay him a visit.
+Ich ~wüßte~ wohl, was zu thun ~wäre~.+
I fancy I know what ought to be done.
+Es ~wäre~ vielleicht besser, das Unternehmen aufzugeben.+
Perhaps it would be better to give up the undertaking.
§ 34. =To express a wish= we use the _Present Subjunctive_, when we believe in the fulfilment of the wish, but the _Imperfect Subjunctive_, when we want to indicate that the fulfilment of the wish is unlikely, and even impossible; as—
+Gott ~sei~ mit dir!+
God be with you!
+~Möge~ er bald gesund werden!+
May he soon recover his health!
+Lang ~lebe~ der König!+
Long live the king!
+Gott ~helfe~ mir!+ (Luther.)
May God help me!
But with the Imperfect Subjunctive:
+~Möchte~ er bald gesund werden!+
Would he might soon recover his health!
+Wenn er doch noch ~lebte~!+
I would he were still alive!
+~Möchte~ er bald kommen!+
Would he might soon come!
§ 35. It must always be remembered that both moods (the Indicative and the Subjunctive) may stand in Principal Clauses as well as in Subordinate Clauses, since _their use depends alone on the nature of the statement we wish to make_ (see § 25). Nor has the notion connected with the verb standing in the principal clause an absolute influence on the mood to be used in the subordinate clause. The Indicative stands in subordinate clauses not merely after verbs expressing Certainty, but also after such as denote Belief, Supposition, and Doubt, when the statement contained in the subordinate clause is represented _objectively_, i.e. as being based upon a fact, or as being, in the speaker’s opinion, not open to any doubt. So we say—
+Ich glaube, daß er in der Schlacht geblieben ~ist~+ (not +sei+).
I believe that he was killed in battle.
+Ich weiß nicht, ob er ~lebt~, oder ob er tot ~ist~.+
I do not know whether he is alive, or whether he is dead.
+Ich zweifle, daß der Kranke ~genesen wird~.+
I doubt if the patient will recover.
+Ich hoffe, daß er sich wohl ~befindet~.+
I hope that he is well.
But when the statement contained in the subordinate clause is represented _subjectively_, i.e. as being based upon a mere idea or belief, the correctness of which is still open to doubt, the Subjunctive must be used; as—
+Man glaubt, man sagt+, etc., +er ~sei~ in der Schlacht geblieben.+
People believe, people say, etc., that he was killed in battle, (but it is still doubtful).
+Er fürchtet, daß man ihn verraten ~habe~.+
He is afraid that they have betrayed him, (yet he does not know).
D. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
§ 36. The Conditional is the mood for representing a state or an event as dependent on another, which other, however, is not based upon a real fact, but is a mere hypothesis or supposition. As such we use not only the First and Second Conditional (+ich würde+, etc.), as given in the tables of verbs, but also the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. The latter two, in fact, may be called the simple forms of the Conditional Mood, and the former (+ich würde+, etc.) the compound forms. Every true conditional statement consists of two clauses: (_a_) the hypothetical clause, which contains the supposition, (_b_) the conditioning clause, which contains the inference drawn from that supposition; as—
If I had money (hypothetical clause),
I should like to travel (conditioning clause).
The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used in both clauses, but the First and Second Conditional (+ich würde+, etc.—see the tables of verbs) can only be used in conditioning clauses.
The conditioning clause is often introduced by »+so+.«
EXAMPLES.
+Wenn ich Geld ~hätte~, ~ginge~ ich gern auf Reisen+ (or +~würde~ ich gern auf Reisen gehen+).
If I had money, I should like to travel.
+Wenn es heute schönes Wetter ~gewesen wäre~, so ~würden wir ausgegangen sein~.+
If the weather had been fine to-day, we should have gone out.
+Dieser Mann ~könnte~ glücklicher ~sein~, wenn er das Spiel nicht zu sehr ~liebte~.+
This man might be happier, if he were not too fond of gambling.
+Er ~würde~ gesund ~sein~+ (or +er ~wäre~ gesund+), +wenn er mäßiger ~lebte~+.
He would be healthy, if he were more temperate.
§ 37. The Conditional is sometimes used _elliptically_; as—
+Ja, ich würde gekommen sein!+
Yes, I should have come! (i.e. if I had been able to do so, _understood_).
+Unter den Umständen hätte ich es gewiß gethan.+
I am sure, under the circumstances I should have done it (i.e. if I had been placed in the same situation).
+~Wäre~ ich reich, ~würde~ ich Sie sofort bezahlen.+
Were I rich, I should pay you directly.
SYNOPSIS OF THE CHANGES WHICH THE GERMAN SPELLING HAS UNDERGONE THROUGH THE GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS OF 1880.
+1. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis für die deutsche Rechtschreibung zum Gebrauch in den preußischen Schulen. Berlin, Weidmansche Buchhandlung. 2. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis für die deutsche Rechtschreibung zum Gebrauch in den bayerischen Schulen. München, Expedition des Kgl. Zentral-Schulbücher-Verlags.+
A. +Vokale.+ (Vowels.)
_Write._
+=Ä=, =Ö=, =Ü=+
(instead of +Ae+, +Oe+, +Ue+) in: +die Äpfel+ (_apples_); +die Öfen+ (_ovens_, _stoves_); +der Überrock+ (_overcoat_), etc. In foreign words +=ä=+, +=ü=+ (for Greek and French ai and French u) in: +der Pädagog+ (_pedagogue_); +der Kapitän+ (_captain_); +die Lektüre+ (_reading_), etc.
+=ay=+
(instead of +ai+) in: +Bayern+ (_Bavaria_); +der Bayer+ (_the Bavarian_); +bayerisch+, adj. (_Bavarian_), and derivatives.
+=ei=+
(instead of +ai+) in: +der Heide+ (_heathen_); +die Heide+ (_heath_); +das Getreide+ (_grain_); +der Weizen+ (_wheat_), etc.—=But=: +die Bai+ (_bay_); +der Hai+ (_shark_); +der Hain+ (_grove_); +der Kaiser+ (_emperor_); +der Laib+ (_loaf_); +der Laich+ (_spawn_ [of fish]); +das Laichen+ (_spawning_); +die Laichzeit+ (_spawning-time_); +der Laie+ (_layman_); +der Mai+ (_May_); +die Maid+ (_maid_, _maiden_); +der Mais+ (_maize_); +maischen+ (_to mash_ [in brewing]); +die Saite+ (_string_); +der Waid+ (_dyer’s woad_); +der+ _or_ +die Waise+ (_orphan_ [boy or girl]), and derivatives.
=Nouns terminating in +-ee+= _and_ +=-ie=+—
take in the plural +=en=+, which inflection forms a separate syllable, as: +die Armee´+ (_army_), _pl._ +die Armee´en+ (_armies_); +der+ _or_ +die See´+ (_lake or sea_), _pl._ +die See´en+ (_lakes or seas_); +die Melodie´+ (_melody_), _pl._ +die Melodie´en+ (_melodies_); +die Theorie´+ (_theory_), _pl._ +die Theorie´en+ (_theories_), etc. =But=: +das Komitee´+ (_committee_), _pl._ +die Komitee´s+ (_committees_); +das Knie´+ (_knee_), _pl._ +die Knie´e+.
+=eu=+
1. (instead of +äu+) in: +deuchten+ (_to appear_, _to seem_); +mir deucht+ (_it seems to me_, _methinks_); +ihm deuchte+ (_he thought_); +(durch)-bleuen+ (_to give [one] a hearty drubbing_, _to beat [one] black and blue_); [=but=: +(durch)-bläuen+ (_to make or dye blue_)]; +der Greuel+ (_horror_); +leugnen+ (_to deny_); +verleumden+ (_to slander_), etc.
2. in the termination +=eur=+ (sounded as in French), in: +der Commandeur+ (_commander_); +der Redacteur+ (_editor_), etc.
+=i=+
(instead of +y+) in: +der Gips+ (_plaster of Paris_); +die Silbe+ (_syllable_); +der Sirup+ (_syrup_); +der Vampir+ (_vampire_), etc. [Comp. +=ay=+.]
+=ie=+
(instead of +i+) in the verbal termination +=ie´ren=+, as in: +studie´ren+ (_to study_); +spazie´ren+ (_to go for a walk_); +marschie´ren+ (_to march_); +probie´ren+ (_to try_, _to test_); +hantie´ren+ (_to handle_, _to manage_), etc.—and in their derivatives, as in: +die Hantie´rung+ (_management_, _business_, _profession_), etc.; also in: +gieb+ (_give_), and derivatives.
+=ou=+
(_pronounced as in French_, instead of +u+) in words coming from the French, as +die Fourage+ (_forage_); +der Fourier+ (_quarter master_); +der Fournier+ (_veneer_), etc.
=Only one Vowel (instead of two)—=
in: +bar+ (_bare_, _destitute of_; [of money]: _in cash_); +die Barschaft+ (_ready money_, _cash in hand_); +das Maß+ (_measure_); +das Schaf+ (_sheep_); +die Schar+ (_troop_, _herd_); +der Star+ (_starling_; [in medicine]: _cataract_); +die Wage+ (_scales_); +die Ware+ (_goods_); +der Herd+ (_hearth_); +die Herde+ (_herd_, _flock_); +das Kamel+ (_camel_); +das Los+ (_lot_, _fate_); +losen+ (_to cast lots_); +die Losung+ (_the casting or drawing of lots_); +der Schoß+ (_lap_, _middle_; [of dress]: _skirt_, or _tail_); etc.
B. +Konsonanten.+ (Consonants.)
+=d=+
(instead of +dt+) in: +der Tod+ (_death_); +todkrank+ (_sick unto death_); +todmüde+ (_tired to death_); +die Todsünde+ (_deadly_ or _mortal sin_); +tödlich+ (_deadly_, _mortal_, _fatal_), etc.—Comp. letter +=t=+ (instead of +dt+).
+=f=+
(instead of +ph+) in: +Adolf+ (_Adolphus_); +der Elefant+ (_elephant_); +der Fasan+ (_pheasant_); +Rudolf+ (_Ralph_); +Westfalen+ (_Westphalia_), etc.—=But=: +der Epheu+ (_ivy_) from the old German word +Ebheu+.
+=h=+
1. =+h+ remains as a sign of lengthening a syllable=:—
(_a_) =In syllables beginning with a t-sound and containing a long vowel, but not a diphthong or a double vowel=, as in: +die That+ (_deed_); +die Thräne+ (_tear_); +der Thron+ (_throne_); +der Thor+ (_fool_); +das Thor+ (_gate_); +thun+ (_to do_); +that+ (_did_); +gethan+ (_done_), etc. [Comp. +=h=+, 2 (a).]
(_b_) before +=l=+, +=m=+, +=n=+, and +=r=+, as in: +allmählich+ (_gradually_); +befehlen+ (_to command_); +nehmen+ (_to take_); +wohnen+ (_to live_, _to reside_); +lehren+ (_to teach_), etc. =Exceptions=: +die Feme+ (_an old secret criminal court in Westphalia_) and derivatives, as: +der Femrichter+ (_a judge of that court_), and derivatives.
(_c_) in: +die Fehde+ (_feud_, _quarrel_); +die Mahd+ (_mowing_), from +mähen+ (_to mow_); +der Draht+ (_wire_) from +drehen+ (_to turn_); +die Naht+ (_seam_), from +nähen+ (_to sew_), and other words derived from verbs containing an aspirated +h+.
(_d_) =in a few proper names=, as in: +Bertha+, +Günther+, +Martha+, +Mathilde+, +Theobald+, +Theodor+, etc.
(_e_) =in many nouns originally Greek=, as: +die Kathedra´le+ (_cathedral_); +das Thema+ (_theme_); +die Theologie´+; +die Theorie´+; +das Thermome´ter+; +der Pa´nther+, etc.
2. +=h=+ =is not retained after= +=t=+:—
(_a_) =in syllables beginning with a t-sound and containing a diphthong or a double vowel=, as in: +der Tau+ (_dew_); +das Tau+ (_rope_); +der Teer+ (_tar_); +teeren+ (_to tar_); +der+ _or_ +das Teil+ (_part_, or _share_); +teuer+ (_dear_); +das Tier+ (_animal_); +verteidigen+ (_to defend_), etc., and derivatives.—=Exception=: +der Thee+ (_tea_), and derivatives.
(_b_) in the suffixes +=tum=+ and +=tüm=+ (formerly +thum+ and +thüm+), as in: +das Eigentum+ (_property_); +das Königtum+ (_kingdom_); +das Ungetüm+ (_monster_), etc.
(_c_) =at the end of syllables, and at the beginning of syllables before a short vowel=, as in:—+die Armut+ (_poverty_); +der Atem+ (_breath_); +atmen+ (_to breathe_); +die Blüte+ (_blossom_); +die Flut+ (_flood_); +das Gerät+ (_tools_); +die Glut+ (_glow_); +der Kot+ (_dirt_); +das Lot+ (_a weight of half an ounce, now obsolete_); +der Met+ (_mead_); +die Miete+ (_rent_; _a corn or hay-stack_; _mite_); +der Mut+ (_courage_); +die Not+ (_need_); +nötigen+ (_to urge_; _to invite_; _to compel_); +der+ _or_ +die Pate+ (_god-father or god-mother_); +der Rat+ (_advice_); +raten+ (_to advise_; _to guess_); +das Rätsel+ (_riddle_); +rot+ (_red_); +die Röte+ (_redness_); +die Rute+ (_rod_); +der Turm+ (_tower_); +der Wert+ (_value_); +wert+ (_worth_, _dear_); +der Wirt+ (_host_, _landlord_); +die Wut+ (_rage_), and derivatives, as: +ratlos+ (_without advice or means_: _helpless_); +wertvoll+ (_valuable_, _precious_); +das Wirtshaus+ (_inn_), etc.
=Mark well=: +hurra!+ (_hurra!_).
1. (instead of +c+) =in many words originally Greek=, as in: +die Akademie´+, (_academy_); +pra´ktisch+ (_practical_); +die Arithmeti´k+ (_arithmetic_); +die Physi´k+ (_natural philosophy_), etc.—=But=: +der Chara´kter+; +die Melancholie´+.
2. (instead of +c+ and +qu+) =in many words originally Latin or French=, but which have become quite germanised, and are now looked upon as altogether German words, as: +der Advoka´t+ (_lawyer_); +das Boske´tt+ (_thicket_) from the French: le bosquet; +das Loka´l+ (_locality_); +das Pu´blikum+ (_public_); +vaka´nt+ (_vacant_); +der Vulka´n+ (_volcano_), etc.—More especially in words terminating in +=...kel=+, as in: +der Arti´kel+; +die Parti´kel+; +die Flo´skel+ (_flourish_), pl. +die Flo´skeln+ (_fine words, frequently made use of with a deceptive purpose_).
3. (instead of +c+) in words with the prefixes +=Ko-=+, +=Kol-=+, +=Kom-=+, +=Kon-=+, +=Kor-=+, and also in syllables containing a +=k=+-sound followed by +=t=+ (+=...kt=+), as in: +die Kopie´+ (_copy_); +die Kolonie´+ (_colony_); +der Kommanda´nt+ (_commander_); +der Ko´nstabler+ (_constable_); +das Konze´rt+ (_concert_); +die Korresponde´nz+ (_correspondence_), etc.; +die Didakti´k+ (_didactics_); +das Edi´kt+ (_edict_), etc.—=But=: +das Di´ctum+, because not germanised, etc.—
=Mark well=: +der Kaffee´+ (_coffee_), =but=: +das Café+ (_a fine restaurant where mostly coffee is served_).
=NOTE.= In foreign words which have preserved a foreign pronunciation, or certain foreign forms of spelling or inflection, do not use +=k=+, but +=c=+, as in: +die Campagne+ (_campaign_); +der Commi´s+ (_clerk_); +das Flaco´n+ (_smelling-bottle_); +der Redakteu´r+ (_editor_); +die Adjecti´va+ (_adjectives_), etc.
=Doubtful Orthography.= We find: +Konze´rt+ _and_ +Conce´rt+, n.; +Ka´rzer+ (_prison in schools and universities_) _and_ +Ca´rcer+, m.; +Komitee´+ _and_ +Comite´+, n.; +Kompanie´+ _and_ +Compagnie´+, f.; +conze´ntrisch+ (_concentric_) _and_ +conce´ntrisch+; +Konzessio´n+ _and_ +Concessio´n+, f.; +Konzi´l+ (_council_) _and_ +Conci´l+, n.; +klassifizie´ren+ (_to classify_) _and_ +classificie´ren+; +Ku´rsus+ (_course of study_) _and_ +Cu´rsus+, m.; +korre´kt+ _and_ +corre´ct+; +Konjunktio´n+ _and_ +Conjunctio´n+, etc., etc.
From these examples it will be seen that the mode of spelling is fluctuating between +=k=+ and +=c=+, and +=c=+ and +=z=+, in many words which originally contained the letter =c=. =The first way is to be preferred, and strongly recommended, in all the words given above, and many others in common use that contain a= +=k=+ =or a= +=z=+=-sound and are quite germanised in spelling and inflection.= (Comp. C. 3.)
Use also +=k=+ instead of +=c=+ in words of Greek origin which have preserved the +=k=+-sound, as:—+Anekdo´te+, +katho´lisch+, +Komö´die+, +Diale´kt+, etc.—[Comp. B, letter +=k=+, 1.]—And write +=c=+ and +=cq=+, as before, in: +A´cce´nt+, +A´ccusati´v+, +A´cquisitio´n+, etc.—
+=-nis=+
(instead of +niß+) as a suffix of nouns, as in: +das Ereignis+ (_event_); +das Begräbnis+ (_burial_); +das Verhältnis+ (_relation_); +das Vermä´chtnis+ (_bequest_), etc.—
=The prefix= +miß...+, however, remains unchanged, as in: +das Mi´ßverständnis+ (_misunderstanding_), pl. +die Mi´ßverständnisse+.
+=s=+
(instead of +ß+) in +deshalb+ (_therefore_); +deswegen+ (_therefore_, _for this reason_); +indes+ (_meanwhile_, _whilst_; _however_); +unterdes+ (_meanwhile_, _whilst_); +weshalb+ (_why_); +weswegen+ (_why_), etc.—
+=sſ=+
(instead of +ſſ+) in: +dasſelbe+ (_the same_); +desſelben+ (_of the same_); +diesſeits+ (_on this side_), etc.
+=st=+
(instead of +ſt+) in: +Dienstag+ (_Tuesday_); +Geburtstag+ (_birthday_); +Frühlingstag+ (_spring-day_), and other compound nouns in which +s+ occurs as a sign of the Genitive and is followed by a +t+.
+=ſſ=+
between two vowels, the first one of which is short, as in +laſſen+ (_to let_, _to leave_); +die Taſſe+ (_cup_); +trotz deſſen+ (_in spite of that_); +weſſen+ (_whose_), etc.—
+=ß=+
1. between two vowels, the first one of which is long, as in: +bü´ßen+ (_to atone for_); +schießen+ (_to shoot_), etc.
2. before +t+, and at the end of words, as in: +er läßt+ (_he leaves_); +ihr laßt+ (_you leave_); +gebüßt+ (_atoned for_); +laß+ (_let_); +der Kuß+ (_kiss_), etc.—
+=t=+
(instead of +dt+) in: +der Tote+ (_a dead man_ or _person_); +tot+ (_dead_); +töten+ (_to kill_); +der Totschlag+ (_manslaughter_); +der Totengräber+ (_gravedigger_), etc.—Comp. letter +=d=+ (instead of +dt+.)
+=t=+
(instead of +d+) in: +das Brot+ (_bread_).
+=t=+
(and never +z+) in the accented and original Latin combinations:—tia´, tie´, tio´, as in +martia´lisch+, +Patie´nt+, m., +Natio´n+, f., +Traditio´n+, f., +Motio´n+, etc.
=But write=: +Gra´zie+, +Ingredie´nzien+, etc., =e being unaccented=.
+=z=+
1. (instead of +tz+) after a long vowel, as in: +die Bre´zel+ (_biscuit in the shape of a twisted ring_, _cracknel_); +du´zen+ (_to call a person thou_), etc.
2. (instead of +Cz+ and +Sc+) in: +der Zar+ (_czar_); +das Zepter+ (_sceptre_), etc.
3. (instead of +ce+) =regularly at the end of foreign words with German pronunciation= and terminating in French in =ce=, and in Latin in =tia=, =tius=, =tium=, =cius=, =cium=, as in: +das Benefi´z+, +die Justi´z+, +das Hospi´z+, +die Mili´z+, +die Noti´z+; +die Differe´nz+, +die Sente´nz+, +die Vaka´nz+; +die Fina´nzen+, +die Novi´ze+, +die Allia´nz, die Dista´nz+, etc.—(=But= with foreign pronunciation: +Alliance+, +Distance+, etc.)
4. also in words quite germanised, as: +der Bezi´rk+ (_district_, _circuit_); +die La´nze+ (_lance_); +die Polizei´+ (_police_); +der Polizi´st+ (_policeman_); +das Terzero´l+ (_pocket-pistol_); +das Terze´tt+ (_trio_), etc.—=But write=: +Cä´sar+, +die Cäsu´r+ (_cesure_, _cesura_); +die Ce´der+, +die Celebritä´t+, +die Censu´r+ (_censorship_), +censie´ren+ (_to censure_, _to review_), +der Ce´ntime´ter+, +die Cerea´lien+ (_cereals_), +das Cöliba´t+, +der Ci´rkumfle´x+, +das Lyce´um+, etc.
5. (instead of +c+) in verbs terminating in +=...ie´ren=+, as: +fabrizie´ren+ (_to manufacture_); +musizie´ren+ (_to make music_); +publizie´ren+ (_to publish_), etc.
=Note.= In many words which originally contained the letter +=c=+, the mode of spelling is unsettled and fluctuating between +=c=+ and +=z=+, as in: +Medizi´n+ _and_ +Medici´n+, f.; +das Rezept+ _and_ +Recept+, n. (_prescription_, _recipe_); +Prinzi´p+ _and_ +Princi´p+, n. (_principle_); +Proze´nt+ _and_ +Proce´nt+, n. (_per cent._); +Proze´ß+ _and_ +Proce´ß+, m., etc.—[=Read carefully= B, Note to letter +=k=+, also letter +=t=+ of B, and General Observations on the Spelling of Foreign Words, where additional examples are given.]
C. +Allgemeine Bemerkungen über die Schreibung der Fremdwörter.+
(=General Observations on the Spelling of Foreign Words.=)
1. =With foreign words= containing sounds and combinations of sounds =not originally German=, THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE regarding their orthography is =that, their foreign pronunciation being preserved, also the foreign garb of their orthography is retained.=
=So, for example, we use:—=
+=oi=+ (sounded as in French) in: +die Memoi´ren+ (_memoirs_); +die Toile´tte+ (_toilet_).
+=g=+ and +=j=+ (sounded as in French) in: +die Baga´ge+ (_luggage_); +das Logi´s+ (_lodgings_); +der Genda´rm+ (_a police-officer on horseback_); +das Genie´+ (_genius_; _a man of great talent_); +der Ingenieu´r+ (_engineer_); +das Journa´l+ (_journal_, _magazine_); +rangie´ren+ (_to arrange_), etc.—=But with German pronunciation=: +der Genera´l+ (_general_); +genia´l+ (_highly gifted_); +die Genialitä´t+ (_geniality_, _originality_), etc.—
+=gn=+ (sounded as in French) in: +der Champa´gner+ (_champaign_); +die Lorgne´tte+ (_lorgnette_, _eye-glass_), etc.
+=ll=+ (sounded like English l followed by y) in: +das Bataillo´n+ (_battalion_); +das Bi´llard+ (_billiards_); +das Bille´t+ (_ticket_; _note_); +der Postillo´n+ (_postillion_), etc.
+=n=+ (sounded as in French, but not quite so nasal) in: +die Nua´nce+ (_gradation of colours_); +das Bassi´n+ (_reservoir_); +der Refrai´n+ (_refrain_); +der Rayo´n+ (_ray of light_; [of a fortification]: _radius_); +das Violonce´ll+ (_violoncello_), etc.
2. =Many foreign words, on the other hand, composed of German sounds, which might be indicated by German letters, have as yet preserved their original orthography. So we find:—=
+=ai=+ (for the sound of +ä+) in: +die Chai´se+ (_chaise_), from the French;
+=au=+ _and_ +=eau=+ (for the sound of +o+) in: +die Sau´ce+ (_sauce_); +das Bureau+ (_office_), from the French;
+=ch=+ (for the sound of +sch+) in: +die Chaussee´+ (_turnpike-road_), from the French;
+=ch=+ (for the Greek +k+-sound) in: +der+ _or_ +das Chor+ (_choir_ or _chorus_), from the Greek;
+=ph=+ (for the sound of +f+) in: +der Philoso´ph+ (_philosopher_), from the Greek;
+=th=+ (for the sound of +t+) in: +der Thron+ (_throne_), from the Greek; and
+=v=+ (for the German +w+-sound) in: +viole´tt+ (_violet-blue_, adj.), from the French.
3. =Again we find foreign words which, being in common use and composed of German sounds, have become entirely germanised, and wear a German garb=; as: +die Tru´ppe+ (_troop_, _company_), French: la troupe; +die Gru´ppe+ (_group_), French: la groupe; +der Disku´rs+ (_discourse_), French: le discours; +der Sekretä´r+ (_secretary_), French: le secrétaire.
=It follows from the three preceding paragraphs:—that it is impossible to reduce the spelling of foreign words to any fixed principles, and that there exists at present much uncertainty and inconsistency respecting the spelling of such words.= [Comp. B, Consonants, Note to letter +=k=+, also B, letter +=z=+, where additional examples are given.]
D. +Kleinschreibung und Zusammenziehung.+
(=Small Initials= [_instead of Capitals_] =and Contractions.=)
=USE SMALL INITIALS:—=
1. =With Nouns used as Prepositions, Conjunctions, Indefinite Numerals, and Adverbs=, as in: +angesichts+ (_in the face of_); +infolge+ (_in consequence of_); +behufs+ (_on behalf of_);—+falls+ (_in case of_);—+ein bißchen+ (_a bit_, _a little_); +ein paar+ (_a few_, _some_, _some few_);—+anfangs+ (_in the beginning_); +teils+ (_partly_); +einesteils+ (_on the one part or hand_); +andernteils+ (_on the other part or hand_); +meinerseits+ (_on my part_); +morgens+ (_in the morning_); +abends+ (_in the evening_); +vormittags+ (_in the fore-noon_) [=but=: +des Morgens+, +des Abends+, +heute Nachmittag+, etc., +Sonntags+, +Montags+, etc.]; +überhaupt+ (_in general_, _altogether_, _moreover_); +unterwegs+ (_on the way_); +heutzutage+ (_now-a-days_); +beizeiten+ (_in time_, _betimes_); +bisweilen+ (_at times_); +einmal+ (_once_); +zweimal+ (_twice_); +bergauf+ (_uphill_); +kopfüber+ (_head over heels_), etc.
2. =With Nouns used in Verbal-Combinations=, in which, by the by, they are strongly accented, and treated as separable particles, i.e. are separated from the verb and placed at the end of the clause when used in a principal sentence and in a simple tense. Such Verbal-Combinations are:—+re´cht haben+ (_to be right_); +u´nrecht haben+ (_to be wrong_); +lei´d thun+ (_to be sorry_); +we´h thun+ (_to hurt_);—+schu´ld haben+ _or_ +sein+ (_to be in fault_);—+fei´nd sein+ (_to be hostile_); +mir ist a´ngst+, +wo´hl+ (_I am afraid_, _well_); +mir ist no´t+ (_it is necessary to me_, _I require_); +mir ist we´he+ (_I am grieved_); +das ist scha´de+ (_that is a pity_); +ich bin wi´llens+ (_I have a mind_, _I intend_);—+sta´ttfinden+, +sta´tthaben+ (_to take place_); +wa´hrnehmen+ (_to perceive_); +tei´lnehmen+ (_to take part in_, _to sympathise with_); +ü´berhandnehmen+ (_to increase_); +hau´shalten+ (_to keep house_, _to manage_); +a´chtgeben+ (_to pay attention_); +prei´sgeben+ (_to abandon_, _to expose_); +bra´chliegen+ (_to lie fallow_); +zusta´tten kommen+ (_to be of use_, _to come in usefully_); +insta´nd setzen+ (_to repair_, _to restore_); +zusta´nde kommen+ (_to accomplish_); +imsti´ch lassen+ (_to leave in the lurch_), etc.—+Er hält haus+; +es ist mir zustatten gekommen+; +es hat überhandgenommen+; +es ist mir zuteil geworden+. =But=: +Er hat keinen Teil an mir+, etc.
3. =With Pronouns and Numerals, as=:—+jemand+, +niemand+, +jeder+, +keiner+, +einer+, +der eine+, +der andere+, +man+;—+etliche+ (_some_), +einige+, +einzelne+, +manche+, +viele+, +alle+, +alles+, +etwas+, +nichts+, +beide+;—+die+ (+alle+) +andern+, +das+ (+alles+) +andre+, +die+ (+alle+) +übrigen+, +das+ (+alles+) +übrige+, +das meiste+, +der+ (+das+) +nämliche+, +der erste+, +der letzte+, +der zweite+, +der nächste+, +der erste beste+, +ein jeglicher+, etc.
=But=:—=Use Capital Initials= (as before):—
(_a_) =with Ordinal Numerals and Adjectives preceded by the definite article and used in apposition to a proper noun=, as: +Friedrich der Zweite+; +Karl der Große+, etc.
(_b_) =With Pronouns and Adjectives in titles=, as:—+Se. Majestät der König+; +das Kaiserliche Zollamt+ (_the Imperial Custom-House_); +der Wirkliche Geheimrat von Humboldt+ (_the Privy Councillor von Humboldt_).
(_c_) =With Pronouns used in addressing persons, more especially in letters=, as:—+Sie genießen mein volles Vertrauen+; +wir glauben Ihnen alles+; +das Haus Ihrer Eltern war mir stets geöffnet+; +ich will Dir bald mehr davon erzählen+; +stets bleibe ich Dein Dich liebender Sohn Heinrich+, etc.
4. =In Adjectival and Adverbial Clauses=, as:—+groß und klein+ (_grown up people and children_); +arm und reich+ (_poor and rich people_); +alt und jung+, +durch dick und dünn+;—+am besten+, +fürs erste+, +bei weitem+ (_by far_); +aufs deutlichste+, +im allgemeinen+, +im ganzen+, +im folgenden+, +im wesentlichen+ (_essentially_, _in all essential points_); +von neuem+, +vor kurzem+, +im voraus+ (_beforehand_); +von vorne+, +ohne weiteres+, +um ein beträchtliches+, etc.—=and also in idiomatic phrases=, such as:—+Er zieht den kürzern dabei+ (_he is the loser by it_); +ich will Ihnen Ihre Unarten zugute halten+ (_I will bear with your rudeness_; _I will excuse your incivilities_); +der Junge hat Sie zum besten+ (_the boy amuses himself at your expense_); +ich will es Ihnen zuliebe thun+ (_I will do it to please you_), etc.
E. +Zerlegung der Wörter in Silben.+
(=Division of Words into Syllables.=)
1. When part of a German word has to be separated from the rest in order to be carried on to the next line, the division into Syllables is made as we would naturally deliver them whilst pronouncing the word very slowly and distinctly. The compound letters: +=ch=+, +=ck=+, +=dt=+, +=pf=+, +=ph=+, +=sch=+, +=sp=+, +=st=+, +=ß=+, +=th=+, and +=tz=+, =should, as a rule, not be separated=. [For exceptions see § 2 of this chapter.] Examples:—+ru-hen+, +die-ser+, +Son-ne+, +Mut-ter+, +Mit-tag+, +den-noch+, +Flüs-se+, +Wet-ter-glas+, +fünf-te+, +An-ker+, +Wech-sel+, +Hoff-nung+, +Hoff-nun-gen+, +Fin-ger+, +Lang-sam-keit+,—+Brü-che+, +ha-cken+, +Stä-dte+, +klo-pfen+, +Or-tho-gra-phie+, +lö-schen+, +aus-spre-chen+, +lä-stig+, +schie-ßen+, +Lo-thar+, +kra-tzen+, +He-xe+.
2. The syllables forming the constituent parts of Compound Words should not be broken up, and the principal rule, as expressed above, cannot always be applied to them. Examples: +hin-ein+, +hier-auf+, +her-ein+, +dar-um+, +war-um+, +vor-aus+, +voll-en-den+, +In-ter-es-se+, +Mi-kro-skop+, +At-mo-sphä-re+, +Schiff-fahrt+, +Schwimmm-mei-ster+, +ge-müt-lich+, +Dis-pens+, +dis-pu-tie-ren+, +Dis-po-si-ti-on+, +be-ob-ach-ten+, +auf-er-ste-hen+, +Ge-burts-tag+, +Früh-lings-tag+. But write ‘+Schiffahrt+’ and ‘+Schwimmeister+’ when no separation takes place.
F. +Der Apostroph.+ (The Apostrophe.)
1. The Apostrophe is more especially used for indicating the suppression of certain letters in poetry and in the language of every-day life, as in English. Examples: +Ich lieb’ dich+; +Steh’ auf!+ +Wie geht’s?+ +So ist’s recht+; +Geld hab’ ich nicht+.
2. Contractions of prepositions and articles are used =without the Apostrophe=, as: +am+, +beim+, +unterm+, +ans+, +ins+, +zum+.
3. =The Apostrophe is abolished before the inflections indicating the Genitive relation of proper names=, as: +Ciceros Briefe+; +Schillers Gedichte+; +Homers Ilias+; +Fritzens Geburtstag+; +Hamburgs Handel+; +Sophiens Mutter+; +die Einwohner Breslaus+.
4. =Family names, however, terminating in= +=s=+ or +=z=+, =the genitive of which cannot be formed by adding= +=s=+, require an Apostrophe to be placed after them for indicating the Genitive relation, as: +Demosthenes’ Reden+; +Voß’ Luise+.
INDEX
TO THE GRAMMATICAL RULES AND IDIOMATIC RENDERINGS.
A.
=a= or =an= preceded by ‘not’, how to render, S. 126, N. 12. The numeral ‘a’ not translated before hundred or thousand, S. 132, N. 10.
=a great deal=, how to render, S. 65, N. 3 and S. 77, N. 3. =an hour=, how to render, S. 235, N. 10. =a month=, how to render, S. 167, N. 24.
=about=, to be, rendered by +im Begriff sein+ or +wollen+, S. 6, N. 4.
=Abstract nouns=, their formation from Infinitives of verbs, S. 11, N. 7.
=Adjectives.= Used as nouns, S. 34, N. 1. National adjectives require a small initial, S. 101, N. 1. Adjectives and all parts qualifying nouns must be placed before them, S. 128, N. 11. The formation of their superlative used predicatively, S. 120, N. 14.
=Adverbs.= Their position in Imperative clauses, S. 68, N. 2. Must not precede the verb or copula when the subject stands before them, S. 102, N. 30. Formation of the relative superlative of Adverbs, S. 183, N. 24.
=all= in connection with a possess. adj. pron. and a noun in the sing. number, how to render, S. 157, N. 20. _All of us_ (_them_, _you_), S. 74, N. 3, how to render.
=Apposition=, the, its agreement, S. 53, N. 9.
=Articles=, the, and other determinative words repeated, S. 10, N. 9. Their position in connection with adjectives and adverbs, S. 28, N. 9. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. Before nouns representing a whole class, and before abstract nouns, S. 3, N. 2. Before nouns of persons preceded by an adjective or a common name, S. 10, N. 2. Used to mark the Gen., Dat., and Acc. of proper names, S. 25, N. 5. Used in stating the price of goods, S. 33, N. 7. Used before objects individualised or singled out, S. 40, N. 9. Used instead of Possess. Adj. Pronouns, S. 43, N. 9, _A_ and _B_. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. Not expressed before nouns denoting professions, etc., S. 14, N. 2. How to render when preceded by ‘not’, S. 126, N. 12.
=as=, conj., = _since_, how to render, S. 41, N. 6. = _according to_, how to render, S. 74, N. 6.
=ask= (to), how to render, S. 132, N. 23.
=at= = _at the house of_, how to render, S. 153, N. 15. _at home_, how to render, S. 63, N. 8. _at the rate of_, how to render, S. 235, N. 9.
=Attributive construction=, S. 7, N. 3; S. 48, N. 6.
+=auf=+, prep., = _in_, before names of Islands, S. 46, N. 6.
=Auxiliary verbs of tense=, often omitted in subordinate clauses, S. 52, N. 8.
B.
=be=, to, rendered by +müssen+, S. 62, N. 4.
=beginning with=, rendered by +von ... an+, S. 102, N. 4.
+=bleiben=+, conjugated with +sein+, S. 98, N. 5.
=but=, rendered by +sondern+ after a negative, S. 6, N. 10.
=by=, prep., = _through_, durch, S. 59, N. 13. In connection with the Passive Voice, rendered by +von+, S. 106, N. 23.
=both ... and=, +sowohl ... als auch+, S. 59, N. 11.